| A/74/10 1913883E.docx (ENGLISH) | A/74/10 1913883C.docx (CHINESE) |
| A/74/10 | A/74/10 |
| United Nations | 联 合 国 |
| Report of the International Law Commission | 国际法委员会报告 第七十一届会议 |
| Seventy-first session (29 April–7 June and 8 July–9 August 2019) | (2019年4月29日至6月7日和7月8日至8月9日) |
| General Assembly | 大 会 |
| Official Records Seventy-fourth Session Supplement No. 10 (A/74/10) | 正式记录 第七十四届会议 补编第10号(A/74/10) |
| General Assembly | 大 会 |
| Official Records | 正式记录 |
| Seventy-fourth Session | 第七十四届会议 |
| Supplement No. 10 | 补编第10号 |
| Report of the International Law Commission | 国际法委员会的报告 |
| Seventy-first session (29 April–7 June and 8 July–9 August 2019) | 第七十一届会议 (2019年4月29日至6月7日和7月8日至8月9日) |
| United Nations • New York, 2019 | 联合国·纽约，2019年 |
| Note | 说明 |
| Symbols of United Nations documents are composed of capital letters combined with figures. | 联合国文件用大写英文字母附加数字编号。 |
| Mention of such a symbol indicates a reference to a United Nations document. | 凡是提到这种编号，就是指联合国的某一个文件。 |
| The word Yearbook followed by suspension points and the year (e.g. Yearbook … 1971) indicates a reference to the Yearbook of the International Law Commission. | 前有年份和省略号的“年鉴”(如《1971年…年鉴》)是指《国际法委员会年鉴》。 |
| A typeset version of the report of the Commission will be included in Part Two of volume II of the Yearbook of the International Law Commission 2019. | 委员会报告的排版本将载入《2019年国际法委员会年鉴》第二卷第二部分。 |
| Chapter I Introduction | 第一章 导言 |
| 1. The International Law Commission held the first part of its seventy-first session from 29 April to 7 June 2019 and the second part from 8 July to 9 August 2019 at its seat at the United Nations Office at Geneva. | 1. 国际法委员会分别于2019年4月29日至6月7日和2019年7月8日至8月9日在联合国日内瓦办事处委员会所在地举行了第七十一届会议第一期会议和第二期会议。 |
| The session was opened by Mr. Eduardo Valencia-Ospina, Chair of the seventieth session of the Commission. | 本届会议由委员会第七十届会议主席爱德华多·巴伦西亚－奥斯皮纳先生主持开幕。 |
| A. Membership | A. 委员 |
| 2. The Commission consists of the following members: | 2. 委员会由下列委员组成： |
| Mr. Ali Mohsen Fetais Al-Marri (Qatar) | 阿里·穆赫辛·费塔伊斯·马里先生(卡塔尔) |
| Mr. Carlos J. Argüello Gómez (Nicaragua) | 卡洛斯·阿圭略·戈麦斯先生(尼加拉瓜) |
| Mr. Bogdan Aurescu (Romania) | 波格丹·奥雷斯库先生(罗马尼亚) |
| Mr. Yacouba Cissé (Côte d’Ivoire) | 雅库巴·西塞先生(科特迪瓦) |
| Ms. Concepción Escobar Hernández (Spain) | 康塞普西翁·埃斯科瓦尔·埃尔南德斯女士(西班牙) |
| Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles (Portugal) | 帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士(葡萄牙) |
| Mr. Juan Manuel Gómez Robledo (Mexico) | 胡安·曼努埃尔·戈麦斯－罗夫莱多先生(墨西哥) |
| Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff (Chile) | 克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生(智利) |
| Mr. Hussein A. Hassouna (Egypt) | 侯赛因·哈苏纳先生(埃及) |
| Mr. Mahmoud D. Hmoud (Jordan) | 马哈茂德·哈穆德先生(约旦) |
| Mr. Huikang Huang (China) | 黄惠康先生(中国) |
| Mr. Charles Chernor Jalloh (Sierra Leone) | 查尔斯·切尔诺·贾洛先生(塞拉利昂) |
| Mr. Ahmed Laraba (Algeria) | 艾哈迈德·拉腊巴先生(阿尔及利亚) |
| Ms. Marja Lehto (Finland) | 玛丽亚·莱赫托女士(芬兰) |
| Mr. Shinya Murase (Japan) | 村濑信也先生(日本) |
| Mr. Sean D. Murphy (United States of America) | 肖恩·墨菲先生(美利坚合众国) |
| Mr. Hong Thao Nguyen (Viet Nam) | 阮洪滔先生(越南) |
| Mr. Georg Nolte (Germany) | 格奥尔格·诺尔特先生(德国) |
| Ms. Nilüfer Oral (Turkey) | 尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士(土耳其) |
| Mr. Hassan Ouazzani Chahdi (Morocco) | 哈桑·瓦扎尼·恰迪先生(摩洛哥) |
| Mr. Ki Gab Park (Republic of Korea) | 朴基甲先生(大韩民国) |
| Mr. Chris Maina Peter (United Republic of Tanzania) | 克里斯·马伊纳·彼得先生(坦桑尼亚联合共和国) |
| Mr. Ernest Petrič (Slovenia) | 埃内斯特·彼得里奇先生(斯洛文尼亚) |
| Mr. Aniruddha Rajput (India) | 阿尼鲁达·拉吉普特先生(印度) |
| Mr. August Reinisch (Austria) | 奥古斯特·赖尼希先生(奥地利) |
| Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria (Peru) | 胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生(秘鲁) |
| Mr. Gilberto Vergne Saboia (Brazil) | 吉尔贝托·贝尔涅·萨博亚先生(巴西) |
| Mr. Pavel Šturma (Czech Republic) | 帕维尔·斯图尔马先生(捷克共和国) |
| Mr. Dire D. Tladi (South Africa) | 迪雷·特拉迪先生(南非) |
| Mr. Eduardo Valencia-Ospina (Colombia) | 爱德华多·巴伦西亚－奥斯皮纳先生(哥伦比亚) |
| Mr. Marcelo Vázquez-Bermúdez (Ecuador) | 马塞洛·巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生(厄瓜多尔) |
| Mr. Amos S. Wako (Kenya) | 阿莫斯·瓦科先生(肯尼亚) |
| Sir Michael Wood (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) | 迈克尔·伍德爵士(大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国) |
| Mr. Evgeny Zagaynov (Russian Federation) | 耶夫格尼·扎加伊诺夫先生(俄罗斯联邦) |
| B. Officers and the Enlarged Bureau | B. 主席团成员和扩大的主席团 |
| 3. At its 3453rd meeting, on 29 April 2019, the Commission elected the following officers: | 3. 在2019年4月29日举行的第3453次会议上，委员会选出了下列主席团成员： |
| Chair: | 主席： |
| Mr. Pavel Šturma (Czech Republic) | 帕维尔·斯图尔马先生(捷克共和国) |
| First Vice-Chair: | 第一副主席： |
| Mr. Mahmoud D. Hmoud (Jordan) | 马哈茂德·哈穆德先生(约旦) |
| Second Vice-Chair: | 第二副主席： |
| Ms. Nilüfer Oral (Turkey) | 尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士(土耳其) |
| Chair of the Drafting Committee: | 起草委员会主席： |
| Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff (Chile) | 克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生(智利) |
| Rapporteur: | 报告员： |
| Mr. Charles Chernor Jalloh (Sierra Leone) | 查尔斯·切尔诺·贾洛先生(塞拉利昂) |
| 4. The Enlarged Bureau of the Commission was composed of the officers of the present session, the previous Chairs of the Commission and the Special Rapporteurs. | 4. 委员会扩大的主席团由本届会议主席团成员、委员会前任主席 和特别报告员 组成。 |
| 5. At its 3470th meeting on 24 May 2019, the Commission set up a Planning Group composed of the following members: Mr. Mahmoud D. Hmoud (Chair); | 5. 在2019年5月24日举行的第3470次会议上，委员会设立了由下列委员组成的规划组：马哈茂德·哈穆德先生(主席)； |
| Mr. Carlos J. Argüello Gómez, Mr. Yacouba Cissé, Ms. Concepción Escobar Hernández, Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles, Mr. Juan Manuel Gómez Robledo, Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff, Mr. Hussein A. Hassouna, Mr. Huikang Huang, Mr. Ahmed Laraba, Ms. Marja Lehto, Mr. Shinya Murase, Mr. Sean D. Murphy, Mr. Hong Thao Nguyen, Mr. Georg Nolte, Ms. Nilüfer Oral, Mr. Hassan Ouazzani Chahdi, Mr. Ki Gab Park, Mr. Ernest Petrič, Mr. Aniruddha Rajput, Mr. August Reinisch, Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria, Mr. Gilberto Vergne Saboia, Mr. Pavel Šturma, Mr. Dire D. Tladi, Mr. Marcelo Vázquez-Bermúdez, Sir Michael Wood, Mr. Evgeny Zagaynov and Mr. Charles Chernor Jalloh (ex officio). | 卡洛斯·阿圭略·戈麦斯先生、雅库巴·西塞先生、康塞普西翁·埃斯科瓦尔·埃尔南德斯女士、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、胡安·曼努埃尔·戈麦斯－罗夫莱多先生、克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生、侯赛因·哈苏纳先生、黄惠康先生、艾哈迈德·拉腊巴先生、玛丽亚·莱赫托女士、村濑信也先生、肖恩·墨菲先生、阮洪滔先生、格奥尔格·诺尔特先生、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士、哈桑·瓦扎尼·恰迪先生、朴基甲先生、埃内斯特·彼得里奇先生、阿尼鲁达·拉吉普特先生、奥古斯特·赖尼希先生、胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生、吉尔贝托·贝尔涅·萨博亚先生、帕维尔·斯图尔马先生、迪雷·特拉迪先生、马塞洛·巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生、迈克尔·伍德爵士、耶夫格尼·扎加伊诺夫先生和查尔斯·切尔诺·贾洛先生(当然成员)。 |
| C. Drafting Committee | C. 起草委员会 |
| 6. At its 3454th, 3458th, 3471st, 3476th, 3488th and 3494th meetings, on 30 April, on 7 and 27 May and on 9, 23 and 30 July 2019, the Commission established a Drafting Committee, composed of the following members for the topics indicated: | 6. 在分别于2019年4月30日、5月7日、5月27日、7月9日、7月23日和7月30日举行的第3454、3458、3471、3476、3488和3494次会议上，委员会为下列专题设立了由下列委员组成的起草委员会： |
| (a) Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens): Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff (Chair), Mr. Dire D. Tladi (Special Rapporteur), Mr. Carlos J. Argüello Gómez, Mr. Yacouba Cissé, Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles, Mr. Juan Manuel Gómez Robledo, Mr. Huikang Huang, Ms. Marja Lehto, Mr. Shinya Murase, Mr. Sean D. Murphy, Mr. Hong Thao Nguyen, Mr. Georg Nolte, Ms. Nilüfer Oral, Mr. Hassan Ouazzani Chahdi, Mr. Ki Gab Park, Mr. Aniruddha Rajput, Mr. August Reinisch, Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria, Mr. Gilberto Vergne Saboia, Mr. Pavel Šturma, Mr. Marcelo Vázquez-Bermúdez, Sir Michael Wood, Mr. Evgeny Zagaynov and Mr. Charles Chernor Jalloh (ex officio). | (a) 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)：克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生(主席)、迪雷·特拉迪先生(特别报告员)、卡洛斯·阿圭略·戈麦斯先生、雅库巴·西塞先生、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、胡安·曼努埃尔·戈麦斯－罗夫莱多先生、黄惠康先生、玛丽亚·莱赫托女士、村濑信也先生、肖恩·墨菲先生、阮洪滔先生、格奥尔格·诺尔特先生、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士、哈桑·瓦扎尼·恰迪先生、朴基甲先生、阿尼鲁达·拉吉普特先生、奥古斯特·赖尼希先生、胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生、吉尔贝托·贝尔涅·萨博亚先生、帕维尔·斯图尔马先生、马塞洛·巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生、迈克尔·伍德爵士、耶夫格尼·扎加伊诺夫先生和查尔斯·切尔诺·贾洛先生(当然成员)。 |
| (b) Crimes against humanity: Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff (Chair), Mr. Sean D. Murphy (Special Rapporteur), Mr. Bogdan Aurescu, Ms. Concepción Escobar Hernández, Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles, Mr. Mahmoud D. Hmoud, Mr. Huikang Huang, Ms. Marja Lehto, Mr. Shinya Murase, Mr. Hong Thao Nguyen, Mr. Georg Nolte, Mr. Ki Gab Park, Mr. Ernest Petrič, Mr. Aniruddha Rajput, Mr. August Reinisch, Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria, Mr. Gilberto Vergne Saboia, Mr. Pavel Šturma, Mr. Dire D. Tladi, Sir Michael Wood, Mr. Evgeny Zagaynov and Mr. Charles Chernor Jalloh (ex officio). | (b) 危害人类罪：克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生(主席)、肖恩·墨菲先生(特别报告员)、波格丹·奥雷斯库先生、康塞普西翁·埃斯科瓦尔·埃尔南德斯女士、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、马哈茂德·哈穆德先生、黄惠康先生、玛丽亚·莱赫托女士、村濑信也先生、阮洪滔先生、格奥尔格·诺尔特先生、朴基甲先生、埃内斯特·彼得里奇先生、阿尼鲁达·拉吉普特先生、奥古斯特·赖尼希先生、胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生、吉尔贝托·贝尔涅·萨博亚先生、帕维尔·斯图尔马先生、迪雷·特拉迪先生、迈克尔·伍德爵士、耶夫格尼·扎加伊诺夫先生和查尔斯·切尔诺·贾洛先生(当然成员)。 |
| (c) Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts: Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff (Chair), Ms. Marja Lehto, (Special Rapporteur), Ms. Concepción Escobar Hernández, Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles, Mr. Mahmoud D. Hmoud, Mr. Huikang Huang, Mr. Shinya Murase, Mr. Sean D. Murphy, Mr. Hong Thao Nguyen, Mr. Georg Nolte, Ms. Nilüfer Oral, Mr. Ki Gab Park, Mr. Aniruddha Rajput, Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria, Mr. Dire D. Tladi, Mr. Marcelo Vázquez-Bermúdez, Sir Michael Wood and Mr. Charles Chernor Jalloh (ex officio). | (c) 与武装冲突有关的环境保护：克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生(主席)、玛丽亚·莱赫托女士(特别报告员)、康塞普西翁·埃斯科瓦尔·埃尔南德斯女士、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、马哈茂德·哈穆德先生、黄惠康先生、村濑信也先生、肖恩·墨菲先生、阮洪滔先生、格奥尔格·诺尔特先生、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士、朴基甲先生、阿尼鲁达·拉吉普特先生、胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生、迪雷·特拉迪先生、马塞洛·巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生、迈克尔·伍德爵士和查尔斯·切尔诺·贾洛先生(当然成员)。 |
| (d) Succession of States in respect of State responsibility: Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff (Chair), Mr. Pavel Šturma (Special Rapporteur), Mr. Bogdan Aurescu, Mr. Huikang Huang, Mr. Sean D. Murphy, Mr. Hong Thao Nguyen, Mr. Georg Nolte, Ms. Nilüfer Oral, Mr. Ki Gab Park, Mr. August Reinisch, Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria, Mr. Evgeny Zagaynov and Mr. Charles Chernor Jalloh (ex officio). | (d) 国家责任方面的国家继承：克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生(主席)、帕维尔·斯图尔马先生(特别报告员)、波格丹·奥雷斯库先生、黄惠康先生、肖恩·墨菲先生、阮洪滔先生、格奥尔格·诺尔特先生、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士、朴基甲先生、奥古斯特·赖尼希先生、胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生、耶夫格尼·扎加伊诺夫先生和查尔斯·切尔诺·贾洛先生(当然成员)。 |
| (e) Immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction: Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff (Chair), Ms. Concepción Escobar Hernández (Special Rapporteur), Mr. Carlos J. Argüello Gómez, Mr. Bogdan Aurescu, Mr. Yacouba Cissé, Ms. Patricia Galvão Teles, Mr. Juan Manuel Gómez Robledo, Mr. Mahmoud D. Hmoud, Mr. Huikang Huang, Ms. Marja Lehto, Mr. Shinya Murase, Mr. Sean D. Murphy, Mr. Georg Nolte, Ms. Nilüfer Oral, Mr. Ki Gab Park, Mr. Aniruddha Rajput, Mr. August Reinisch, Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria, Mr. Gilberto Vergne Saboia, Mr. Dire D. Tladi, Mr. Marcelo Vázquez-Bermúdez, Sir Michael Wood, Mr. Evgeny Zagaynov and Mr. Charles Chernor Jalloh (ex officio). | (e) 国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免：克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生(主席)、康塞普西翁·埃斯科瓦尔·埃尔南德斯女士(特别报告员)、卡洛斯·阿圭略·戈麦斯先生、波格丹·奥雷斯库先生、雅库巴·西塞先生、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、胡安·曼努埃尔·戈麦斯－罗夫莱多先生、马哈茂德·哈穆德先生、黄惠康先生、玛丽亚·莱赫托女士、村濑信也先生、肖恩·墨菲先生、格奥尔格·诺尔特先生、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士、朴基甲先生、阿尼鲁达·拉吉普特先生、奥古斯特·赖尼希先生、胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生、吉尔贝托·贝尔涅·萨博亚先生、迪雷·特拉迪先生、马塞洛·巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生、迈克尔·伍德爵士、耶夫格尼·扎加伊诺夫先生和查尔斯·切尔诺·贾洛先生(当然成员)。 |
| (f) General principles of law: Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff (Chair), Mr. Marcelo Vázquez-Bermúdez (Special Rapporteur), Mr. Carlos J. Argüello Gómez, Ms. Patricia Galvão Teles, Mr. Juan Manuel Gómez Robledo, Mr. Mahmoud D. Hmoud, Mr. Huikang Huang, Ms. Marja Lehto, Mr. Shinya Murase, Mr. Sean D. Murphy, Mr. Hong Thao Nguyen, Mr. Georg Nolte, Ms. Nilüfer Oral, Mr. Ki Gab Park, Mr. August Reinisch, Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria, Mr. Dire D. Tladi, Sir Michael Wood, Mr. Evgeny Zagaynov and Mr. Charles Chernor Jalloh (ex officio). | (f) 一般法律原则：克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生(主席)、马塞洛·巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生(特别报告员)、卡洛斯·阿圭略·戈麦斯先生、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、胡安·曼努埃尔·戈麦斯－罗夫莱多先生、马哈茂德·哈穆德先生、黄惠康先生、玛丽亚·莱赫托女士、村濑信也先生、肖恩·墨菲先生、阮洪滔先生、格奥尔格·诺尔特先生、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士、朴基甲先生、奥古斯特·赖尼希先生、胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生、迪雷·特拉迪先生、迈克尔·伍德爵士、耶夫格尼·扎加伊诺夫先生和查尔斯·切尔诺·贾洛先生(当然成员)。 |
| 7. The Drafting Committee held a total of 43 meetings on the six topics indicated above. | 7. 起草委员会就上列六项专题一共举行了43次会议。 |
| D. Working Groups and Study Group | D. 工作组和研究组 |
| 8. The Planning Group established the following Working Groups: | 8. 规划组设立了以下工作组： |
| (a) Working Group on the long-term programme of work: Mr. Mahmoud D. Hmoud (Chair), Mr. Bogdan Aurescu, Mr. Yacouba Cissé, Ms. Concepción Escobar Hernández, Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles, Mr. Juan Manuel Gómez Robledo, Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff, Mr. Hussein A. Hassouna, Mr. Huikang Huang, Mr. Ahmed Laraba, Ms. Marja Lehto, Mr. Shinya Murase, Mr. Sean D. Murphy, Mr. Hong Thao Nguyen, Mr. Georg Nolte, Ms. Nilüfer Oral, Mr. Hassan Ouazzani Chahdi, Mr. Ki Gab Park, Mr. Chris Maina Peter, Mr. Aniruddha Rajput, Mr. August Reinisch, Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria, Mr. Gilberto Vergne Saboia, Mr. Pavel Šturma, Mr. Dire D. Tladi, Mr. Marcelo Vázquez-Bermúdez, Mr. Amos S. Wako, Sir Michael Wood, Mr. Evgeny Zagaynov and Mr. Charles Chernor Jalloh (ex officio). | (a) 长期工作方案工作组：马哈茂德·哈穆德先生(主席)、波格丹·奥雷斯库先生、雅库巴·西塞先生、康塞普西翁·埃斯科瓦尔·埃尔南德斯女士、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、胡安·曼努埃尔·戈麦斯－罗夫莱多先生、克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生、侯赛因·哈苏纳先生、黄惠康先生、艾哈迈德·拉腊巴先生、玛丽亚·莱赫托女士、村濑信也先生、肖恩·墨菲先生、阮洪滔先生、格奥尔格·诺尔特先生、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士、哈桑·瓦扎尼·恰迪先生、朴基甲先生、克里斯·马伊纳·彼得先生、阿尼鲁达·拉吉普特先生、奥古斯特·赖尼希先生、胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生、吉尔贝托·贝尔涅·萨博亚先生、帕维尔·斯图尔马先生、迪雷·特拉迪先生、马塞洛·巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生、阿莫斯·瓦科先生、迈克尔·伍德爵士、耶夫格尼·扎加伊诺夫先生和查尔斯·切尔诺·贾洛先生(当然成员)。 |
| (b) Working Group on methods of work: Mr. Hussein A. Hassouna (Chair), Mr. Bogdan Aurescu, Mr. Yacouba Cissé, Ms. Concepción Escobar Hernández, Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles, Mr. Juan Manuel Gómez Robledo, Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff, Mr. Huikang Huang, Ms. Marja Lehto, Mr. Shinya Murase, Mr. Sean D. Murphy, Mr. Hong Thao Nguyen, Mr. Georg Nolte, Ms. Nilüfer Oral, Mr. Hassan Ouazzani Chahdi, Mr. Ki Gab Park, Mr. Ernest Petrič, Mr. Aniruddha Rajput, Mr. August Reinisch, Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria, Mr. Gilberto Vergne Saboia, Mr. Pavel Šturma, Mr. Dire D. Tladi, Mr. Eduardo Valencia-Ospina, Mr. Marcelo Vázquez-Bermúdez, Sir Michael Wood, Mr. Evgeny Zagaynov and Mr. Charles Chernor Jalloh (ex officio). | (b) 工作方法工作组：侯赛因·哈苏纳先生(主席)、波格丹·奥雷斯库先生、雅库巴·西塞先生、康塞普西翁·埃斯科瓦尔·埃尔南德斯女士、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、胡安·曼努埃尔·戈麦斯－罗夫莱多先生、克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生、黄惠康先生、玛丽亚·莱赫托女士、村濑信也先生、肖恩·墨菲先生、阮洪滔先生、格奥尔格·诺尔特先生、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士、哈桑·瓦扎尼·恰迪先生、朴基甲先生、埃内斯特·彼得里奇先生、阿尼鲁达·拉吉普特先生、奥古斯特·赖尼希先生、胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生、吉尔贝托·贝尔涅·萨博亚先生、帕维尔·斯图尔马先生、迪雷·特拉迪先生、爱德华多·巴伦西亚－奥斯皮纳先生、马塞洛·巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生、迈克尔·伍德爵士、耶夫格尼·扎加伊诺夫先生和查尔斯·切尔诺·贾洛先生(当然成员)。 |
| 9. At its 3467th meeting, on 21 May 2019, the Commission established an open-ended Study Group on sea-level rise in relation to international law, to be co-chaired, on a rotating basis, by: Mr. Bogdan Aurescu, Mr. Yacouba Cissé, Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles, Ms. Nilüfer Oral and Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria. | 9. 在2019年5月21日举行的第3467次会议上，委员会设立了一个与国际法有关的海平面上升不限成员名额研究组，拟由以下委员共同轮流主持：波格丹·奥雷斯库先生、雅库巴·西塞先生、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士和胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生。 |
| E. Secretariat | E. 秘书处 |
| 10. Mr. Miguel de Serpa Soares, Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs and United Nations Legal Counsel, represented the Secretary-General. | 10. 主管法律事务的副秘书长兼联合国法律顾问米格尔·塞尔帕·苏亚雷斯先生担任秘书长的代表。 |
| Mr. Huw Llewellyn, Director of the Codification Division of the Office of Legal Affairs, acted as Secretary to the Commission and, in the absence of the Legal Counsel, represented the Secretary-General. | 法律事务厅编纂司司长休·卢埃林先生担任委员会秘书，并在法律顾问缺席时代表秘书长。 |
| Mr. Arnold Pronto and Ms. Jessica M. Elbaz, Principal Legal Officers, served as Principal Assistant Secretaries to the Commission. | 首席法律干事阿诺德·普龙托先生和杰西卡·艾尔贝兹女士担任委员会首席助理秘书。 |
| Mr. Trevor Chimimba, Senior Legal Officer, served as Senior Assistant Secretary to the Commission. | 高级法律干事特雷沃尔·齐敏巴先生担任委员会高级助理秘书。 |
| Mr. David Nanopoulos, Ms. Carla Hoe and Ms. Christiane Ahlborn, Legal Officers, and Ms. Shin Yi Mak, Associate Legal Officer, served as Assistant Secretaries to the Commission. | 法律干事戴维·纳诺波利斯先生、卡拉·霍伊女士和克里斯蒂安·阿尔伯恩女士以及协理法律干事麦欣怡女士担任委员会助理秘书。 |
| F. Agenda | F. 议程 |
| 11. The Commission adopted an agenda for its seventy-first session consisting of the following items: | 11. 委员会通过了第七十一届会议议程，包括下列项目： |
| 1. Organization of the work of the session. | 1. 本届会议工作安排。 |
| 2. Immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction. | 2. 国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免。 |
| 3. Crimes against humanity. | 3. 危害人类罪。 |
| 4. Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts. | 4. 与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| 5. Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 5. 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| 6. Succession of States in respect of State responsibility. | 6. 国家责任方面的国家继承。 |
| 7. General principles of law. | 7. 一般法律原则。 |
| 8. Sea-level rise in relation to international law. | 8. 与国际法有关的海平面上升。 |
| 9. Programme, procedures and working methods of the Commission and its documentation. | 9. 委员会的方案、程序和工作方法以及文件。 |
| 10. Date and place of the seventy-second session. | 10. 第七十二届会议的日期和地点。 |
| 11. Cooperation with other bodies. | 11. 与其他机构的合作。 |
| 12. Other business. | 12. 其他事项。 |
| Chapter II Summary of the work of the Commission at its seventy-first session | 第二章 委员会第七十一届会议工作概况 |
| 12. With respect to the topic “Crimes against humanity”, the Commission had before it the fourth report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/725 and Add.1), as well as comments and observations received from Governments, international organizations and others (A/CN.4/726, Add.1 and Add.2). | 12. 关于“危害人类罪”专题，委员会收到了特别报告员的第四次报告(A/CN.4/725和Add.1)，以及各国政府、国际组织和其他方面提交的评论和意见(A/CN.4/726、Add.1和Add.2)。 |
| The fourth report addressed the comments and observations made by Governments, international organizations and others on the draft articles and commentaries adopted on first reading and made recommendations for each draft article. | 第四次报告阐述了各国政府、国际组织和其他方面就一读通过的条款草案及评注提出的评论和意见，并就每一项条款草案提出了建议。 |
| 13. The Commission adopted, on second reading, the entire set of draft articles on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity, comprising a draft preamble, 15 draft articles and a draft annex, together with commentaries thereto. | 13. 委员会二读通过了关于防止及惩治危害人类罪的一整套条款草案，其中包括序言草案、15项条款草案和一个附件草案以及评注。 |
| The Commission decided, in conformity with article 23 of its statute, to recommend the draft articles on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity to the General Assembly. | 委员会根据其章程第23条，决定向联合国大会推荐关于防止及惩治危害人类罪的条款草案。 |
| In particular, the Commission recommended the elaboration of a convention by the General Assembly or by an international conference of plenipotentiaries on the basis of the draft articles (chap. IV). | 具体而言，委员会建议由联大或由一次全权代表国际会议在该条款草案基础上拟订一项公约(第四章)。 |
| 14. With regard to the topic “Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens)”, the Commission had before it the fourth report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/727), which discussed the question of the existence of regional jus cogens and the inclusion of an illustrative list, based on norms previously recognized by the Commission as possessing a peremptory character. | 14. 关于“一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)”专题，委员会收到了特别报告员的第四次报告(A/CN.4/727)，其中讨论了区域强行法的存在问题和根据委员会先前确认的具有强制性的规范纳入一份说明性清单的问题。 |
| Following the plenary debate, the Commission decided to refer the draft conclusion proposed in the fourth report to the Drafting Committee. | 经全体会议辩论之后，委员会决定将第四次报告所载结论草案转交起草委员会。 |
| 15. The Commission subsequently adopted, on first reading, 23 draft conclusions and a draft annex, together with commentaries thereto, on peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 15. 委员会随后一读通过了关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的23项结论草案和一份附件草案及其评注。 |
| The Commission decided, in accordance with articles 16 to 21 of its statute, to transmit the draft conclusions, through the Secretary-General, to Governments for comments and observations, with the request that such comments and observations be submitted to the Secretary-General by 1 December 2020 (chap. V). | 委员会根据其章程第16至21条，决定通过秘书长向各国政府转发这些结论草案，征求其评论和意见，并要求在2020年12月1日前向秘书长提交这种评论和意见(第五章)。 |
| 16. With respect to the topic “Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts”, the Commission had before it the second report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/728), which discussed questions related to the protection of the environment in non-international armed conflicts, and matters related to responsibility and liability for environmental damage. | 16. 关于“与武装冲突有关的环境保护”专题，委员会收到了特别报告员的第二次报告(A/CN.4/728)，其中讨论了在非国际性武装冲突中保护环境的相关问题，以及与环境损害的责任和赔偿责任有关的事项。 |
| Following the plenary debate, the Commission decided to refer the seven draft principles, as proposed by the Special Rapporteur in her second report, to the Drafting Committee. | 经全体会议辩论之后，委员会决定将特别报告员在第二次报告中建议的七条原则草案转交起草委员会。 |
| 17. As a result of its consideration of the topic at the present session, the Commission adopted, on first reading, 28 draft principles, together with commentaries thereto, on protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts. | 17. 委员会本届会议在对该专题进行审议之后，一读通过了关于与武装冲突有关的环境保护问题的28项原则草案，包括评注。 |
| The Commission decided, in accordance with articles 16 to 21 of its statute, to transmit the draft principles, through the Secretary-General, to Governments, international organizations, including from the United Nations and its Environment Programme, and others, including the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Environmental Law Institute, for comments and observations, with the request that such comments and observations be submitted to the Secretary-General by 1 December 2020 (chap. VI). | 委员会根据其章程第16至21条，决定通过秘书长向各国政府、包括联合国及其环境规划署在内的各国际组织、红十字国际委员会、环境法学会等转发这些原则草案，征求其评论和意见，并要求在2020年12月1日前向秘书长提交这种评论和意见(第六章)。 |
| 18. With regard to the topic “Succession of States in respect of State responsibility”, the Commission had before it the third report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/731), which addressed introductory issues, including certain general considerations, questions of reparation for injury resulting from internationally wrongful acts committed against the predecessor State as well as its nationals, and technical proposals in relation to the scheme of the draft articles. | 18. 关于“国家责任方面的国家继承”专题，委员会收到了特别报告员的第三次报告(A/CN.4/731)，其中讨论了先导性问题，包括某些一般考虑因素、对被继承国及其国民遭受的国际不法行为所造成的损害的赔偿问题，以及与条款草案整体构架有关的技术性建议。 |
| Following the debate in plenary, the Commission decided to refer draft articles 2, paragraph (f), X, Y, 12, 13, 14 and 15, and the titles of Part Two and Part Three, as contained in the third report of the Special Rapporteur, to the Drafting Committee. | 经全体会议辩论之后，委员会决定将特别报告员第三次报告所载第2条草案(f)段、第X条、第Y条、第12条、第13条、第14条和第15条草案以及第二部分和第三部分的标题转交起草委员会。 |
| Upon its consideration of a first report of the Drafting Committee, the Commission provisionally adopted draft articles 1, 2 and 5, with commentaries thereto. | 在审议了起草委员会的首次报告之后，委员会暂时通过了第1条、第2条和第5条草案及其评注。 |
| Furthermore, the Commission took note of the interim report of the Chair of the Drafting Committee on draft articles 7, 8 and 9 provisionally adopted by the Committee, which was presented to the Commission for information only (chap. VII). | 此外，委员会注意到起草委员会主席关于起草委员会暂时通过的关于第7条、第8条和第9条草案的临时报告，该报告提交给委员会仅供参考(第七章)。 |
| 19. With regard to the topic “Immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction”, the Commission had before it the sixth (A/CN.4/722) and the seventh (A/CN.4/729) reports of the Special Rapporteur, which were devoted to addressing procedural aspects of immunity from foreign criminal jurisdiction. | 19. 关于“国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免”专题，委员会收到了特别报告员的第六次报告(A/CN.4/722)和第七次报告(A/CN.4/729)，这些报告专门讨论外国刑事管辖豁免的程序性问题。 |
| In particular, the sixth report, on which the debate was not completed at the seventieth session in 2018, provided an analysis of three components of procedural aspects related to the concept of jurisdiction, namely: (a) timing; | 具体而言，2018年第七十届会议上没有完成辩论的第六次报告分析了与管辖权概念有关的程序性方面的三项内容，即：(a) 时间； |
| (b) kinds of acts affected; | (b) 受影响的行为种类； |
| and (c) the determination of immunity. | (c) 豁免的确定。 |
| The seventh report completed the examination of the procedural aspects of immunity regarding the relationship between jurisdiction and the procedural aspects of immunity; | 第七次报告完成了对豁免的程序性问题的审查，涉及管辖权与豁免的程序性问题之间的关系； |
| addressed questions concerning the invocation of immunity and the waiver of immunity; | 处理了有关援引豁免和放弃豁免的问题； |
| examined aspects concerning procedural safeguards related to the State of the forum and the State of the official, considered the procedural rights and safeguards of the official, and proposed nine draft articles. | 审查了法院地国和官员所属国之间的程序保障问题，审议了与该官员有关的程序性权利和保障措施，并提出了九项条款草案。 |
| Following the debate in plenary, the Commission decided to refer draft articles 8 to 16 to the Drafting Committee, taking into account the debate and proposals made in plenary. | 经全体会议辩论之后，委员会考虑到全体会议上进行的辩论情况和提出的建议，决定将第8条至第16条草案转交起草委员会。 |
| The Commission received and took note of the interim report of the Chair of the Drafting Committee on draft article 8 ante, which was presented to the Commission for information only (chap. VIII). | 委员会收到并注意到起草委员会主席关于第8(前)条草案的临时报告，该报告提交给委员会仅供参考(第八章)。 |
| 20. With regard to the topic “General principles of law”, the Commission had before it the first report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/732), which addressed the scope of the topic and the main issues to be addressed in the course of the work of the Commission. | 20. 关于“一般法律原则”专题，委员会收到了特别报告员的第一次报告(A/CN.4/732)，其中讨论了该专题的范围和有待委员会在工作过程中处理的主要问题。 |
| The report also addressed previous work of the Commission related to general principles of law and provided an overview of the development of general principles of law over time, as well as an initial assessment of certain basic aspects of the topic and future work on the topic. | 报告还论述了委员会以往与法律一般原则有关的工作，并概述了法律一般原则随着时间推移而发展的情况，并对该专题的某些基本方面和今后关于该专题的工作进行了初步评估。 |
| Following the debate in plenary, the Commission decided to refer draft conclusions 1 to 3, as contained in the report of the Special Rapporteur, to the Drafting Committee. | 经全体会议辩论之后，委员会决定将特别报告员报告所载第1条至第3条结论草案转交起草委员会。 |
| The Commission subsequently took note of the interim report of the Chair of the Drafting Committee on draft conclusion 1 provisionally adopted by the Committee, which was presented to the Commission for information only (chap. IX). | 委员会还注意到起草委员会主席关于起草委员会暂时通过的第1条结论草案的临时报告，该报告提交给委员会仅供参考(第九章)。 |
| 21. With respect to the topic “Sea-level rise in relation to international law”, the Commission decided to include the topic in its programme of work and established a Study Group, to be co-chaired, on a rotating basis, by Mr. Bogdan Aurescu, Mr. Yacouba Cissé, Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles, Ms. Nilüfer Oral and Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria. | 21. 关于“与国际法有关的海平面上升”专题，委员会决定将这一专题列入其工作方案，并设立一个研究组，由波格丹·奥雷斯库先生、雅库巴·西塞先生、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士和胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生轮流担任共同主席。 |
| The Study Group held one meeting, at which time it agreed on its composition, methods and programme of work, based on the three subtopics identified in the syllabus. | 研究组举行了一次会议，在会上商定了研究组组成，并基于其提纲所列三个分专题商定了工作方法和方案。 |
| The Commission subsequently took note of the joint oral report of the Co-Chairs of the Study Group (chaps. X and XI, sect. B). | 委员会随后注意到研究组共同主席的联合口头报告(第十章和第十一章B节)。 |
| 22. As regards “Other decisions and conclusions of the Commission”, the Commission took note of an oral report of the Special Rapporteur on the topic “Provisional application of treaties”, Mr. Juan Manuel Gómez Robledo, on the informal consultations convened to consider the draft model clauses on provisional application of treaties, and decided to annex the Special Rapporteur’s revised proposal for the draft model clauses to the report, with a view to seeking comments from Governments in advance of the commencement of the second reading of the draft Guide to Provisional Application of Treaties at the seventy-second session of the Commission (chap. XI, sect. A, and annex A). | 22. 关于“委员会的其他决定和结论”，委员会注意到“条约的暂时适用”专题特别报告员胡安·曼努埃尔·戈麦斯·罗布莱多先生的口头报告。 口头报告说明了为审议关于条约的暂时适用的示范条款草案进行非正式协商的情况。 委员会决定将特别报告员关于示范条款草案的订正建议附于报告后，以期在委员会第七十二届会议开始对条约的暂时适用指南草案进行二读之前，征求各国政府的意见(第十一章A节和附件A)。 |
| 23. The Commission re-established a Planning Group to consider its programme, procedures and working methods, which in turn decided to re-establish the Working Group on the long-term programme of work, chaired by Mr. Mahmoud D. Hmoud, and the Working Group on methods of work, chaired by Mr. Hussein A. Hassouna (chap. XI, sect. D). | 23. 委员会重新设立了规划组，以审议委员会的方案、程序和工作方法，规划组又决定重新设立长期工作方案工作组(由马哈茂德·哈穆德先生担任主席)和工作方法工作组(由侯赛因·哈苏纳先生担任主席)(第十一章D节)。 |
| The Commission decided to include in its long-term programme of work the topics: (a) “Reparation to individuals for gross violations of international human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law”; | 委员会决定在其长期工作方案中列入以下专题：(a) 就严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为对个人的赔偿； |
| and (b) “Prevention and repression of piracy and armed robbery at sea” (chap. XI, sect. D, and annexes B and C). | (b) 防止和打击海盗和海上武装抢劫行为(第十一章D节，及附件B和C)。 |
| 24. The Commission received Mr. Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf, President of the International Court of Justice and continued its traditional exchanges of information with the Committee of Legal Advisers on Public International Law of the Council of Europe; the Inter-American Juridical Committee; the Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization; | 24. 委员会接待了国际法院院长阿卜杜勒卡维·艾哈迈德·优素福先生，并继续与欧洲委员会国际公法法律顾问委员会、美洲法律委员会、亚非法律协商组织和非洲联盟国际法委员会进行了传统的信息交流。 |
| and the African Union Commission on International Law. Members of the Commission also held an informal exchange of views with the International Committee of the Red Cross (chap. XI, sect. F). | 委员会委员还与红十字国际委员会进行了非正式的意见交流(第十一章F节)。 |
| 25. The Commission decided that its seventy-second session would be held in Geneva from 27 April to 5 June and from 6 July to 7 August 2020 (chap. XI, sect. E). | 25. 委员会决定其第七十二届会议于2020年4月27日至6月5日和7月6日至8月7日在日内瓦举行(第十一章E节)。 |
| Chapter III Specific issues on which comments would be of particular interest to the Commission | 第三章 委员会特别想听取意见的具体问题 |
| 26. The Commission wishes to recall the adoption, at its seventieth session in 2018, of the first reading text of the draft Guide to Provisional Application of Treaties, and the subsequent request for comments and observations from Governments and international organizations. | 26. 委员会谨回顾，2018年第七十届会议通过了条约的暂时适用指南草案的一读案文，并随后请各国政府和国际组织提交评论和意见。 |
| The Commission would invite Governments and international organizations to consider also including comments and observations on the draft model clauses on provisional application of treaties, contained in annex A to the present report. | 委员会请各国政府和国际组织也考虑对本报告附件A所载关于条约的暂时适用的示范条款草案提交评论和意见。 |
| 27. The Commission considers as still relevant the request for information contained in chapter III of the report of its seventieth session (2018) on the topic “Succession of States in respect of State responsibility”, and would welcome any additional information. | 27. 委员会认为，第七十届会议(2018年)报告第三章中关于“国家责任方面的国家继承”专题的资料征集请求 仍然具有意义，并欢迎提供任何补充资料。 |
| 28. The Commission would also welcome receiving any information in response to the following questions and requests, by 31 December 2019 (except where stipulated otherwise), in order for it to be taken into account in the respective reports of the Special Rapporteurs and co-Chairs of the Study Group on sea-level rise in relation to international law. | 28. 委员会还欢迎在2019年12月31日之前(另有规定的除外)，就下列问题和请求提供资料，以便各位特别报告员和与国际法有关的海平面上升研究组共同主席在其各自报告中加以考虑。 |
| A. Immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction | A. 国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免 |
| 29. The Commission would welcome any information that States could provide on the existence of manuals, guidelines, protocols or operational instructions addressed to State officials and bodies that are competent to take any decision that may affect foreign officials and their immunity from criminal jurisdiction in the territory of the forum State. | 29. 委员会欢迎各国提供资料，说明是否面向有权做出可能会影响外国官员及其在法院地国领土内刑事管辖豁免的任何决定的国家官员和机构，发过有关手册、指南、规程或业务指示。 |
| B. General principles of law | B. 一般法律原则 |
| 30. The Commission requests States to provide information on their practice relating to general principles of law, in the sense of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, including as set out in: | 30. 委员会请各国提供资料，说明其在《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项意义上的与一般法律原则有关的实践，包括： |
| (a) decisions of national courts, legislation and any other relevant practice at the domestic level; | (a) 国家法院的判决、立法和国内层面的任何其他相关实践； |
| (b) pleadings before international courts and tribunals; | (b) 向国际性法院和法庭提出的陈述； |
| (c) statements made in international organizations, international conferences and other forums; | (c) 在国际组织、国际会议和其他论坛上所作的发言； |
| and | 以及 |
| (d) treaty practice. | (d) 条约实践。 |
| C. Sea-level rise in relation to international law | C. 与国际法有关的海平面上升 |
| 31. The Commission would welcome any information that States, international organizations and the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement could provide on their practice and other relevant information concerning sea-level rise in relation to international law. | 31. 委员会欢迎各国、国际组织及国际红十字会和红新月会运动提供资料，说明其在与国际法有关的海平面上升问题方面的实践，并提供其他相关资料。 |
| 32. At the seventy-second session (2020), the Study Group will focus on the subject of sea-level rise in relation to the law of the sea. | 32. 在第七十二届会议上(2020年)，研究组将侧重于与海洋法有关的海平面上升问题。 |
| In this connection, the Commission would appreciate receiving, by 31 December 2019, examples from States of their practice that may be relevant (even if indirectly) to sea-level rise or other changes in circumstances of a similar nature. | 在这方面，委员会希望各国能够在2019年12月31日之前提供相关实践的例子，这种实践可能与海平面上升或类似情况下的其他变化相关(即使是间接地相关)。 |
| Such practice could, for example, relate to baselines and where applicable archipelagic baselines, closing lines, low-tide elevations, islands, artificial islands, land reclamation and other coastal fortification measures, limits of maritime zones, delimitation of maritime boundaries, and any other issues relevant to the subject. | 譬如这种实践可能涉及基线和群岛基线(如适用)、封闭线、低潮高地、岛屿、人工岛屿、填海造地和其他海岸加固措施、海区界线、海洋划界以及与此专题有关的任何其他问题。 |
| Relevant materials could include: | 相关资料可包括： |
| (a) bilateral or multilateral treaties, in particular maritime boundary delimitation treaties; | (a) 双边或多边条约，特别是海洋划界条约； |
| (b) national legislation or regulations, in particular any provisions related to the effects of sea-level rise on baselines and/or more generally on maritime zones; | (b) 国家立法或规章，特别是与海平面上升对基线的影响和(或)一般地说对海区的影响有关的任何规定； |
| (c) declarations, statements or other communications in relation to treaties or State practice; | (c) 与条约或国家实践有关的声明、发言或其他函件； |
| (d) jurisprudence of national or international courts or tribunals and outcomes of other relevant processes for the settlement of disputes related to the law of the sea; | (d) 解决与海洋法相关的争端的国家法院或国际性法院或法庭判例和其他有关程序结果； |
| (e) any observations in relation to sea-level rise in the context of the obligation of States parties under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to deposit charts and/or lists of geographical coordinates of points; | (e) 在缔约国根据《联合国海洋法公约》规定的义务交存海图和(或)各点地理坐标表时就海平面上升提出的任何意见； |
| and | 以及 |
| (f) any other relevant information, for example, statements made at international forums, as well as legal opinions, and studies. | (f) 任何其他相关资料，例如在国际论坛上所作的发言，以及法律意见、研究报告等。 |
| 33. The Commission would further welcome receiving in due course any information related to statehood and the protection of persons affected by sea-level rise, as outlined in the syllabus of the topic, both of which will be considered by the Study Group during the seventy-third session (2021) of the Commission. | 33. 委员会还欢迎在适当时依照本专题提纲所述， 提交与国家地位和保护受海平面上升影响的人员有关的任何资料，研究组将在委员会第七十三届会议(2021年)期间审议这两方面的资料。 |
| Chapter IV Crimes against humanity | 第四章 危害人类罪 |
| A. Introduction | A. 导言 |
| 34. At its sixty-sixth session (2014), the Commission decided to include the topic “Crimes against humanity” in its programme of work and appointed Mr. Sean D. Murphy as Special Rapporteur. | 34. 委员会第六十六届会议(2014年)决定将“危害人类罪”专题列入工作方案，并任命肖恩·墨菲先生为该专题特别报告员。 |
| The General Assembly, in paragraph 7 of its resolution 69/118 of 10 December 2014, subsequently took note of the decision of the Commission to include the topic in its programme of work. | 联大随后在2014年12月10日第69/118号决议第7段中注意到委员会决定将此专题列入其工作方案。 |
| 35. From its sixty-seventh session (2015) to its sixty-ninth session (2017), the Commission considered the topic on the basis of three successive reports submitted by the Special Rapporteur, and a memorandum by the Secretariat. | 35. 从第六十七届会议(2015年)至第六十九届会议(2017年)，委员会在特别报告员连续提交的三份报告 和秘书处编写的一份备忘录 基础上审议了这一专题。 |
| 36. At its sixty-ninth session (2017), the Commission adopted, on first reading, the entire set of draft articles on crimes against humanity, which comprised a draft preamble, 15 draft articles and a draft annex, together with commentaries thereto. | 36. 委员会第六十九届会议(2017年)一读通过了关于危害人类罪的一整套条款草案，包括序言草案、15项条文草案和一个附件草案及其评注。 |
| It decided, in accordance with articles 16 to 21 of its statute, to transmit the draft articles, through the Secretary-General, to Governments, international organizations and others for comments and observations. | 委员会根据其章程第16至第21条，决定通过秘书长向各国政府、国际组织和其他方面转发这些条款草案，以征求评论和意见。 |
| B. Consideration of the topic at the present session | B. 本届会议审议此专题的情况 |
| 37. At the present session, the Commission had before it the fourth report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/725 and Add.1), as well as comments and observations received from Governments, international organizations and others (A/CN.4/726, Add.1 and 2). | 37. 委员会本届会议收到了特别报告员的第四次报告(A/CN.4/725和Add.1)，以及各国政府、国际组织和其他方面提交的评论和意见(A/CN.4/726、Add.1和2)。 |
| 38. At its 3453rd to 3458th meetings, from 29 April to 7 May 2019, the Commission considered the fourth report of the Special Rapporteur and instructed the Drafting Committee to commence the second reading of the entire set of draft articles on the basis of the proposals by the Special Rapporteur, taking into account the comments and observations of Governments, international organizations and others, as well as the debate in plenary on the Special Rapporteur’s report. | 38. 在2019年4月29日至5月7日举行的第3453至第3458次会议上，委员会审议了特别报告员的第四次报告，并指示起草委员会根据特别报告员的建议开始对整套条款草案进行二读，同时考虑到各国政府、国际组织和其他方面的评论和意见，以及全体会议对特别报告员报告进行的辩论情况。 |
| 39. The Commission considered the report of the Drafting Committee (A/CN.4/L.935) at its 3468th meeting, held on 22 May 2019, and adopted the entire set of draft articles on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity on second reading (sect. E.1 below). | 39. 委员会在2019年5月22日举行的第3468次会议上审议了起草委员会的报告(A/CN.4/L.935)，并二读通过了关于防止及惩治危害人类罪的整套条款草案(下文E.1节)。 |
| 40. At its 3496th to 3499th meetings, from 31 July to 5 August 2019, the Commission adopted the commentaries to the aforementioned draft articles (see sect. E.2 below). | 40. 在2019年7月31日至8月5日举行的第3496至第3499次会议上，委员会通过了上述条款草案的评注(见下文E.2节)。 |
| 41. In accordance with its statute, the Commission submits the draft articles to the General Assembly, with the recommendation set out below. | 41. 委员会根据其章程向联大提交该条款草案，并提出以下建议。 |
| C. Recommendation of the Commission | C. 委员会的建议 |
| 42. At its 3499th meeting, on 5 August 2019, the Commission decided, in conformity with article 23 of its statute, to recommend the draft articles on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity to the General Assembly. | 42. 在2019年8月5日举行的第3499次会议上，委员会根据其章程第23条，决定向联大建议关于防止及惩治危害人类罪的条款草案。 |
| In particular, the Commission recommended the elaboration of a convention by the General Assembly or by an international conference of plenipotentiaries on the basis of the draft articles. | 特别是，委员会建议由联大或一次国际全权代表会议在该条款草案基础上拟订一项公约。 |
| D. Tribute to the Special Rapporteur | D. 向特别报告员表示感谢 |
| 43. At its 3499th meeting, held on 5 August 2019, the Commission, after adopting the draft articles on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity, adopted the following resolution by acclamation: | 43. 在2019年8月5日举行的第3499次会议上，委员会在通过关于防止及惩治危害人类罪的条款草案后，以鼓掌方式通过了以下决议： |
| “The International Law Commission, | “国际法委员会， |
| Having adopted the draft articles on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity, | 通过了关于防止及惩治危害人类罪的条款草案， |
| Expresses to the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Sean D. Murphy, its deep appreciation and warm congratulations for the outstanding contribution he has made to the preparation of the draft articles through his tireless efforts and devoted work, and for the results achieved in the elaboration of the draft articles on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity.” | 向特别报告员肖恩·墨菲先生表示深挚感谢和热烈祝贺，感谢并祝贺他以不懈的努力和专注的工作为起草结论草案做出杰出贡献，并使关于防止及惩治危害人类罪的条款草案的拟订工作取得成果。 |
| E. Text of the draft articles on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity | ” E. 防止及惩治危害人类罪条款草案案文 |
| 1. Text of the draft articles | 1. 条款草案案文 |
| 44. The text of the draft articles adopted by the Commission, on second reading, at its seventy-first session is reproduced below. | 44. 委员会第七十一届会议二读通过的条款草案案文载录如下。 |
| Prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity | 防止及惩治危害人类罪 |
| Mindful that throughout history millions of children, women and men have been victims of crimes that deeply shock the conscience of humanity, | 注意到有史以来，使全人类的良知深受震动的罪行残害了无数儿童、妇女和男子， |
| Recognizing that crimes against humanity threaten the peace, security and well-being of the world, | 认识到危害人类罪危及世界的和平、安全与福祉， |
| Recalling the principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations, | 忆及《联合国宪章》所载的国际法原则， |
| Recalling also that the prohibition of crimes against humanity is a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), | 又忆及禁止危害人类罪是一项一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)， |
| Affirming that crimes against humanity, which are among the most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole, must be prevented in conformity with international law, | 申明危害人类罪是整个国际社会关切的最严重罪行之一，必须按照国际法予以防止， |
| Determined to put an end to impunity for the perpetrators of these crimes and thus to contribute to the prevention of such crimes, | 决心使这些罪行的犯罪者不再逍遥法外，从而有助于防止这种犯罪， |
| Considering the definition of crimes against humanity set forth in article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, | 考虑到《国际刑事法院罗马规约》第七条所载的危害人类罪的定义， |
| Recalling that it is the duty of every State to exercise its criminal jurisdiction with respect to crimes against humanity, | 忆及每个国家都有义务对危害人类罪行使刑事管辖权， |
| Considering the rights of victims, witnesses and others in relation to crimes against humanity, as well as the right of alleged offenders to fair treatment, | 考虑到与危害人类罪相关的受害人、证人和其他人的权利以及被指控罪犯受到公平对待的权利， |
| Considering also that, because crimes against humanity must not go unpunished, the effective prosecution of such crimes must be ensured by taking measures at the national level and by enhancing international cooperation, including with respect to extradition and mutual legal assistance, | 又认为对危害人类罪绝不能听之任之不予惩罚，为确保有效起诉这种罪行，必须在国家一级采取措施并加强国际合作，包括在引渡和司法协助方面加强合作， |
| Article 1 Scope | 第1条 范围 |
| The present draft articles apply to the prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity. | 本条款草案适用于防止及惩治危害人类罪。 |
| Article 2 Definition of crimes against humanity | 第2条 危害人类罪的定义 |
| 1. For the purpose of the present draft articles, “crime against humanity” means any of the following acts when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack: | 1. 为了本条款草案的目的，“危害人类罪”是指在广泛或有系统地针对任何平民人口进行的攻击中，在明知这一攻击的情况下，作为攻击的一部分而实施的下列任何一种行为： |
| (a) murder; | (a) 谋杀； |
| (b) extermination; | (b) 灭绝； |
| (c) enslavement; | (c) 奴役； |
| (d) deportation or forcible transfer of population; | (d) 驱逐出境或强行迁移人口； |
| (e) imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty in violation of fundamental rules of international law; | (e) 违反国际法基本规则，监禁或以其他方式严重剥夺人身自由； |
| (f) torture; | (f) 酷刑； |
| (g) rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity; | (g) 强奸、性奴役、强迫卖淫、强迫怀孕、强迫绝育或严重程度相当的任何其他形式的性暴力； |
| (h) persecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender, or other grounds that are universally recognized as impermissible under international law, in connection with any act referred to in this paragraph; | (h) 基于政治、种族、民族、族裔、文化、宗教、性别或公认为国际法所不容的其他理由，对任何可以识别的群体或集体进行的迫害，且与本款提及的任何一种行为有关； |
| (i) enforced disappearance of persons; | (i) 强迫人员失踪； |
| (j) the crime of apartheid; | (j) 种族隔离罪； |
| (k) other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health. | (k) 故意造成重大痛苦，或对人体或身心健康造成严重伤害的其他性质相当的不人道行为。 |
| 2. For the purpose of paragraph 1: | 2. 为了第1款的目的： |
| (a) “attack directed against any civilian population” means a course of conduct involving the multiple commission of acts referred to in paragraph 1 against any civilian population, pursuant to or in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit such attack; | (a) “针对任何平民人口进行的攻击”是指根据国家或组织攻击平民人口的政策，或为了推行这种政策，针对任何平民人口多次实施第1款所述行为的一系列行为； |
| (b) “extermination” includes the intentional infliction of conditions of life, inter alia the deprivation of access to food and medicine, calculated to bring about the destruction of part of a population; | (b) “灭绝”包括故意施加某种生活状况，如断绝粮食和药品来源，目的是毁灭部分的人口； |
| (c) “enslavement” means the exercise of any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership over a person and includes the exercise of such power in the course of trafficking in persons, in particular women and children; | (c) “奴役”是指对人行使附属于所有权的任何或一切权力，包括在贩卖人口，特别是贩卖妇女和儿童的过程中行使这种权力； |
| (d) “deportation or forcible transfer of population” means forced displacement of the persons concerned by expulsion or other coercive acts from the area in which they are lawfully present, without grounds permitted under international law; | (d) “驱逐出境或强行迁移人口”是指在缺乏国际法容许的理由的情况下，以驱逐或其他胁迫行为，强迫有关的人迁离其合法留在的地区； |
| (e) “torture” means the intentional infliction of severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, upon a person in the custody or under the control of the accused; | (e) “酷刑”是指故意致使在被告人羁押或控制下的人的身体或精神遭受重大痛苦； |
| except that torture shall not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in or incidental to, lawful sanctions; | 但酷刑不应包括纯因合法制裁而引起的，或这种制裁所固有或附带的痛苦； |
| (f) “forced pregnancy” means the unlawful confinement of a woman forcibly made pregnant, with the intent of affecting the ethnic composition of any population or carrying out other grave violations of international law. | (f) “强迫怀孕”是指以影响任何人口的族裔构成的目的，或以进行其他严重违反国际法的行为的目的，非法禁闭被强迫怀孕的妇女。 |
| This definition shall not in any way be interpreted as affecting national laws relating to pregnancy; | 本定义不得以任何方式解释为影响国内关于妊娠的法律； |
| (g) “persecution” means the intentional and severe deprivation of fundamental rights contrary to international law by reason of the identity of the group or collectivity; | (g) “迫害”是指违反国际法规定，针对某一群体或集体的特性，故意和严重地剥夺基本权利； |
| (h) “the crime of apartheid” means inhumane acts of a character similar to those referred to in paragraph 1, committed in the context of an institutionalized regime of systematic oppression and domination by one racial group over any other racial group or groups and committed with the intention of maintaining that regime; | (h) “种族隔离罪”是指一个种族群体对任何其他一个或多个种族群体，在一个有计划地实行压迫和统治的体制化制度下，实施与第1款所述行为性质相当的不人道行为，目的是维系该制度的存续； |
| (i) “enforced disappearance of persons” means the arrest, detention or abduction of persons by, or with the authorization, support or acquiescence of, a State or a political organization, followed by a refusal to acknowledge that deprivation of freedom or to give information on the fate or whereabouts of those persons, with the intention of removing them from the protection of the law for a prolonged period of time. | (i) “强迫人员失踪”是指国家或政治组织直接地，或在其授权、支持或默许下，逮捕、拘留或绑架人员，继而拒绝承认这种剥夺自由的行为，或拒绝透露有关人员的命运或下落，目的是将其长期置于法律保护之外。 |
| 3. This draft article is without prejudice to any broader definition provided for in any international instrument, in customary international law or in national law. | 3. 本条草案不妨碍任何国际文书、习惯国际法或国内法规定的任何更为宽泛的定义。 |
| Article 3 General obligations | 第3条 一般义务 |
| 1. Each State has the obligation not to engage in acts that constitute crimes against humanity. | 1. 各国有义务不参与构成危害人类罪的行为。 |
| 2. Each State undertakes to prevent and to punish crimes against humanity, which are crimes under international law, whether or not committed in time of armed conflict. | 2. 各国承诺防止及惩治危害人类罪，此种罪行不论是否发生于武装冲突之时，均系国际法上的罪行。 |
| 3. No exceptional circumstances whatsoever, such as armed conflict, internal political instability or other public emergency, may be invoked as a justification of crimes against humanity. | 3. 任何特殊情况，诸如武装冲突、国内政局动荡、其他公共紧急状态等，均不得援引为施行危害人类罪的理由。 |
| Article 4 Obligation of prevention | 第4条 防止义务 |
| Each State undertakes to prevent crimes against humanity, in conformity with international law, through: | 各国承诺依据国际法防止危害人类罪，办法是： |
| (a) effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other appropriate preventive measures in any territory under its jurisdiction; and | (a) 在其管辖的任何领土内采取有效的立法、行政、司法措施或其他适当的防止措施； |
| (b) cooperation with other States, relevant intergovernmental organizations, and, as appropriate, other organizations. | (b) 与其他国家和有关政府间组织合作，并酌情与其他组织合作。 |
| Article 5 Non-refoulement | 第5条 不推回 |
| 1. No State shall expel, return (refouler), surrender or extradite a person to another State where there are substantial grounds for believing that he or she would be in danger of being subjected to a crime against humanity. | 1. 如有充分理由相信任何人在另一国将有遭受危害人类罪的危险，则任何国家不得将该人驱逐、遣返(推回)、移交或引渡至该国。 |
| 2. For the purpose of determining whether there are such grounds, the competent authorities shall take into account all relevant considerations, including, where applicable, the existence in the State concerned of a consistent pattern of gross, flagrant or mass violations of human rights or of serious violations of international humanitarian law. | 2. 为了确定这种理由是否存在，主管当局应考虑到所有有关因素，包括在适当情况下考虑到在有关国家内是否存在一贯严重、公然或大规模侵犯人权或严重违反国际人道法的情况。 |
| Article 6 Criminalization under national law | 第6条 在国内法中定为刑事犯罪 |
| 1. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that crimes against humanity constitute offences under its criminal law. | 1. 各国应采取必要措施，确保本国刑法规定危害人类罪构成犯罪。 |
| 2. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that the following acts are offences under its criminal law: | 2. 各国应采取必要措施，确保本国刑法将下列行为定为犯罪： |
| (a) committing a crime against humanity; | (a) 实施危害人类罪行； |
| (b) attempting to commit such a crime; | (b) 企图实施这种罪行； |
| and | 以及 |
| (c) ordering, soliciting, inducing, aiding, abetting or otherwise assisting in or contributing to the commission or attempted commission of such a crime. | (c) 命令、怂恿、引诱、协助、教唆或以其他方式帮助或促成实施或企图实施这种罪行。 |
| 3. Each State shall also take the necessary measures to ensure that commanders and other superiors are criminally responsible for crimes against humanity committed by their subordinates if they knew, or had reason to know, that the subordinates were about to commit or were committing such crimes and did not take all necessary and reasonable measures in their power to prevent their commission, or if such crimes had been committed, to punish the persons responsible. | 3. 各国还应采取必要措施，确保指挥官和其他上级人员如知道或理应知道下属即将实施或正在实施危害人类罪，却没有在其权力范围内采取一切必要和合理措施防止实施这种罪行，或没有在这种罪行已经实施的情况下对责任人予以惩罚，则对这种罪行负刑事责任。 |
| 4. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that, under its criminal law, the fact that an offence referred to in this draft article was committed pursuant to an order of a Government or of a superior, whether military or civilian, is not a ground for excluding criminal responsibility of a subordinate. | 4. 各国应采取必要措施，确保本国刑法规定，依照政府或者军事或文职上级的命令实施本条草案所述罪行的事实不成为免除下级刑事责任的理由。 |
| 5. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that, under its criminal law, the fact that an offence referred to in this draft article was committed by a person holding an official position is not a ground for excluding criminal responsibility. | 5. 各国应采取必要措施，确保根据本国刑法，本条草案所述罪行由担任公职的人实施的事实不成为免除刑事责任的理由。 |
| 6. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that, under its criminal law, the offences referred to in this draft article shall not be subject to any statute of limitations. | 6. 各国应采取必要措施，确保本国刑法规定，本条草案所述罪行不应受到任何时效限制。 |
| 7. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that, under its criminal law, the offences referred to in this draft article shall be punishable by appropriate penalties that take into account their grave nature. | 7. 各国应采取必要措施，确保本国刑法规定，对本条草案所述罪行，应考虑到其严重性，处以适当的刑罚。 |
| 8. Subject to the provisions of its national law, each State shall take measures, where appropriate, to establish the liability of legal persons for the offences referred to in this draft article. | 8. 在不违反本国法律规定的情况下，各国应酌情采取适当措施确定法人对本条草案所述罪行的责任。 |
| Subject to the legal principles of the State, such liability of legal persons may be criminal, civil or administrative. | 在不违反本国法律原则的情况下，法人的这一责任可以为刑事、民事或行政责任。 |
| Article 7 Establishment of national jurisdiction | 第7条 确立国家管辖权 |
| 1. Each State shall take the necessary measures to establish its jurisdiction over the offences covered by the present draft articles in the following cases: | 1. 各国应采取必要措施，确立在下列情况下对本条款草案所述罪行的管辖权： |
| (a) when the offence is committed in any territory under its jurisdiction or on board a ship or aircraft registered in that State; | (a) 罪行发生在该国管辖的任何领土内，或发生在该国注册的船只或飞行器上； |
| (b) when the alleged offender is a national of that State or, if that State considers it appropriate, a stateless person who is habitually resident in that State’s territory; | (b) 被指控罪犯为该国国民，或该国认为应予管辖的、惯常在该国领土内居住的无国籍人； |
| (c) when the victim is a national of that State if that State considers it appropriate. | (c) 受害人为该国国民，而该国认为应予管辖。 |
| 2. Each State shall also take the necessary measures to establish its jurisdiction over the offences covered by the present draft articles in cases where the alleged offender is present in any territory under its jurisdiction and it does not extradite or surrender the person in accordance with the present draft articles. | 2. 各国还应采取必要措施，在被指控罪犯处于其管辖的任何领土内而本国不按照本条款草案予以引渡或移交的情况下，确立对本条款草案所述罪行的管辖权。 |
| 3. The present draft articles do not exclude the exercise of any criminal jurisdiction established by a State in accordance with its national law. | 3. 本条款草案不排除一国行使根据其国内法确立的任何刑事管辖权。 |
| Article 8 Investigation | 第8条 调查 |
| Each State shall ensure that its competent authorities proceed to a prompt, thorough and impartial investigation whenever there is reasonable ground to believe that acts constituting crimes against humanity have been or are being committed in any territory under its jurisdiction. | 各国应确保在有合理依据认为在其管辖的任何领土内已经或正在发生构成危害人类罪的行为时，其主管当局展开及时、彻底、公正的调查。 |
| Article 9 Preliminary measures when an alleged offender is present | 第9条 当被指控罪犯在境内时的初步措施 |
| 1. Upon being satisfied, after an examination of information available to it, that the circumstances so warrant, any State in the territory under whose jurisdiction a person alleged to have committed any offence covered by the present draft articles is present shall take the person into custody or take other legal measures to ensure his or her presence. | 1. 任何国家，如果被指控犯有本条款草案所述任何罪行的人在其管辖的领土内，经审查所获情报后认为根据情况有此必要，应将该人羁押或采取其他法律措施确保该人留在境内。 |
| The custody and other legal measures shall be as provided in the law of that State, but may be continued only for such time as is necessary to enable any criminal, extradition or surrender proceedings to be instituted. | 羁押和其他法律措施应符合该国法律的规定，但持续时间只限于提起任何刑事、引渡或移交程序所需的时间。 |
| 2. Such State shall immediately make a preliminary inquiry into the facts. | 2. 该国应立即对事实进行初步调查。 |
| 3. When a State, pursuant to this draft article, has taken a person into custody, it shall immediately notify the States referred to in draft article 7, paragraph 1, of the fact that such person is in custody and of the circumstances which warrant his or her detention. | 3. 一国如果根据本条草案将某人羁押，应立即向第7条草案第1款所述国家通知该人受到羁押的事实和拘留该人之所以必要的情况。 |
| The State which makes the preliminary inquiry contemplated in paragraph 2 of this draft article shall, as appropriate, promptly report its findings to the said States and shall indicate whether it intends to exercise jurisdiction. | 进行本条草案第2款所述初步调查的国家应酌情立即向所述有关国家通报调查结果，并表明是否有意行使管辖权。 |
| Article 10 Aut dedere aut judicare | 第10条 或引渡或起诉 |
| The State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the alleged offender is present shall, if it does not extradite or surrender the person to another State or competent international criminal court or tribunal, submit the case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution. | 被指控罪犯在其管辖领土内的国家，如不将该人引渡或移交至另一国家或移交至有管辖权的国际性刑事法院或法庭，则应为起诉之目的将该案提交主管当局。 |
| Those authorities shall take their decision in the same manner as in the case of any other offence of a grave nature under the law of that State. | 主管当局应以处理该国法律定为性质严重的任何其他罪行的相同方式作出决定。 |
| Article 11 Fair treatment of the alleged offender | 第11条 公平对待被指控罪犯 |
| 1. Any person against whom measures are being taken in connection with an offence covered by the present draft articles shall be guaranteed at all stages of the proceedings fair treatment, including a fair trial, and full protection of his or her rights under applicable national and international law, including human rights law and international humanitarian law. | 1. 对于任何因本条款草案所述罪行而被采取措施的人，在有关程序的所有阶段应保障其公平待遇，包括公平审判，并应充分保护该人按照适用的国内法和国际法，包括人权法和国际人道法所享有的各项权利。 |
| 2. Any such person who is in prison, custody or detention in a State that is not of his or her nationality shall be entitled: | 2. 在非本人国籍国被监禁、羁押或拘留的任何此类人员应有权： |
| (a) to communicate without delay with the nearest appropriate representative of the State or States of which such person is a national or which is otherwise entitled to protect that person’s rights or, if such person is a stateless person, of the State which, at that person’s request, is willing to protect that person’s rights; | (a) 立即联络与其距离最近的下述国家的适当代表：其国籍国或有权保护其权利的其他国家； 如此人为无国籍人员，则为经其请求而愿意保护其权利的国家； |
| (b) to be visited by a representative of that State or those States; | (b) 受到此类国家代表的探视； |
| and | 以及 |
| (c) to be informed without delay of his or her rights under this paragraph. | (c) 立即被告知其根据本款所享有的权利。 |
| 3. The rights referred to in paragraph 2 shall be exercised in conformity with the laws and regulations of the State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the person is present, subject to the proviso that the said laws and regulations must enable full effect to be given to the purpose for which the rights accorded under paragraph 2 are intended. | 3. 第2款所述各项权利的行使应符合该人所在领土管辖国的法律和规章，但所述法律和规章必须能使第2款所规定权利的预期目的得到充分实现。 |
| Article 12 Victims, witnesses and others | 第12条 受害人、证人及其他人 |
| 1. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that: | 1. 各国应采取必要措施，确保： |
| (a) any person who alleges that acts constituting crimes against humanity have been or are being committed has the right to complain to the competent authorities; | (a) 声称有人实施了或正在实施构成危害人类罪的行为的任何人有权向主管当局提出申诉； |
| and | 以及 |
| (b) complainants, victims, witnesses, and their relatives and representatives, as well as other persons participating in any investigation, prosecution, extradition or other proceeding within the scope of the present draft articles, shall be protected against ill-treatment or intimidation as a consequence of any complaint, information, testimony or other evidence given. | (b) 申诉人、受害人、证人及其家属和代表以及在本条款草案范围内参加任何调查、起诉、引渡或其他程序的其他人得到保护，不因提出任何申诉，以及提供任何信息、证词或其他证据而受到虐待或恐吓。 |
| Protective measures shall be without prejudice to the rights of the alleged offender referred to in draft article 11. | 这些措施应不妨害第11条草案所述被指控罪犯的权利。 |
| 2. Each State shall, in accordance with its national law, enable the views and concerns of victims of a crime against humanity to be presented and considered at appropriate stages of criminal proceedings against alleged offenders in a manner not prejudicial to the rights referred to in draft article 11. | 2. 各国应根据本国法律，在对被指控罪犯提起刑事诉讼的适当阶段，以不妨害第11条草案所述权利的方式使危害人类罪受害人的意见和关切得到表达和考虑。 |
| 3. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure in its legal system that the victims of a crime against humanity, committed through acts attributable to the State under international law or committed in any territory under its jurisdiction, have the right to obtain reparation for material and moral damages, on an individual or collective basis, consisting, as appropriate, of one or more of the following or other forms: restitution; | 3. 各国应采取必要措施，在其法律体系内确保危害人类罪受害人有权就受到的物质和精神损害以个人或集体方式获得赔偿，无论此种罪行是通过依国际法可归属于该国家的行为实施，还是在其所管辖的任何领土内实施。 这种赔偿酌情包括以下一种或多种形式或其他形式：恢复原状； |
| compensation; | 补偿； |
| satisfaction; | 抵偿； |
| rehabilitation; | 康复； |
| cessation and guarantees of non-repetition. | 停止和保证不再犯。 |
| Article 13 Extradition | 第13条 引渡 |
| 1. This draft article shall apply to the offences covered by the present draft articles when a requesting State seeks the extradition of a person who is present in territory under the jurisdiction of a requested State. | 1. 当请求国寻求引渡处于被请求国管辖领土内的某人时，本条草案适用于本条款草案所述罪行。 |
| 2. Each of the offences covered by the present draft articles shall be deemed to be included as an extraditable offence in any extradition treaty existing between States. | 2. 本条款草案所述各种罪行应被视为属于国家间现有的任何引渡条约所列的可引渡罪行。 |
| States undertake to include such offences as extraditable offences in every extradition treaty to be concluded between them. | 各国保证将此种罪行作为可引渡罪行列入将来相互之间缔结的每项引渡条约。 |
| 3. For the purposes of extradition between States, an offence covered by the present draft articles shall not be regarded as a political offence or as an offence connected with a political offence or as an offence inspired by political motives. | 3. 为了国家间引渡的目的，本条款草案所述罪行不应视为政治犯罪、与政治犯罪有联系的犯罪或带有政治动机的犯罪。 |
| Accordingly, a request for extradition based on such an offence may not be refused on these grounds alone. | 因此，不得仅以这些理由拒绝对此种罪行提出的引渡请求。 |
| 4. If a State that makes extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty receives a request for extradition from another State with which it has no extradition treaty, it may consider the present draft articles as the legal basis for extradition in respect of any offence covered by the present draft articles. | 4. 以订有条约为引渡条件的国家如果收到另一个未与之签订引渡条约的国家提出的引渡请求，可将本条款草案视为对本条款草案所述任何罪行给予引渡的法律依据。 |
| 5. A State that makes extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty shall, for any offence covered by the present draft articles: | 5. 对于本条款草案所述的任何罪行，以订有条约为引渡条件的国家应： |
| (a) inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations whether it will use the present draft articles as the legal basis for cooperation on extradition with other States; | (a) 通知联合国秘书长它是否将利用本条款草案作为与其他国家进行引渡合作的法律依据； |
| and | 以及 |
| (b) if it does not use the present draft articles as the legal basis for cooperation on extradition, seek, where appropriate, to conclude treaties on extradition with other States in order to implement this draft article. | (b) 如果不以本条款草案作为引渡合作的法律依据，则应在适当情况下寻求与其他国家缔结引渡条约，以执行本条草案规定。 |
| 6. States that do not make extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty shall recognize the offences covered by the present draft articles as extraditable offences between themselves. | 6. 不以订有条约为引渡条件的国家，应承认本条款草案所述罪行为彼此之间可引渡的罪行。 |
| 7. Extradition shall be subject to the conditions provided for by the national law of the requested State or by applicable extradition treaties, including the grounds upon which the requested State may refuse extradition. | 7. 引渡应遵从被请求国国内法或适用的引渡条约所规定的条件，包括遵从被请求国可能拒绝引渡的理由。 |
| 8. The requesting and requested States shall, subject to their national law, endeavour to expedite extradition procedures and to simplify evidentiary requirements relating thereto. | 8. 请求国和被请求国应在符合本国法律的情况下，努力加快引渡程序并简化与之有关的证据要求。 |
| 9. If necessary, the offences covered by the present draft articles shall be treated, for the purposes of extradition between States, as if they had been committed not only in the place in which they occurred but also in the territory of the States that have established jurisdiction in accordance with draft article 7, paragraph 1. | 9. 为了国家间引渡的目的，必要时应将本条款草案所述罪行视为不仅在发生地实施，而且也在按照第7条草案第1款确立管辖权的国家领土内实施。 |
| 10. If extradition, sought for purposes of enforcing a sentence, is refused because the person sought is a national of the requested State, the requested State shall, if its national law so permits and in conformity with the requirements of such law, upon application of the requesting State, consider the enforcement of the sentence imposed under the national law of the requesting State or the remainder thereof. | 10. 如为执行判决而提出的引渡请求由于被请求引渡人为被请求国的国民而遭到拒绝，被请求国应在其本国法律允许并且符合该法律的要求的情况下，根据请求国的申请，考虑执行按请求国本国法律作出的判刑或剩余刑期。 |
| 11. Nothing in the present draft articles shall be interpreted as imposing an obligation to extradite if the requested State has substantial grounds for believing that the request has been made for the purpose of prosecuting or punishing a person on account of that person’s gender, race, religion, nationality, ethnic origin, culture, membership of a particular social group, political opinions or other grounds that are universally recognized as impermissible under international law, or that compliance with the request would cause prejudice to that person’s position for any of these reasons. | 11. 如果被请求国有充分理由认为，提出引渡请求的目的，是因某人的性别、种族、宗教、国籍、族裔、文化、属于某一特定社会群体或政治见解或因公认为国际法所不容的其他理由而对之进行起诉或惩罚，或同意引渡将因上述任一理由而对该人地位造成损害，则本条款草案的任何内容不得解释为硬性规定了引渡义务。 |
| 12. A requested State shall give due consideration to the request of the State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the alleged offence has occurred. | 12. 被请求国应适当考虑被指控罪行发生在其管辖领土内的国家的请求。 |
| 13. Before refusing extradition, the requested State shall consult, as appropriate, with the requesting State to provide it with ample opportunity to present its opinions and to provide information relevant to its allegation. | 13. 被请求国在拒绝引渡前应酌情与请求国磋商，以使请求国有充分机会陈述自己的意见和介绍与其指控有关的信息。 |
| Article 14 Mutual legal assistance | 第14条 司法协助 |
| 1. States shall afford one another the widest measure of mutual legal assistance in investigations, prosecutions and judicial proceedings in relation to the offences covered by the present draft articles in accordance with this draft article. | 1. 各国应按照本条草案，在对本条款草案所述的罪行进行的相关调查、起诉和司法程序中相互提供最广泛的司法协助。 |
| 2. In relation to the offences for which a legal person may be held liable in accordance with draft article 6, paragraph 8, in the requesting State, mutual legal assistance shall be afforded to the fullest extent possible under relevant laws, treaties, agreements and arrangements of the requested State with respect to investigations, prosecutions, judicial and other proceedings. | 2. 对于请求国依照第6条草案第8款可能追究法人责任的罪行所进行的调查、起诉、司法和其他程序，应根据被请求国的有关法律、条约、协定和安排，尽可能充分地提供司法协助。 |
| 3. Mutual legal assistance to be afforded in accordance with this draft article may be requested for any of the following purposes: | 3. 可为下列任何目的请求按照本条草案给予司法协助： |
| (a) identifying and locating alleged offenders and, as appropriate, victims, witnesses or others; | (a) 查明被指控罪犯的身份和所在地，适当时也可查明受害人、证人或其他人的身份和所在地； |
| (b) taking evidence or statements from persons, including by video conference; | (b) 向个人获取证据或陈述，包括以视频会议方式； |
| (c) effecting service of judicial documents; | (c) 送达司法文书； |
| (d) executing searches and seizures; | (d) 执行搜查和扣押； |
| (e) examining objects and sites, including obtaining forensic evidence; | (e) 检查实物和现场，包括获取法医学证据； |
| (f) providing information, evidentiary items and expert evaluations; | (f) 提供信息、物证以及专家评估； |
| (g) providing originals or certified copies of relevant documents and records; | (g) 提供有关文件和记录的原件或经核证的副本； |
| (h) identifying, tracing or freezing proceeds of crime, property, instrumentalities or other things for evidentiary or other purposes; | (h) 为取证目的或其他目的而查明、追查或冻结犯罪所得、财产、工具或其他物品； |
| (i) facilitating the voluntary appearance of persons in the requesting State; | (i) 为有关人员自愿在请求国出庭提供方便； |
| or | 或 |
| (j) any other type of assistance that is not contrary to the national law of the requested State. | (j) 不违反被请求国本国法律的任何其他形式的协助。 |
| 4. States shall not decline to render mutual legal assistance pursuant to this draft article on the ground of bank secrecy. | 4. 各国不得以银行保密为理由拒绝提供本条草案所规定的司法协助。 |
| 5. States shall consider, as may be necessary, the possibility of concluding bilateral or multilateral agreements or arrangements that would serve the purposes of, give practical effect to, or enhance the provisions of this draft article. | 5. 各国应视需要考虑缔结有助于实现本条草案目的、具体实施本条或者加强本条规定的双边或多边协定或安排的可能性。 |
| 6. Without prejudice to its national law, the competent authorities of a State may, without prior request, transmit information relating to crimes against humanity to a competent authority in another State where they believe that such information could assist the authority in undertaking or successfully concluding investigations, prosecutions and judicial proceedings or could result in a request formulated by the latter State pursuant to the present draft articles. | 6. 一国主管当局如果认为与危害人类罪有关的信息可能有助于另一国主管当局进行或顺利完成调查、起诉和司法程序，或者可以促成其根据本条款草案提出请求，则在不妨碍本国法律的情况下，可以在没有事先请求的情况下，向该另一国主管当局提供此类信息。 |
| 7. The provisions of this draft article shall not affect the obligations under any other treaty, bilateral or multilateral, that governs or will govern, in whole or in part, mutual legal assistance between the States in question. | 7. 本条草案各项规定概不影响规范或将要规范有关国家之间整个或部分司法协助问题的任何其他双边或多边条约所规定的义务。 |
| 8. The draft annex to the present draft articles shall apply to requests made pursuant to this draft article if the States in question are not bound by a treaty of mutual legal assistance. | 8. 如果有关国家无司法协助条约的约束，则本条款草案的附件草案应适用于根据本条草案提出的请求。 |
| If those States are bound by such a treaty, the corresponding provisions of that treaty shall apply, unless the States agree to apply the provisions of the draft annex in lieu thereof. | 如果有关国家受此类条约的约束，则适用条约的相应规定，除非这些国家同意代之以适用附件草案的规定。 |
| States are encouraged to apply the draft annex if it facilitates cooperation. | 鼓励各国在附件草案有助于合作时适用附件草案。 |
| 9. States shall consider, as appropriate, entering into agreements or arrangements with international mechanisms that are established by the United Nations or by other international organizations and that have a mandate to collect evidence with respect to crimes against humanity. | 9. 各国应酌情考虑与联合国或其他国际组织设立的、负责收集与危害人类罪相关的证据的国际机制缔结协定或安排。 |
| Article 15 Settlement of disputes | 第15条 争端的解决 |
| 1. States shall endeavour to settle disputes concerning the interpretation or application of the present draft articles through negotiations. | 1. 各国应努力通过谈判解决与本条款草案的解释或适用有关的争端。 |
| 2. Any dispute between two or more States concerning the interpretation or application of the present draft articles that is not settled through negotiation shall, at the request of one of those States, be submitted to the International Court of Justice, unless those States agree to submit the dispute to arbitration. | 2. 两个或两个以上国家对于本条款草案的解释或适用发生的任何争端不能通过谈判解决的，应按其中一方请求提交国际法院，除非这些国家同意将争端交付仲裁。 |
| 3. Each State may declare that it does not consider itself bound by paragraph 2 of this draft article. | 3. 各国可声明不受本条草案第2款的约束。 |
| The other States shall not be bound by paragraph 2 of this draft article with respect to any State that has made such a declaration. | 在与作此声明的任何国家的关系上，其他国家也不受本条草案第2款的约束。 |
| 4. Any State that has made a declaration in accordance with paragraph 3 of this draft article may at any time withdraw that declaration. | 4. 凡根据本条草案第3款作出声明的国家，均可随时撤销该项声明。 |
| Annex | 附件 |
| 1. This draft annex applies in accordance with draft article 14, paragraph 8. | 1. 本附件草案按照第14条草案第8款适用。 |
| Designation of a central authority | 中央机关的指定 |
| 2. Each State shall designate a central authority that shall have the responsibility and power to receive requests for mutual legal assistance and either to execute them or to transmit them to the competent authorities for execution. | 2. 各国应指定一个中央机关，使其负责和有权接收司法协助请求并执行请求或将请求转交主管当局执行。 |
| Where a State has a special region or territory with a separate system of mutual legal assistance, it may designate a distinct central authority that shall have the same function for that region or territory. | 一国如有实行单独司法协助制度的特区或领土，可另指定一个对该特区或领土具有同样职能的中央机关。 |
| Central authorities shall ensure the speedy and proper execution or transmission of the requests received. | 中央机关应确保所收到的请求迅速而妥善地执行或者转交。 |
| Where the central authority transmits the request to a competent authority for execution, it shall encourage the speedy and proper execution of the request by the competent authority. | 中央机关在将请求转交某一主管当局执行时，应鼓励该主管当局迅速而妥善地执行请求。 |
| The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall be notified by each State of the central authority designated for this purpose. | 各国应将为此目的指定的中央机关通知联合国秘书长。 |
| Requests for mutual legal assistance and any communication related thereto shall be transmitted to the central authorities designated by the States. | 司法协助请求以及与之有关的任何来文均应送交各国指定的中央机关。 |
| This requirement shall be without prejudice to the right of a State to require that such requests and communications be addressed to it through diplomatic channels and, in urgent circumstances, where the States agree, through the International Criminal Police Organization, if possible. | 此项要求不得妨害一国要求通过外交渠道以及在紧急和可能的情况下经有关国家同意通过国际刑事警察组织向其传递这种请求和来文的权利。 |
| Procedures for making a request | 提出请求的程序 |
| 3. Requests shall be made in writing or, where possible, by any means capable of producing a written record, in a language acceptable to the requested State, under conditions allowing that State to establish authenticity. | 3. 请求应以被请求国能够接受的语言以书面形式提出，或在可能的情况下以能够生成书面记录的任何形式提出，但须能够使该国鉴定其真伪。 |
| The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall be notified by each State of the language or languages acceptable to that State. | 各国应将其所能够接受的语言通知联合国秘书长。 |
| In urgent circumstances and where agreed by the States, requests may be made orally, but shall be confirmed in writing forthwith. | 在紧急情况下，如果经有关国家同意，请求可以口头方式提出，但应立即加以书面确认。 |
| 4. A request for mutual legal assistance shall contain: | 4. 司法协助请求应包括： |
| (a) the identity of the authority making the request; | (a) 提出请求的机关； |
| (b) the subject matter and nature of the investigation, prosecution or judicial proceeding to which the request relates and the name and functions of the authority conducting the investigation, prosecution or judicial proceeding; | (b) 请求所涉及的调查、起诉或司法程序的事由和性质，以及进行该项调查、起诉或司法程序的机关的名称和职能； |
| (c) a summary of the relevant facts, except in relation to requests for the purpose of service of judicial documents; | (c) 有关事实的概述，但为送达司法文书提出的请求除外； |
| (d) a description of the assistance sought and details of any particular procedure that the requesting State wishes to be followed; | (d) 对请求协助的事项和请求国希望得到遵循的特定程序细节的说明； |
| (e) where possible, the identity, location and nationality of any person concerned; | (e) 可能的话，任何有关人员的身份、所在地和国籍； |
| and | 以及 |
| (f) the purpose for which the evidence, information or action is sought. | (f) 索取证据、信息或要求采取行动的目的。 |
| 5. The requested State may request additional information when it appears necessary for the execution of the request in accordance with its national law or when it can facilitate such execution. | 5. 被请求国可要求提供按照其本国法律执行该请求所必需或者有助于执行该请求的补充信息。 |
| Response to the request by the requested State | 被请求国对请求的答复 |
| 6. A request shall be executed in accordance with the national law of the requested State and, to the extent not contrary to the national law of the requested State and where possible, in accordance with the procedures specified in the request. | 6. 请求应按照被请求国的本国法律执行。 在不违反被请求国本国法律的情况下，如有可能，应按照请求书中列明的程序执行。 |
| 7. The requested State shall execute the request for mutual legal assistance as soon as possible and shall take as full account as possible of any deadlines suggested by the requesting State and for which reasons are given, preferably in the request. | 7. 被请求国应尽快执行司法协助请求，并应尽可能充分地考虑到请求国提出的、最好在请求中说明了理由的任何最后期限。 |
| The requested State shall respond to reasonable requests by the requesting State on progress of its handling of the request. | 被请求国应依请求国的合理要求，就其处理请求的进展情况作出答复。 |
| The requesting State shall promptly inform the requested State when the assistance sought is no longer required. | 请求国应在其不再需要被请求国提供所寻求的协助时迅速通知被请求国。 |
| 8. Mutual legal assistance may be refused: | 8. 在下列情况下可拒绝提供司法协助： |
| (a) if the request is not made in conformity with the provisions of this draft annex; | (a) 请求未按本附件草案的规定提出； |
| (b) if the requested State considers that execution of the request is likely to prejudice its sovereignty, security, ordre public or other essential interests; | (b) 被请求国认为执行请求可能损害其主权、安全、公共秩序或其他基本利益； |
| (c) if the authorities of the requested State would be prohibited by its national law from carrying out the action requested with regard to any similar offence, had it been subject to investigation, prosecution or judicial proceedings under their own jurisdiction; | (c) 被请求国的机关依其管辖权对任何类似罪行进行调查、起诉或司法程序时，其本国法律已经规定禁止对此类罪行采取被请求的行动； |
| (d) if it would be contrary to the legal system of the requested State relating to mutual legal assistance for the request to be granted. | (d) 同意这项请求将违反被请求国关于司法协助的法律制度。 |
| 9. Reasons shall be given for any refusal of mutual legal assistance. | 9. 拒绝司法协助时应说明理由。 |
| 10. Mutual legal assistance may be postponed by the requested State on the ground that it interferes with an ongoing investigation, prosecution or judicial proceeding. | 10. 被请求国可以司法协助妨碍正在进行的调查、起诉或司法程序为理由而暂缓提供司法协助。 |
| 11. Before refusing a request pursuant to paragraph 8 of this draft annex or postponing its execution pursuant to paragraph 10 of this draft annex, the requested State shall consult with the requesting State to consider whether assistance may be granted subject to such terms and conditions as it deems necessary. | 11. 被请求国在根据本附件草案第8款拒绝某项请求或者根据本附件草案第10款暂缓执行请求事项之前，应与请求国协商，以考虑是否可以在其认为必要的条款和条件下给予协助。 |
| If the requesting State accepts assistance subject to those conditions, it shall comply with the conditions. | 请求国如果接受附有条件限制的协助，则应遵守有关的条件。 |
| 12. The requested State: | 12. 被请求国： |
| (a) shall provide to the requesting State copies of government records, documents or information in its possession that under its national law are available to the general public; | (a) 应向请求国提供其所拥有的根据其本国法律可向公众提供的政府记录、文件或信息的副本； |
| and | 并且 |
| (b) may, at its discretion, provide to the requesting State in whole, in part or subject to such conditions as it deems appropriate, copies of any government records, documents or information in its possession that under its national law are not available to the general public. | (b) 可自行斟酌决定全部或部分地或者按其认为适当的条件向请求国提供其所拥有的根据其本国法律不向公众提供的任何政府记录、文件或信息的副本。 |
| Use of information by the requesting State | 请求国对信息的使用 |
| 13. The requesting State shall not transmit or use information or evidence furnished by the requested State for investigations, prosecutions or judicial proceedings other than those stated in the request without the prior consent of the requested State. | 13. 未经被请求国事先同意，请求国不得为了请求书所述以外的调查、起诉或司法程序而发送或使用被请求国提供的信息或证据。 |
| Nothing in this paragraph shall prevent the requesting State from disclosing in its proceedings information or evidence that is exculpatory to an accused person. | 本款规定不得妨碍请求国在其程序中披露可证明被告人无罪的信息或证据。 |
| In the latter case, the requesting State shall notify the requested State prior to the disclosure and, if so requested, consult with the requested State. | 就后一种情形而言，请求国应在披露之前通知被请求国，若被请求国提出磋商要求，则应与被请求国磋商。 |
| If, in an exceptional case, advance notice is not possible, the requesting State shall inform the requested State of the disclosure without delay. | 如果在特殊情况下不可能事先通知，请求国应毫不迟延地将披露一事告知被请求国。 |
| 14. The requesting State may require that the requested State keep confidential the fact and substance of the request, except to the extent necessary to execute the request. | 14. 请求国可要求被请求国对其提出请求一事及请求内容保密，但为执行请求所必需的除外。 |
| If the requested State cannot comply with the requirement of confidentiality, it shall promptly inform the requesting State. | 如果被请求国不能遵守保密要求，应立即告知请求国。 |
| Testimony of person from the requested State | 被请求国人员作证 |
| 15. Without prejudice to the application of paragraph 19 of this draft annex, a witness, expert or other person who, at the request of the requesting State, consents to give evidence in a proceeding or to assist in an investigation, prosecution or judicial proceeding in territory under the jurisdiction of the requesting State shall not be prosecuted, detained, punished or subjected to any other restriction of his or her personal liberty in that territory in respect of acts, omissions or convictions prior to his or her departure from territory under the jurisdiction of the requested State. | 15. 在不妨碍本附件草案第19款的适用的情况下，对于依请求国请求而同意到请求国所管辖领土就某项诉讼作证或者为某项调查、起诉或司法程序提供协助的证人、专家或其他人员，不应因其离开被请求国所管辖领土之前的作为、不作为或定罪而在请求国领土内对其起诉、拘留、处罚，或者使其人身自由受到任何其他限制。 |
| Such safe conduct shall cease when the witness, expert or other person having had, for a period of fifteen consecutive days or for any period agreed upon by the States from the date on which he or she has been officially informed that his or her presence is no longer required by the judicial authorities, an opportunity of leaving, has nevertheless remained voluntarily in territory under the jurisdiction of the requesting State or, having left it, has returned of his or her own free will. | 如该证人、专家或其他人员已经得到司法机关不再需要其到场的正式通知，在自通知之日起连续十五天内或在有关国家所商定的任何期限内，有机会离开但仍自愿留在请求国所管辖领土内，或者在离境后又自愿返回，这种安全保障即不再有效。 |
| 16. Wherever possible and consistent with fundamental principles of national law, when an individual is in territory under the jurisdiction of a State and has to be heard as a witness or expert by the judicial authorities of another State, the first State may, at the request of the other, permit the hearing to take place by video conference if it is not possible or desirable for the individual in question to appear in person in territory under the jurisdiction of the requesting State. | 16. 当在某一国所管辖领土内的某人须作为证人或专家接受另一国司法机关询问，而且该人不可能或不宜到请求国领土出庭时，被请求国可依该另一国的请求，在可能而且符合国内法基本原则的情况下，允许以视频会议方式进行询问。 |
| States may agree that the hearing shall be conducted by a judicial authority of the requesting State and attended by a judicial authority of the requested State. | 有关国家可商定由请求国司法机关进行询问，询问时应有被请求国司法机关人员在场。 |
| Transfer for testimony of person detained in the requested State | 在被请求国拘留的人员为作证予以移送 |
| 17. A person who is being detained or is serving a sentence in the territory under the jurisdiction of one State whose presence in another State is requested for purposes of identification, testimony or otherwise providing assistance in obtaining evidence for investigations, prosecutions or judicial proceedings in relation to offences covered by the present draft articles, may be transferred if the following conditions are met: | 17. 在一国领土内被拘留或服刑的人，如果被要求到另一国进行辨认、作证或提供其他协助，以便为就与本条款草案所述的罪行有关的调查、起诉或司法程序取得证据，在满足下列条件的情况下，可予以移送： |
| (a) the person freely gives his or her informed consent; | (a) 该人在知情后自由表示同意； |
| and | 并且 |
| (b) the competent authorities of both States agree, subject to such conditions as those States may deem appropriate. | (b) 在遵守两国认为适当的条件前提下，两国主管当局同意。 |
| 18. For the purposes of paragraph 17 of this draft annex: | 18. 为本附件草案第17款的目的： |
| (a) the State to which the person is transferred shall have the authority and obligation to keep the person transferred in custody, unless otherwise requested or authorized by the State from which the person was transferred; | (a) 该人被移送前往的国家应有权力和义务羁押被移送人，除非移送国另有要求或授权； |
| (b) the State to which the person is transferred shall without delay implement its obligation to return the person to the custody of the State from which the person was transferred as agreed beforehand, or as otherwise agreed, by the competent authorities of both States; | (b) 该人被移送前往的国家应毫不迟延地履行义务，按照两国主管当局事先达成的协议或其他协议，将该人交还移送国羁押； |
| (c) the State to which the person is transferred shall not require the State from which the person was transferred to initiate extradition proceedings for the return of the person; and | (c) 该人被移送前往的国家不得要求移送国为该人的交还而启动引渡程序； |
| (d) the person transferred shall receive credit for service of the sentence being served from the State from which he or she was transferred for time spent in the custody of the State to which he or she was transferred. | (d) 该人在被移送前往的国家的羁押时间应当折抵在移送国执行的刑期。 |
| 19. Unless the State from which a person is to be transferred in accordance with paragraphs 17 and 18 of this draft annex so agrees, that person, whatever his or her nationality, shall not be prosecuted, detained, punished or subjected to any other restriction of his or her personal liberty in territory under the jurisdiction of the State to which that person is transferred in respect of acts, omissions or convictions prior to his or her departure from territory under the jurisdiction of the State from which he or she was transferred. | 19. 除非依照本附件草案第17款和第18款的规定移送某人的国家同意，否则，不论该人国籍为何，均不得因其在离开移送国所管辖领土前的作为、不作为或定罪而在被移送前往的国家所管辖领土内使其受到起诉、拘留、处罚或对其人身自由进行任何其他限制。 |
| Costs | 费用 |
| 20. The ordinary costs of executing a request shall be borne by the requested State, unless otherwise agreed by the States concerned. | 20. 除非有关国家另有协议，执行请求的一般费用应由被请求国承担。 |
| If expenses of a substantial or extraordinary nature are or will be required to fulfil the request, the States shall consult to determine the terms and conditions under which the request will be executed, as well as the manner in which the costs shall be borne. | 如果执行请求需要或将需要支付巨额或异常费用，则应由有关国家进行协商，以确定执行该请求的条款和条件以及承担费用的办法。 |
| 2. Text of the draft articles and commentaries thereto | 2. 条款草案案文及其评注 |
| 45. The text of the draft articles, together with commentaries thereto, adopted by the Commission on second reading, is reproduced below. | 45. 委员会二读通过的条款草案案文及其评注载录如下。 |
| Prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity | 防止及惩治危害人类罪 |
| General commentary | 总评注 |
| (1) Three crimes typically have featured in the jurisdiction of international criminal courts and tribunals: genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. | (1) 有三种罪行通常属于国际性刑事法院和法庭的管辖范围：灭绝种族罪、危害人类罪和战争罪。 |
| The crime of genocide and war crimes are the subject of global conventions that require States within their national law to prevent and punish such crimes, and to cooperate among themselves toward those ends. | 灭绝种族罪 和战争罪 是一些全球性公约的主题，这些公约要求各国在国内法中防止及惩治这些罪行，并为此目的开展合作。 |
| By contrast, there is no global convention dedicated to preventing and punishing crimes against humanity and promoting inter-State cooperation in that regard, even though crimes against humanity are likely no less prevalent than genocide or war crimes. | 相比之下，虽然危害人类罪的发生率可能并不低于灭绝种族罪或战争罪，却没有一项全球性公约专门述及防止及惩治危害人类罪及促进这方面国家间合作的问题。 |
| Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity may occur in situations not involving armed conflict. | 危害人类罪与战争罪不同，可能在不涉及武装冲突的情况下发生。 |
| Further, crimes against humanity do not require the special intent that is necessary for establishing genocide. | 此外，危害人类罪也不需要确立灭绝种族罪所需的特殊意图。 |
| (2) Treaties focused on prevention, punishment and inter-State cooperation exist for many offences far less egregious than crimes against humanity, such as corruption and transnational organized crime. | (2) 许多严重程度远远不及危害人类罪的罪行，如腐败犯罪 和跨国有组织犯罪 都已订立了重在防止、惩治及国家间合作的条约。 |
| Consequently, a global convention on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity might serve as an important additional piece in the current framework of international law, and in particular, international humanitarian law, international criminal law and international human rights law. | 因此，关于防止及惩治危害人类罪的一项全球性公约可能是对现有的国际法框架，特别是国际人道法、国际刑法和国际人权法的重要补充。 |
| Such a convention could draw further attention to the need for prevention and punishment and could help States to adopt and harmonize national laws relating to such conduct, thereby opening the door to more effective inter-State cooperation on the prevention, investigation and prosecution of such crimes. | 这样的公约可推动进一步关注防止及惩治这种行为的必要性，并有助于各国通过和统一有关这种行为的国内法律，从而为防止、调查和起诉这种罪行开展更有效的国家间合作开辟途径。 |
| In building a network of cooperation, as has been done with respect to other offences, sanctuary would be denied to offenders, thereby – it is hoped – helping both to deter such conduct ab initio and to ensure accountability ex post. | 为应对其他犯罪行为，已经建立了合作网络。 如果在应对危害人类罪方面也这样做，罪犯将无藏身之地，从而有望防患于未然，并确保事发后即予追究责任。 |
| Matters not regulated by such a convention would continue to be governed by other rules of international law, including customary international law. | 不受此公约规范的事项将继续受包括习惯国际法在内的其他国际法规则管辖。 |
| (3) Hence, the proposal for this topic, as adopted by the Commission at its sixty-fifth session in 2013, states that the “objective of the International Law Commission on this topic … would be to draft articles for what would become a Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Humanity”. | (3) 因此，委员会2013年第六十五届会议通过的关于这一专题的建议指出，“国际法委员会在此专题上的目标便是起草一套条款草案，使之成为一项《防止及惩治危害人类罪公约》”。 |
| While some aspects of these draft articles may reflect customary international law, codification of existing law is not the objective of these draft articles; | 尽管这些条款草案的某些方面可能反映了习惯国际法，但是编纂现有法律并非这些条款草案的目标； |
| rather, the objective is the drafting of provisions that would be both effective and likely acceptable to States, based on provisions often used in widely adhered-to treaties addressing crimes, as a basis for a possible future convention. | 相反，目标是在普遍遵守的有关犯罪的条约的常用条款基础之上，起草那些有效且可能会为各国所接受的条款，以作为可能的未来公约之基础。 |
| Further, the draft articles are without prejudice to existing customary international law. | 并且，这些条款草案不妨碍现有的习惯国际法。 |
| In accordance with the Commission’s practice, and in advance of a decision by States as to whether to use these draft articles as the basis for a convention, the Commission has not included technical language characteristic of treaties (for example, referring to “States parties”) and has not drafted final clauses on matters such as ratification, reservations, entry into force or amendment. | 按照委员会的惯例，在各国就是否将这些条款草案作为一项公约的基础做出决定之前，委员会没有采用条约的技术性措辞(例如提及“缔约国”)，也未起草关于批准、保留、生效或修正等事项的最后条款。 |
| (4) The present draft articles avoid any conflicts with the obligations of States arising under the constituent instruments of international criminal courts and tribunals, such as the International Criminal Court (as well as “hybrid” tribunals containing a mixture of international law and national law elements). | (4) 本条款草案避免与在如国际刑事法院等国际性刑事法院和法庭(以及兼有国际法和国内法要素的“混合”法庭)的组织章程之下产生的国家义务发生冲突。 |
| Whereas the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court regulates relations between the International Criminal Court and its States parties (a “vertical” relationship), the focus of the present draft articles is on the adoption of national laws and on inter-State cooperation (a “horizontal” relationship). | 1998年《国际刑事法院罗马规约》 规范国际刑事法院与缔约国的关系(“纵向”关系)，而本条款草案的着重点则是国内法的制定和国家间的合作(“横向”关系)。 |
| Part IX of the Rome Statute on “International Cooperation and Judicial Assistance” assumes that inter-State cooperation on crimes within the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court will continue to exist without prejudice to the Rome Statute, but does not direct itself to the regulation of that cooperation. | 《罗马规约》关于“国际合作和司法协助”的第九编默示承认，在处理国际刑事法院管辖范围内的罪行问题上的国家间合作将继续存在，而不妨碍《罗马规约》，但没有对这种合作作出规定。 |
| The present draft articles address inter-State cooperation on the prevention of crimes against humanity, as well as on the investigation, apprehension, prosecution, extradition and punishment in national legal systems of persons who commit such crimes, an objective consistent with the Rome Statute. | 本条款草案既涉及在防止危害人类罪方面的国家间合作，也涉及在国家法律系统内调查、缉捕、起诉、引渡和处罚这种罪行的行为人方面的国家间合作，这是与《罗马规约》一致的目标。 |
| In doing so, the present draft articles contribute to the implementation of the principle of complementarity under the Rome Statute. | 通过这样做，本条款草案有助于实现《罗马规约》规定的补充作用原则。 |
| At the same time, the draft articles envisage obligations that may be undertaken by States whether or not they are parties to the Rome Statute. | 同时，本条款草案设想各国可能承担的义务，无论其是否为《罗马规约》缔约国。 |
| Finally, constituent instruments of international criminal courts or tribunals address the prosecution of persons for the crimes within their jurisdiction, but such instruments are not directed at steps that should be taken by States to prevent such crimes before they are committed or while they are being committed. | 最后，国际性刑事法院或法庭的组织章程处理的是对犯下其管辖内罪行的人的起诉，但这种章程并未规定国家为事先防止此类罪行或在此类罪行发生时而应采取的步骤。 |
| Preamble | 序言 |
| Mindful that throughout history millions of children, women and men have been victims of crimes that deeply shock the conscience of humanity, | 注意到有史以来，使全人类的良知深受震动的罪行残害了无数儿童、妇女和男子， |
| Recognizing that crimes against humanity threaten the peace, security and well-being of the world, | 认识到危害人类罪危及世界的和平、安全与福祉， |
| Recalling the principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations, | 忆及《联合国宪章》所载的国际法原则， |
| Recalling also that the prohibition of crimes against humanity is a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), | 又忆及禁止危害人类罪是一项一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)， |
| Affirming that crimes against humanity, which are among the most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole, must be prevented in conformity with international law, | 申明危害人类罪是整个国际社会关切的最严重罪行之一，必须按照国际法予以防止， |
| Determined to put an end to impunity for the perpetrators of these crimes and thus to contribute to the prevention of such crimes, | 决心使这些罪行的犯罪者不再逍遥法外，从而有助于防止这种犯罪， |
| Considering the definition of crimes against humanity set forth in article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, | 考虑到《国际刑事法院罗马规约》第七条所载的危害人类罪的定义， |
| Recalling that it is the duty of every State to exercise its criminal jurisdiction with respect to crimes against humanity, | 忆及每个国家都有义务对危害人类罪行使刑事管辖权， |
| Considering the rights of victims, witnesses and others in relation to crimes against humanity, as well as the right of alleged offenders to fair treatment, | 考虑到与危害人类罪相关的受害人、证人和其他人的权利以及被指控罪犯受到公平对待的权利， |
| Considering also that, because crimes against humanity must not go unpunished, the effective prosecution of such crimes must be ensured by taking measures at the national level and by enhancing international cooperation, including with respect to extradition and mutual legal assistance, | 又认为对危害人类罪绝不能听之任之不予惩罚，为确保有效起诉这种罪行，必须在国家一级采取措施并加强国际合作，包括在引渡和司法协助方面加强合作， |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) The draft preamble aims at providing a conceptual framework for the draft articles, setting out the general context in which they were elaborated and their main purposes. | (1) 序言草案旨在为本条款草案提供一个概念框架，阐述讨论本条款草案的一般背景和其主要目的。 |
| In part, it draws inspiration from language used in the preambles of international treaties relating to the most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole, including the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and the Rome Statute. | 其措辞在一定程度上受到与整个国际社会关切的最严重罪行有关的国际条约序言的启发，包括1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》和《罗马规约》。 |
| (2) The first preambular paragraph recalls the fact that, over the course of history, millions of people have been victimized by acts that deeply shock the conscience of humanity. | (2) 序言部分第一段指出了一个事实，即在历史上，使全人类的良知深受震动的行为给无数人造成了伤害。 |
| When such acts, because of their gravity, constitute egregious attacks on humankind itself, they are referred to as crimes against humanity. | 当此类行为因其严重性而构成对人类自身的严重攻击时，就称为危害人类罪。 |
| (3) The second preambular paragraph recognizes that such crimes endanger important contemporary values (“the peace, security and well-being of the world”). In so doing, this paragraph echoes the purposes set forth in Article 1 of the Charter of the United Nations, and stresses the link between the pursuit of criminal justice and the maintenance of peace and security. | (3) 序言部分第二段认识到这种罪行危及当代的重要价值观(“世界的和平、安全与福祉”)，从而就体现了《联合国宪章》第一条所载的宗旨，并强调了实现刑事正义同维护和平与安全之间的联系。 |
| (4) The third preambular paragraph recalls the principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations, which include the principle of the sovereign equality of all States and the principle that States shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations. | (4) 序言部分第三段忆及《联合国宪章》所载的国际法原则，其中包括所有国家主权平等的原则，以及各国在其国际关系上应避免威胁使用或使用武力，或以任何与联合国宗旨不符的其他方式侵害任何国家的领土完整或政治独立的原则。 |
| Thus, this preambular paragraph emphasizes, as does draft article 4, that although crimes against humanity may threaten the peace, security and well-being of the world, the prevention and punishment of such crimes must be undertaken in conformity with international law, including the rules on the threat or use of force. | 因此，和第4条草案一样，本序言段强调，尽管危害人类罪可能危及世界的和平、安全和福祉，但必须依照国际法，包括关于威胁使用或使用武力的规则，来防止及惩治这类罪行。 |
| The phrasing of this preambular paragraph is modelled on the preamble of the United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property and is consistent with the preamble of the Rome Statute. | 本序言段的措辞以《联合国国家及其财产管辖豁免公约》的序言为蓝本，并与《罗马规约》的序言一致。 |
| (5) The fourth preambular paragraph recalls also that the prohibition of crimes against humanity is not just a rule of international law; it is a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (5) 序言部分第四段又忆及禁止危害人类罪不仅是一项国际法规则，而且是一项一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| As such, this prohibition is accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. | 因此，这种禁止为各国组成的国际社会整体所接受和承认，作为一项不容减损的规范，且只能由嗣后具有同样性质的一般国际法规范方可加以更改。 |
| The Commission has previously indicated that the prohibition of crimes against humanity is “clearly accepted and recognized” as a peremptory norm of international law. | 委员会以前曾指出，禁止危害人类罪“被明确接受和承认”为一项国际法强制性规范。 |
| The International Court of Justice has found that the prohibition on certain acts, such as torture, has the character of jus cogens, which a fortiori suggests that a prohibition of the perpetration of such acts on a widespread or systematic basis amounting to crimes against humanity would also have the character of jus cogens. | 国际法院认定，禁止某些行为，例如酷刑， 具有强行法的性质， 这更加表明，对于构成危害人类罪，广泛或有系统地实施此种行为的禁止规定也具有强行法性质。 |
| The status of the prohibition on crimes against humanity as jus cogens has also been noted by regional human rights courts, international criminal courts and tribunals, and some national courts. | 区域人权法院、 国际性刑事法院和法庭 以及一些国内法院 也注意到禁止危害人类罪的强行法地位。 |
| While this preambular paragraph recalls that the prohibition of crimes against humanity is a norm of jus cogens, neither it nor the present draft articles seek to address the consequences of the prohibition having such status. | 虽然本序言段忆及禁止危害人类罪是一项强行法规范，但本段和本条款草案均无意讨论此一禁止具有这种地位的后果。 |
| (6) As indicated in draft article 1 below, the present draft articles have two overall objectives: the prevention and the punishment of crimes against humanity. | (6) 如下文第1条草案所示，本条款草案有两个总体目标：防止及惩治危害人类罪。 |
| The fifth preambular paragraph focuses upon the first of these two objectives (prevention); | 序言部分第五段侧重于这两个目标中的第一个(防止)； |
| it foreshadows obligations that appear in draft articles 3, 4 and 5 of the present draft articles by affirming that crimes against humanity must be prevented in conformity with international law. | 它与本条款草案的第3、第4和第5条草案所载的义务相对应，申明必须按照国际法防止危害人类罪。 |
| In doing so, this paragraph indicates that such crimes are among the most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole. | 因此这一段表明，此类罪行是整个国际社会关切的最严重罪行之一。 |
| (7) The sixth preambular paragraph affirms the link between the first overall objective (prevention) and the second overall objective (punishment) of the present draft articles, by indicating that prevention is advanced by putting an end to impunity for the perpetrators of such crimes. | (7) 序言部分第六段申明了本条款草案第一个总体目标(防止)与第二个总体目标(惩治)之间的联系，指出使这些罪行的犯罪者不再逍遥法外，可推动这种犯罪的防止工作。 |
| (8) The seventh preambular paragraph considers, as a threshold matter, the definition of crimes against humanity set forth in article 7 of the Rome Statute. | (8) 序言部分第七段考虑到《罗马规约》第七条所载危害人类罪定义这一出发点。 |
| This definition served as a useful model when drafting the definition contained in draft article 2 of the present draft articles and, in conjunction with draft articles 6 and 7, identifies the offences over which States must establish jurisdiction under their national criminal law. | 该定义为起草本条款草案第2条草案所载定义提供了有益的范例，并与第6和第7条草案一起，确定了各国必须在国内刑法中确立管辖权的罪行。 |
| (9) The eighth through tenth preambular paragraphs focus on the second of the two overall objectives (punishment). | (9) 序言部分第八至第十段的重点是两个总体目标中的第二个(惩治)。 |
| The eighth preambular paragraph recalls the duty of every State to exercise criminal jurisdiction with respect to crimes against humanity. | 序言部分第八段忆及每个国家都有义务对危害人类罪行使刑事管辖权。 |
| Among other things, this paragraph foreshadows draft articles 8 through 10 on the investigation of crimes against humanity, the taking of certain measures whenever an alleged offender is present, and the submission of the case to the prosecuting authorities unless the alleged offender is extradited or surrendered to another State or competent international court or tribunal. | 除其他外，这一段与第8至第10条草案相对应，它们分别涉及：调查危害人类罪，当被指控罪犯在境内时采取某些措施，以及将案件提交检察机关――除非被指控罪犯被引渡或移交给另一国家或有管辖权的国际性法院或法庭。 |
| (10) The ninth preambular paragraph notes that attention must be paid to the rights of individuals when addressing crimes against humanity. | (10) 序言部分第九段指出，在处理危害人类罪时，必须注意个人的权利。 |
| Reference to the rights of victims, witnesses and others anticipates the provisions set forth in draft article 12, including the right to complain to competent authorities, to participate in criminal proceedings, and to obtain reparation. | 所提及的受害者、证人和其他人的权利以第12条草案的规定作为呼应，其中包括向主管当局提出申诉，参与刑事程序和获得赔偿的权利。 |
| At the same time, the reference to the right of alleged offenders to fair treatment anticipates the provisions set forth in draft article 11, including the right to a fair trial and, when appropriate, access to consular authorities. | 同时，所提及的被指控罪犯受到公平对待的权利则以第11条草案的规定作为呼应，其中包括公平审判权，以及酌情与领事机构联系的权利。 |
| (11) The tenth preambular paragraph considers that the effective prosecution of crimes against humanity must be ensured, both by taking measures at the national level and by enhancing international cooperation. | (11) 序言部分第十段认为，为确保有效起诉危害人类罪，必须在国家一级采取措施并加强国际合作。 |
| Such cooperation includes cooperation with respect to extradition and mutual legal assistance, which is the focus of draft articles 13 and 14, as well as the draft annex. | 这种合作包括引渡和司法协助方面的合作，这是第13和第14条草案及附件草案的重点。 |
| Article 1 Scope | 第1条 范围 |
| The present draft articles apply to the prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity. | 本条款草案适用于防止及惩治危害人类罪。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 1 establishes the scope of the present draft articles by indicating that they apply both to the prevention and to the punishment of crimes against humanity. | (1) 第1条草案确定本条款草案的范围，即写明本条款草案适用于防止及惩治危害人类罪。 |
| Prevention of crimes against humanity is focused on precluding the commission of such offences, while punishment of crimes against humanity is focused on criminal proceedings against persons after such crimes have occurred or when they are in the process of being committed. | 防止危害人类罪所侧重的是阻止这种罪行的发生，惩治危害人类罪所侧重的是发生这种行为后或在这种行为发生过程中对有关个人的刑事程序。 |
| (2) The present draft articles focus solely on crimes against humanity, which are grave international crimes wherever they occur. | (2) 本条款草案全部侧重点就是危害人类罪，这种罪行无论发生在何地都属严重国际罪行。 |
| The present draft articles do not address other grave international crimes, such as genocide, war crimes or the crime of aggression. | 本条款草案不处理其他严重国际罪行，诸如灭绝种族罪、战争罪或侵略罪。 |
| (3) If the present draft articles ultimately serve as the basis for a convention, the obligations of a State party under that convention, unless a different intention appears, would only operate with respect to acts or facts that took place, or any situation that existed, after the convention enters into force for that State. | (3) 若本条款草案最终成为一项公约的基础，除非另有意图，缔约国在该公约之下的义务将仅适用于公约对该国生效后发生的行为或事实或存在的任何情势。 |
| Article 28 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties provides that, “[u]nless a different intention appears from the treaty or is otherwise established, its provisions do not bind a party in relation to any act or fact which took place or any situation which ceased to exist before the date of the entry into force of the treaty with respect to that party. | 1969年《维也纳条约法公约》第二十八条规定，“除条约表示不同意思，或另经确定外，关于条约对一当事国生效之日以前所发生之任何行为或事实或已不存在之任何情势，条约之规定不对该当事国发生拘束力”。 |
| ” The International Court of Justice applied article 28 with respect to a treaty addressing a crime (torture) in Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite, finding that “the obligation to prosecute the alleged perpetrators of acts of torture under the Convention applies only to facts having occurred after its entry into force for the State concerned. | 国际法院在“与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题”案中，在针对(酷刑)罪行的条约方面适用了第二十八条，法院认定，“根据《公约》起诉被指控罪犯实施酷刑的义务仅适用于《公约》对有关国家生效后发生的事实”。 |
| ” However, States would remain bound at all times by whatever obligations exist under other rules of international law, including customary international law. | 然而，各国将始终受到根据包括习惯国际法在内的其他国际法规则承担的一切义务的约束。 |
| Further, the law of treaties rule indicated above does not foreclose a State from adopting, at any time, a national law relating to crimes against humanity, so long as it is consistent with the State’s obligations under international law. | 此外，上述条约法规则不妨碍一国在任何时候通过一项与危害人类罪有关的国内法，只要该法律符合该国根据国际法承担的义务。 |
| (4) In various provisions of the present draft articles, the term “national law” is used to refer to the internal or domestic law of a State. | (4) 本条款草案各项条款中使用“国内法(national law)”一词指一国内部(internal)或国内(domestic)的法律。 |
| Use of this term is intended to cover all aspects of a State’s internal law, including the level (such as federal or provincial) at which such law should be adopted or to which it applies. | 使用这一术语旨在涵盖一国内部法律的所有方面，包括确定这种法律应在哪一级别(如联邦或省级)得到通过和适用。 |
| Article 2 Definition of crimes against humanity | 第2条 危害人类罪的定义 |
| 1. For the purpose of the present draft articles, “crime against humanity” means any of the following acts when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack: | 1. 为了本条款草案的目的，“危害人类罪”是指在广泛或有系统地针对任何平民人口进行的攻击中，在明知这一攻击的情况下，作为攻击的一部分而实施的下列任何一种行为： |
| (a) murder; | (a) 谋杀； |
| (b) extermination; | (b) 灭绝； |
| (c) enslavement; | (c) 奴役； |
| (d) deportation or forcible transfer of population; | (d) 驱逐出境或强行迁移人口； |
| (e) imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty in violation of fundamental rules of international law; | (e) 违反国际法基本规则，监禁或以其他方式严重剥夺人身自由； |
| (f) torture; | (f) 酷刑； |
| (g) rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity; | (g) 强奸、性奴役、强迫卖淫、强迫怀孕、强迫绝育或严重程度相当的任何其他形式的性暴力； |
| (h) persecution against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender, or other grounds that are universally recognized as impermissible under international law, in connection with any act referred to in this paragraph; | (h) 基于政治、种族、民族、族裔、文化、宗教、性别或公认为国际法所不容的其他理由，对任何可以识别的群体或集体进行的迫害，且与本款提及的任何一种行为有关； |
| (i) enforced disappearance of persons; | (i) 强迫人员失踪； |
| (j) the crime of apartheid; | (j) 种族隔离罪； |
| (k) other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health. | (k) 故意造成重大痛苦，或对人体或身心健康造成严重伤害的其他性质相当的不人道行为。 |
| 2. For the purpose of paragraph 1: | 2. 为了第1款的目的： |
| (a) “attack directed against any civilian population” means a course of conduct involving the multiple commission of acts referred to in paragraph 1 against any civilian population, pursuant to or in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit such attack; | (a) “针对任何平民人口进行的攻击”是指根据国家或组织攻击平民人口的政策，或为了推行这种政策，针对任何平民人口多次实施第1款所述行为的一系列行为； |
| (b) “extermination” includes the intentional infliction of conditions of life including, inter alia, the deprivation of access to food and medicine, calculated to bring about the destruction of part of a population; | (b) “灭绝”包括故意施加某种生活状况，如断绝粮食和药品来源，目的是毁灭部分的人口； |
| (c) “enslavement” means the exercise of any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership over a person and includes the exercise of such power in the course of trafficking in persons, in particular women and children; | (c) “奴役”是指对人行使附属于所有权的任何或一切权力，包括在贩卖人口，特别是贩卖妇女和儿童的过程中行使这种权力； |
| (d) “deportation or forcible transfer of population” means forced displacement of the persons concerned by expulsion or other coercive acts from the area in which they are lawfully present, without grounds permitted under international law; | (d) “驱逐出境或强行迁移人口”是指在缺乏国际法容许的理由的情况下，以驱逐或其他胁迫行为，强迫有关的人迁离其合法留在的地区； |
| (e) “torture” means the intentional infliction of severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, upon a person in the custody or under the control of the accused; | (e) “酷刑”是指故意致使在被告人羁押或控制下的人的身体或精神遭受重大痛苦； |
| except that torture shall not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in or incidental to, lawful sanctions; | 但酷刑不应包括纯因合法制裁而引起的，或这种制裁所固有或附带的痛苦； |
| (f) “forced pregnancy” means the unlawful confinement of a woman forcibly made pregnant, with the intent of affecting the ethnic composition of any population or carrying out other grave violations of international law. | (f) “强迫怀孕”是指以影响任何人口的族裔构成的目的，或以进行其他严重违反国际法的行为的目的，非法禁闭被强迫怀孕的妇女。 |
| This definition shall not in any way be interpreted as affecting national laws relating to pregnancy; | 本定义不得以任何方式解释为影响国内关于妊娠的法律； |
| (g) “persecution” means the intentional and severe deprivation of fundamental rights contrary to international law by reason of the identity of the group or collectivity; | (g) “迫害”是指违反国际法规定，针对某一群体或集体的特性，故意和严重地剥夺基本权利； |
| (h) “the crime of apartheid” means inhumane acts of a character similar to those referred to in paragraph 1, committed in the context of an institutionalized regime of systematic oppression and domination by one racial group over any other racial group or groups and committed with the intention of maintaining that regime; | (h) “种族隔离罪”是指一个种族群体对任何其他一个或多个种族群体，在一个有计划地实行压迫和统治的体制化制度下，实施与第1款所述行为性质相当的不人道行为，目的是维系该制度的存续； |
| (i) “enforced disappearance of persons” means the arrest, detention or abduction of persons by, or with the authorization, support or acquiescence of, a State or a political organization, followed by a refusal to acknowledge that deprivation of freedom or to give information on the fate or whereabouts of those persons, with the intention of removing them from the protection of the law for a prolonged period of time. | (i) “强迫人员失踪”是指国家或政治组织直接地，或在其授权、支持或默许下，逮捕、拘留或绑架人员，继而拒绝承认这种剥夺自由的行为，或拒绝透露有关人员的命运或下落，目的是将其长期置于法律保护之外。 |
| 3. This draft article is without prejudice to any broader definition provided for in any international instrument, in customary international law or in national law. | 3. 本条草案不妨碍任何国际文书、习惯国际法或国内法规定的任何更为宽泛的定义。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) The first two paragraphs of draft article 2 establish, for the purpose of the present draft articles, a definition of “crime against humanity”. | (1) 第2条草案的头两款为本条款草案的目的，确定了“危害人类罪”的定义。 |
| The text of these two paragraphs is almost verbatim the text of article 7 of the Rome Statute, with just a few changes as discussed below. | 这两款的案文几乎逐字采用了《罗马规约》第七条的案文，只有下文讨论的几处改动。 |
| Paragraph 3 of draft article 2 is a “without prejudice” clause which indicates that this definition does not affect any broader definitions provided for in international instruments, customary international law or national law. | 第2条草案第3款是一项“不妨碍”条款，表明这一定义不影响国际文书、习惯国际法和国内法规定的任何更为宽泛的定义。 |
| Definitions in other instruments | 其他文书中的定义 |
| (2) Various definitions of “crimes against humanity” have been used since 1945, both in international instruments and in national laws that have codified the crime. | (2) 1945年以来使用的“危害人类罪”的定义有多种，既见于国际文书，也见于将该罪编纂入法的国内法。 |
| The Charter of the International Military Tribunal established at Nürnberg Charter (hereinafter “Nürnberg Charter”), in article 6, subparagraph (c), defined “crimes against humanity” as: | 在纽伦堡设立的国际军事法庭的宪章(下称“《纽伦堡宪章》”)第6条(c)项将“危害人类罪”定义为： |
| murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war, or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds in execution of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal, whether or not in violation of the domestic law of the country where perpetrated. | 在战前或战时对任何一地平民之谋杀、灭绝、奴役、放逐及其他不人道之行为，或基于政治、人种或宗教原因之迫害，而此种行为之发生或迫害之实施，系随实施本法庭管辖范围内任何罪行而起或与之有关者，不论其是否违反犯罪地国之国内法规。 |
| (3) Principle VI (c) of the Commission’s 1950 Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal defined crimes against humanity as: “Murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation and other inhuman acts done against any civilian population, or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds, when such acts are done or such persecutions are carried on in execution of or in connexion with any crime against peace or any war crime”. | (3) 委员会1950年“纽伦堡法庭组织法及法庭判决中所确认之原则”原则六(三)对危害人类罪的界定是：“对任何一地平民之谋杀、灭绝、奴役、放逐及其他不人道之行为，或基于政治、人种或宗教原因之迫害，而此种行为之发生或迫害之实施，系随实施任何危害和平罪或战争罪而起或与之有关者”。 |
| (4) Furthermore, the Commission’s 1954 draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind identified as one of those offences: “Inhuman acts such as murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation or persecutions, committed against any civilian population on social, political, racial, religious or cultural grounds by the authorities of a State or by private individuals acting at the instigation or with the toleration of such authorities”. | (4) 此外，委员会1954年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》确定其中的一项罪行是：“某国当局或个人在国家当局的唆使或容忍下，基于社会、政治、种族、宗教或文化理由，对任何平民人口犯下的谋杀、灭绝、奴役、放逐或迫害等不人道行为”。 |
| (5) Article 5 of the 1993 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia stated that the Tribunal “shall have the power to prosecute persons responsible” for a series of acts (such as murder, torture, and rape) “when committed in armed conflict, whether international or internal in character, and directed against any civilian population”. | (5) 1993年《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》第5条规定，法庭“应有权对国际或国内武装冲突中犯下针对平民的”(谋杀、酷刑和强奸等)一系列行为“负有责任的人予以起诉”。 |
| Although the report of the Secretary-General of the United Nations proposing this article indicated that crimes against humanity “refer to inhumane acts of a very serious nature … committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack against any civilian population on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds”, that particular language was not included in the text of article 5. | 虽然联合国秘书长在提出该条草案的报告中指出，危害人类罪“指非常严重的不人道行为…基于民族、政治、人种、种族或宗教原因在广泛或有系统的攻击平民中…”， 但这一特定用词并未写入第5条的案文。 |
| (6) By contrast, the 1994 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, in article 3, retained the same series of acts, but the chapeau language introduced the formulation from the 1993 Secretary-General’s report of “crimes when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack against any civilian population” and then continued with “on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds”. | (6) 相反，1994年《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》第3条保留了上述的一系列行为，但起首语采用了1993年秘书长报告的用词“在广泛的或有系统的攻击平民中实施的罪行”，该条中还写明：“出于民族、政治、人种、种族或宗教原因”。 |
| As such, the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda expressly provided that a discriminatory intent was required in order to establish the crime. | 如此，《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》就明确规定了，只有具备歧视性意图，此罪方能成立。 |
| The Commission’s 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind also defined “crimes against humanity” to be a series of specified acts “when committed in a systematic manner or on a large scale and instigated or directed by a Government or by any organization or group”, but did not include the discriminatory intent language. | 委员会1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》还将“危害人类罪”定义为“有系统或大规模实行由某一政府或任何组织或团体唆使或指挥的”的一系列所指明的行为，但没有包括关于歧视性意图的表述。 |
| Crimes against humanity have also been defined in the jurisdiction of hybrid criminal courts or tribunals. | 混合刑事法院或法庭的判例也对危害人类罪下过定义。 |
| (7) Article 5, paragraph 1 (b), of the 1998 Rome Statute lists crimes against humanity as being within the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court. | (7) 1998年《罗马规约》第五条第(一)款第2项将危害人类罪列入了国际刑事法院的管辖范围。 |
| Article 7, paragraph 1, defines “crime against humanity” as any of a series of acts “when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack”. | 第七条第(一)款将“危害人类罪”定义为“在广泛或有系统地针对任何平民人口进行的攻击中，在明知这一攻击的情况下，作为攻击的一部分而实施的”一系列行为中的任何一种。 |
| Article 7, paragraph 2, contains a series of definitions which, inter alia, clarify that an attack directed against any civilian population “means a course of conduct involving the multiple commission of acts referred to in paragraph 1 against any civilian population, pursuant to or in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit such attack” (para. 2 (a)). | 第七条第(二)款载有一系列定义，除其他外，澄清了针对任何平民人口进行的攻击“指根据国家或组织攻击平民人口的政策，或为了推行这种政策，针对任何平民人口多次实施第一款所述行为的系列行为(第(二)款第1项)。 |
| Article 7, paragraph 3, provides: “[I]t is understood that the term ‘gender’ refers to the two sexes, male and female, within the context of society. | ”第七条第(三)款规定，“‘性别’一词应被理解为是指社会上的男女两性。 |
| The term ‘gender’ does not indicate any meaning different from the above”. | ‘性别’一词仅反映上述意思。 |
| Article 7, paragraph 1 (h), does not retain the nexus to an armed conflict that characterized the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, nor (except with respect to acts of persecution) the discriminatory intent requirement that characterized the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. | ”第七条第(一)款第8项并未保留《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》所下定义中特有的与武装冲突的联系，也未保留《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》特有的歧视性意图条件(关于迫害行为的规定除外)。 |
| (8) The definition of “crime against humanity” in article 7 of the Rome Statute has been accepted as of mid-2019 by 122 States parties to the Statute and is now being used by many States when adopting or amending their national laws. | (8) 截至2019年年中，《罗马规约》第七条中“危害人类罪”的定义已被该规约的122个缔约国所接受，其中许多国家在通过和修正国内法时，正在使用这一定义。 |
| The Commission considered article 7 to be an appropriate basis for defining such crimes in paragraphs 1 and 2 of draft article 2. | 委员会认为第七条是第2条草案第1和第2款定义此类罪行的适当基础。 |
| Indeed, the text of article 7 is used verbatim except for three changes. | 事实上也确实逐字采用了第七条的案文，仅有三处改动。 |
| First, the opening phrase of paragraph 1 reads “For the purpose of the present draft articles” rather than “For the purpose of this Statute”. | 第一处是，第1款起首语改为“为了本条款草案的目的”，而非“为了本规约的目的”。 |
| Second, the phrase in article 7, paragraph 1 (h), of the 1998 Rome Statute that criminalizes acts of persecution when undertaken in connection with “any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court” has not been retained for paragraph 1 (h) of draft article 2, as discussed further below. | 第二处是，1998年《罗马规约》第七条第(一)款第8项规定属于犯罪的是“与任何一种本法院管辖权内的犯罪”结合发生的迫害行为，如下文进一步讨论的那样，第2条草案第1款(h)项未保留这一短语。 |
| Third, article 7, paragraph 3, of the Rome Statute on the definition of “gender” (as well as a cross-reference to that paragraph in paragraph 1 (h)) has not been retained for draft article 2, as is also discussed further below. | 第三处是，《罗马规约》关于“性别”定义的第七条第(三)款(以及第(一)款第8项中对该款的交叉引用)，第2条草案未予保留，下文对此也做了进一步讨论。 |
| Paragraphs 1 and 2 | 第1和第2款 |
| (9) The definition of “crimes against humanity” set forth in paragraphs 1 and 2 of draft article 2 contains three overall requirements that merit some discussion. | (9) 第2条草案第1和第2款所列“危害人类罪”的定义含有三项应予讨论的总体条件。 |
| These requirements, all of which appear in paragraph 1, have been illuminated through the International Criminal Court’s “Elements of Crimes” under the Rome Statute, the case law of the International Criminal Court and other international criminal courts and tribunals, and increasingly national courts. | 这些条件均出现于第1款，已经通过国际刑事法院在《罗马规约》之下的“犯罪要件”、 国际刑事法院和其他国际性刑事法院和法庭的判例，以及越来越多的国内法院判例，得到了说明。 |
| The definition also lists the underlying prohibited acts for crimes against humanity and defines several of the terms used within the definition (thus providing definitions within the definition). | 定义还列出了危害人类罪项下禁止的各种行为，并界定了在这一定义之内使用的若干术语(亦即在定义内提供定义)。 |
| No doubt the evolving jurisprudence of the International Criminal Court and other international criminal courts and tribunals will continue to help inform national authorities, including courts, as to the meaning of this definition, and thereby will promote harmonized approaches at the national level. | 无疑，国际刑事法院和其他国际性刑事法院和法庭不断演变的判例将继续帮助包括法院在内的国内当局了解这一定义的含义，从而促进国家层面处理方法的协调。 |
| The Commission notes that relevant case law continues to develop over time, such that the following discussion is meant simply to indicate some of the parameters of these terms as of mid-2019. | 委员会注意到，相关的判例仍在随时间而发展，因此以下讨论仅是为了说明截至2019年中期这些术语的一些限制要素。 |
| “Widespread or systematic attack” | “广泛或有系统的攻击” |
| (10) The first overall requirement is that the acts must be committed as part of a “widespread or systematic” attack. | (10) 第一项总体条件是，有关行为必须是在“广泛或有系统”的攻击中实施的。 |
| This requirement first appeared in the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, although some decisions of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia maintained that the requirement was implicit even in the Statute of that tribunal, given the inclusion of such language in the Secretary-General’s report proposing that Statute. | 这一条件最初出现于《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》， 不过前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭的一些裁决认为该法庭的《规约》也已隐含这一条件，因为秘书长提出该规约的报告中也包括了这一用语。 |
| Jurisprudence of both the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda maintained that the conditions of “widespread” and “systematic” were disjunctive rather than conjunctive requirements; | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭和卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭的判例均主张，“广泛”和“有系统”这两个条件是择一条件而非联合条件； |
| either condition could be met to establish the existence of the crime. | 达到其中任意一个，即能认定犯罪成立。 |
| This reading of the widespread/systematic requirement is also reflected in the Commission’s commentary to the 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, where it stated that “an act could constitute a crime against humanity if either of these conditions [of scale or systematicity] is met”. | 对广泛/有系统条件的这一解读也反映在委员会对1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》的评注中，委员会在其中指出，“如果某一行为合乎其中[规模或系统性]任一条件，即构成危害人类罪行”。 |
| (11) When this standard was considered for the 1998 Rome Statute, some States expressed the view that the conditions of “widespread” and “systematic” should be conjunctive requirements – that they both should be present to establish the existence of the crime – because otherwise the standard would be over-inclusive. | (11) 在为1998年《罗马规约》审议这一标准时，一些国家表示认为，“广泛”和“有系统”这两个条件应当是联合条件，只有二者皆达到，才能确认罪行存在，否则这一标准的覆盖面将过宽。 |
| Indeed, if “widespread” commission of acts alone were sufficient, these States maintained that spontaneous waves of widespread, but unrelated, crimes would constitute crimes against humanity. | 的确，这些国家认为，如果仅仅“广泛”实施有关行为就足够，则同时发生的广泛但无关联的犯罪行为也会构成危害人类罪。 |
| Owing to that concern, a compromise was developed that involved leaving these conditions in the disjunctive, meaning that they are alternatives, but adding to article 7, paragraph 2 (a), of the Rome Statute a definition of “attack directed against any civilian population” which, as discussed below at paragraphs (17) to (33) of the commentary to the present draft article, contains a “State or organizational policy” element. | 出于这一关切，拟出的是折中的案文，将这些条件仍列为择一条件，即意味着它们仍是替代性的，但在《罗马规约》第七条第(二)款第1项中增加了“针对任何平民人口进行的攻击”的定义，正如下文本条款草案评注第(17)至第(33)段所讨论的，该定义中加入了一项“国家或组织的政策”要件。 |
| (12) According to the Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in Kunarac, “[t]he adjective ‘widespread’ connotes the large-scale nature of the attack and the number of its victims”. | (12) 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭在Kunarac案中指出，“‘广泛’这一形容词说明了攻击的大规模性质及其受害者人数的众多”。 |
| As such, this requirement refers to a “multiplicity of victims” and excludes isolated acts of violence, such as murder directed against individual victims by persons acting of their own volition rather than as part of a broader initiative. | 因此，这一条件指“受害者人数的众多”， 并排除了孤立的暴力行为， 例如出于本人意志而非按照某更广泛的计划而谋杀个人受害者的行为。 |
| A “widespread” attack may be “massive, frequent, carried out collectively with considerable seriousness and directed against a multiplicity of victims”. | “广泛”攻击可为“集体开展的大规模、频繁的行动，具有相当大的严重性，并针对众多的受害者”。 |
| At the same time, a single act committed by an individual perpetrator can constitute a crime against humanity if it occurs within the context of a broader campaign. | 与此同时，个人行为人实施的单一罪行，若发生在某个更广泛的运动的背景之下，也可构成危害人类罪。 |
| There is no specific numerical threshold of victims that must be met for an attack to be “widespread”. | 攻击行为不需受害者人数达到某具体下限即可属于“广泛”攻击。 |
| (13) “Widespread” can also have a geographical dimension, with the attack occurring in different locations. | (13) “广泛”亦可有地域层面的意思，指攻击发生在不同地点。 |
| Thus, in the Bemba case, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber found that there was sufficient evidence to establish that an attack was “widespread” based on reports of attacks in various locations over a large geographical area, including evidence of thousands of rapes, mass grave sites and a large number of victims. | 因此，国际刑事法院一预审分庭在Bemba案中，根据广大地域诸多地点的攻击报告，包括上千起强奸、群葬坑和大量受害者的证据，认定证据充分，足以确定有关攻击属于“广泛”攻击。 |
| Yet a large geographic area is not required; | 但所涉地域广大并不是必要条件； |
| the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia has found that the attack can be in a small geographic area against a large number of civilians. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭认定，在一较小地域内针对大量平民的攻击也属于“广泛”攻击。 |
| (14) In its Situation in the Republic of Kenya decision, the International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber indicated that “[t]he assessment is neither exclusively quantitative nor geographical, but must be carried out on the basis of the individual facts”. | (14) 国际刑事法院预审分庭在肯尼亚共和国状况案的决定中表示，“评估并非仅考察数量或地域，而是必须根据个体事实予以分析”。 |
| An attack may be widespread due to the cumulative effect of multiple inhumane acts or the result of a single inhumane act of great magnitude. | 若多起不人道行为造成累加影响，或单起不人道行为情节极为严重，有关攻击也可属于广泛攻击。 |
| (15) Like “widespread”, the term “systematic” excludes isolated or unconnected acts of violence, and jurisprudence from the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the International Criminal Court reflects a similar understanding of what is meant by the term. | (15) 与“广泛”一样，“有系统”一词也不包括孤立或没有联系的暴力行为， 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭、卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭和国际刑事法院的判例所反映的对这一术语含义的理解相似。 |
| The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia defined “systematic” as “the organised nature of the acts of violence and the improbability of their random occurrence” and found that evidence of a pattern or methodical plan establishes that an attack was systematic. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭将“有系统”定义为“暴力行为是有组织的，且不是随机发生的”， 并认定，只要有行为规律的证据或方法计划的证据，就可确定有关攻击是有系统的。 |
| Thus, the Appeals Chamber in Kunarac confirmed that “patterns of crimes – that is the non-accidental repetition of similar criminal conduct on a regular basis – are a common expression of such systematic occurrence”. | 因此，上诉分庭在Kunara案中确认，“犯罪的规律，即相似犯罪行为频频非意外地重复发生，是这种有系统攻击的一种常见表现”。 |
| The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda has taken a similar approach. | 卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭也采用了类似的处理方法。 |
| (16) Consistent with jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber in Harun found that “systematic” refers to “the organised nature of the acts of violence and improbability of their random occurrence”. | (16) 国际刑事法院一预审分庭与前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭和卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭判例保持一致，在Harun案中认定，“有系统”指“暴力行为是有组织的，且不是随机发生的。 |
| An International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber in Katanga found that the term “has been understood as either an organized plan in furtherance of a common policy, which follows a regular pattern and results in a continuous commission of acts or as ‘patterns of crimes’ such that the crimes constitute a ‘non-accidental repetition of similar criminal conduct on a regular basis’”. | ” 国际刑事法院一预审分庭在Katanga案中认定，该术语“已被理解为推行某项共同政策的有组织计划，该计划遵循某种规律，并造成有关行为得到不断实施，或被理解为导致有关犯罪构成‘相似犯罪行为频频非意外的重复发生’的‘犯罪规律’。 |
| In applying the standard, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber in Ntaganda found an attack to be systematic since “the perpetrators employed similar means and methods to attack the different locations: they approached the targets simultaneously, in large numbers, and from different directions, they attacked villages with heavy weapons, and systematically chased the population by similar methods, hunting house by house and into the bushes, burning all properties and looting”. | ” 国际刑事法院一预审分庭适用了这一标准，在Ntaganda案中认定有关攻击属于有系统攻击，因为“行为人采用了相似的方式和方法攻击不同地点：他们聚集许多人同时从不同方向逼近目标、用重武器攻击村庄，且有系统地用相似方法驱赶民众，逐户将民众驱入荒野，同时焚烧所有房地并劫掠财物”。 |
| Additionally, in the Ntaganda confirmation of charges decision, a Pre-Trial Chamber held that the attack was systematic as it followed a “regular pattern” with a “recurrent modus operandi, including the erection of roadblocks, the laying of land mines, and [the] coordinated … commission of the unlawful acts … in order to attack the non-Hema civilian population”. | 此外，一预审分庭在Ntaganda案的确认指控决定中认定，有关攻击是有系统攻击，因为攻击遵循某种“规律”，“反复采用同样的作案手法，包括设立路障、布设地雷，以及协同实施非法行为…以攻击非赫马族平民人口”。 |
| In Gbagbo, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber found an attack to be systematic when “preparations for the attack were undertaken in advance” and the attack was planned and coordinated with acts of violence revealing a “clear pattern”. | 在Gbagbo案中，国际刑事法院一预审分庭认定有关攻击属于有系统攻击，因为“攻击预先经过准备”且是有计划并协同实施的，暴力行为表现出了“明显的规律”。 |
| “Directed against any civilian population” | “针对任何平民人口” |
| (17) The second overall requirement is that the act must be committed as part of an attack “directed against any civilian population”. | (17) 第二项总体条件是，有关行为必须是作为“针对任何平民人口”的攻击的一部分实施的。 |
| Draft article 2, paragraph 2 (a), defines “attack directed against any civilian population” for the purpose of paragraph 1 as “a course of conduct involving the multiple commission of acts referred to in paragraph 1 against any civilian population, pursuant to or in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit such attack”. | 第2条草案第2款(a)项为了第1款的目的，将“针对任何平民人口进行的攻击”定义为“根据国家或组织攻击平民人口的政策，或为了推行这种政策，针对任何平民人口多次实施第1款所述行为的行为过程”。 |
| As discussed below, jurisprudence from the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, and the International Criminal Court has construed the meaning of each of these terms: “directed against”, “any”, “civilian”, “population”, “a course of conduct involving the multiple commission of acts” and “State or organizational policy”. | 如下文所讨论的，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭、卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭和国际刑事法院的判例已经解释了以下这些术语的含义：“针对”、“任何”、“平民”、“人口”、“多次实施行为的一系列行为”和“国家或组织的政策”。 |
| (18) The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia has found that the phrase “directed against” requires that civilians be the intended primary target of the attack, rather than incidental victims. | (18) 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭认定，“针对”一词要求平民是攻击的首要预定目标，而不是附带受害者。 |
| International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chambers subsequently adopted this interpretation in the Bemba case and the Situation in the Republic of Kenya case, as did the International Criminal Court Trial Chambers in the Katanga and Bemba trial judgments. | 之后，国际刑事法院预审分庭在Bemba案和肯尼亚共和国状况案中采用了这一解释， 国际刑事法院审判分庭在Katanga案和Bemba案的审判判决中也是一样。 |
| In the Bemba case, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber found that there was sufficient evidence showing the attack was “directed against” civilians of the Central African Republic. | 在Bemba案中，国际刑事法院一预审分庭认定有充分证据显示，有关攻击是“针对”中非共和国平民的。 |
| The Chamber concluded that Mouvement de libération du Congo (MLC) soldiers were aware that their victims were civilians, based on direct evidence of civilians being attacked inside their houses or in their courtyards. | 分庭根据平民在自己家中或院子里受到攻击的直接证据，断定刚果解放运动(“刚解运”)士兵知道受害者是平民。 |
| The Chamber further found that MLC soldiers targeted primarily civilians, demonstrated by an attack at one locality where the MLC soldiers did not find any rebel troops that they claimed to be chasing. | 分庭还认定，平民是刚解运士兵的首要目标，证据是刚解运士兵攻击了一处地点，却并未找到任何他们声称正在追捕的叛军部队。 |
| The term “directed” places its emphasis on the intention of the attack rather than the physical result of the attack. | “针对”一词强调攻击者的意图而非攻击的实际结果。 |
| It is the attack, not the acts of the individual perpetrator, which must be “directed against” the target population. | 必须“针对”目标人口的是攻击本身，而非个别行为人的行为。 |
| The Trial Chamber in Bemba later confirmed “that the civilian population was the primary, as opposed to incidental, target of the attack, and in turn, that the attack was directed against the civilian population in the [Central African Republic]”. | 后来，审判分庭在Bemba案中确认，“平民人口是攻击的主要而不是附带目标，因此，攻击是针对[中非共和国]平民人口的。 |
| In doing so, it explained that “[w]here an attack is carried out in an area containing both civilians and non-civilians, factors relevant to determining whether an attack was directed against a civilian population include the means and methods used in the course of the attack, the status of the victims, their number, the discriminatory nature of the attack, the nature of the crimes committed in its course, the form of resistance to the assailants at the time of the attack, and the extent to which the attacking force complied with the precautionary requirements of the laws of war”. | ” 对此，分庭解释说，“当攻击是在既有平民也有非平民的地区实施时，确定攻击是否针对平民人口的相关因素包括攻击过程中采用的方式方法、受害者的身份、人数、攻击的歧视性、攻击过程中实施的犯罪的性质、攻击时对攻击者的反抗形式、以及攻击部队在多大程度上遵守了战争法的预防要求等”。 |
| (19) The word “any” indicates that “civilian population” is to have a wide definition and hence should be interpreted broadly. | (19) “任何”一词表明“平民人口”具有广泛的定义，因此应予以广泛地解释。 |
| An attack can be committed against any civilians, “regardless of their nationality, ethnicity or other distinguishing feature”, and can be committed against either nationals or foreigners. | 实施攻击的对象可以是任何平民，“不论其属于哪个民族、族裔或具有其他特征”，而且攻击对象既可以是本国国民，也可以是外国人。 |
| Those targeted may “include a group defined by its (perceived) political affiliation”. | 攻击目标可“包括由(别人认为的)政治从属而划分的群体”。 |
| In order to qualify as a “civilian population” during a time of armed conflict, those targeted must be “predominantly” civilian in nature; | 攻击目标必须本质上“主要”是平民，才可算作武装冲突中的“平民人口”； |
| the presence of certain combatants within the population does not change its character. | 人口中有一定数量的战斗人员并不改变人口性质。 |
| This approach is in accordance with other rules arising under international humanitarian law. | 这一处理方法符合国际人道法产生的其他规则。 |
| For example, Additional Protocol I to the 1949 Geneva Conventions states: “The presence within the civilian population of individuals who do not come within the definition of civilians does not deprive the population of its civilian character”. | 例如，《1949年日内瓦四公约第一附加议定书》写道：“在平民人口中存在有不属于平民的定义范围内的人，并不使该平民人口失去其平民的性质。 |
| The Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Kayishema found that during a time of peace, “civilian” shall include all persons except those individuals who have a duty to maintain public order and have legitimate means to exercise force to that end at the time they are being attacked. | ” 卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭在Kayishema案中认定，在和平时期，“平民”一词应包括除负责维护公共秩序并为此在遇袭时有合法手段行使武力的人员之外的所有人员。 |
| The status of any given victim must be assessed at the time the offence is committed; | 分析任何给定受害者的法律身份时，必须结合罪行发生时的情况； |
| a person should be considered a civilian if there is any doubt as to his or her status. | 若对某人的法律身份存在任何疑问，应将其视为平民。 |
| (20) “Population” does not mean that the entire population of a given geographical location must be subject to the attack; | (20) “人口”一词并不意味着某给定地点的所有人口都要遭到袭击； |
| rather, the term implies the collective nature of the crime as an attack upon multiple victims. | 而是意指有关犯罪是对多名受害者的攻击，具有集体性。 |
| As the Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia noted in Gotovina, the concept means that the attack is upon more than just “a limited and randomly selected number of individuals”. | 正如前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭在Gotovina案中提到的，这一概念指攻击的受害者不只是“人数有限的随机选择的个人”。 |
| The International Criminal Court decisions in the Bemba case and the Situation in the Republic of Kenya case have adopted a similar approach, declaring that the Prosecutor must establish that the attack was directed against more than just a limited group of individuals. | 国际刑事法院在Bemba案中的决定和肯尼亚共和国状况案的决定都采用了类似处理方法，宣称检察官必须证实有关攻击针对的对象不只是一群人数有限的个人。 |
| (21) The first part of draft article 2, paragraph 2 (a), refers to “a course of conduct involving the multiple commission of acts referred to in paragraph 1 against any civilian population”. | (21) 第2条草案第2款(a)项后半部分提到“针对任何平民人口多次实施第1款所述行为的一系列行为。 |
| Although no such language was contained in the statutory definition of crimes against humanity for the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, this language reflects jurisprudence from both these tribunals, and was expressly stated in article 7, paragraph 2 (a), of the 1998 Rome Statute. | ”这种表述虽未载入前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭和卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭对危害人类罪的法定定义，但反映了这两个法庭的判例， 并明确见于1998年《罗马规约》第七条第(二)款第1项。 |
| The Elements of Crimes under the Rome Statute provides that the “acts” referred to in article 7, paragraph 2 (a), “need not constitute a military attack”. | 《罗马规约》之下的《犯罪要件》规定，第七条第(二)款第1项所述的“行为”“不需要构成军事攻击”。 |
| The Trial Chamber in Katanga stated that “the attack need not necessarily be military in nature and it may involve any form of violence against a civilian population”. | 审判分庭在Katanga案中表示“有关攻击不一定要具备军事攻击的本质，可包括任何形式的暴力侵害某平民人口的行为”。 |
| (22) The second part of draft article 2, paragraph 2 (a), states that the attack must be “pursuant to or in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit such an attack”. | (22) 第2条草案第2款(a)项前半部分指出，攻击必须是“根据国家或组织攻击平民人口的政策，或为了推行这种政策”实施的。 |
| The requirement of a “policy” element did not appear as part of the definition of crimes against humanity in the statutes of international courts and tribunals until the adoption of the Rome Statute. | 在《罗马规约》得到通过之前，各国际性法院和法庭规约对危害人类罪的定义中一直没有包括对“政策”要件的要求。 |
| While the Statutes of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda contained no policy requirement in their definition of crimes against humanity, some early jurisprudence required it. | 尽管前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭和卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约的危害人类罪定义都不包括政策要件， 但一些早期的判例要求有这一要件。 |
| Indeed, the Tadić Trial Chamber provided an important discussion of the policy element early in the work of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, one that would later influence the drafting of the Rome Statute. | 事实上，Tadić案的审判分庭在前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭工作初期就对政策要件进行了重要的讨论，这一讨论后来影响了《罗马规约》的草拟工作。 |
| The Trial Chamber found that | 审判分庭认定： |
| the reason that crimes against humanity so shock the conscience of mankind and warrant intervention by the international community is because they are not isolated, random acts of individuals but rather result from a deliberate attempt to target a civilian population. | 危害人类罪之所以如此撼动人类的良知并要求国际社会予以干预，是因为它们不是个人孤立、随机的行为，而是蓄意试图针对某平民人口的结果。 |
| Traditionally this requirement was understood to mean that there must be some form of policy to commit these acts … | 传统上，将这一条件理解为必定存在实施这些行为的某种形式的政策…。 |
| Importantly, however, such a policy need not be formalized and can be deduced from the way in which the acts occur. | 然而，重要的是，这一政策不需要具有正式的形式，而是可以从有关行为的发生方式推导得出。 |
| The Trial Chamber further noted that, because of the policy element, such crimes “cannot be the work of isolated individuals alone”. | 该审判分庭还指出，因为存在政策要件，此类犯罪“不可能仅是单独的个人所造成的”。 |
| Later jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, however, downplayed the policy element, regarding it as sufficient simply to prove the existence of a widespread or systematic attack. | 不过，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭后来在判例中淡化了政策要件，认为只要证明存在广泛或有系统的攻击就已足够。 |
| (23) Prior to the Rome Statute, the work of the Commission in its draft codes tended to require a policy element. | (23) 在《罗马规约》之前，委员会在治罪法草案的工作中常常要求政策要件。 |
| The Commission’s 1954 draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind defined crimes against humanity as: “Inhuman acts such as murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation or persecutions, committed against any civilian population on social, political, racial, religious or cultural grounds by the authorities of a State or by private individuals acting at the instigation or with the toleration of such authorities”. | 委员会1954年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》将危害人类罪定义为：“某国当局或个人在国家当局的唆使或容忍下，基于社会、政治、种族、宗教或文化理由，对任何平民人口犯下的谋杀、灭绝、奴役、放逐或迫害等不人道行为。 |
| The Commission decided to include the State instigation or tolerance requirement in order to exclude inhumane acts committed by private persons on their own without any State involvement. | ” 委员会决定加入国家唆使或容忍这一条件，以便排除个人在国家没有任何介入的情况下自行实施的不人道行为。 |
| At the same time, the definition of crimes against humanity included in the 1954 draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind did not include any requirement of scale (“widespread”) or systematicity. | 同时，1954年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》所载的危害人类罪的定义未包括任何规模(“广泛”)或系统性的条件。 |
| (24) The Commission’s 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind also recognized a policy requirement, defining crimes against humanity as “any of the following acts, when committed in a systematic manner or on a large scale and instigated or directed by a Government or by any organization or group”. | (24) 委员会1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》也承认了政策条件，将危害人类罪定义为“有系统或大规模实行由某一政府或任何组织或团体唆使或指挥的任何下列行为”。 |
| The Commission included this requirement to exclude inhumane acts committed by an individual “acting on his own initiative pursuant to his own criminal plan in the absence of any encouragement or direction from either a Government or a group or organization”. | 委员会之所以加入这一条件，是为了排除个人“按其自己的犯罪计划，出于个人自己的动机，在没有任何政府或团体或组织的任何鼓励或指挥的情况下”实施的不人道行为。 |
| In other words, the policy element sought to exclude “ordinary” crimes of individuals acting on their own initiative and without any connection to a State or organization. | 换言之，该政策要件旨在排除个人出于自身动机，在与国家或组织无关的情况下实施的“普通”罪行。 |
| (25) Draft article 2, paragraph 2 (a), contains the same policy element as set forth in article 7, paragraph 2 (a), of the 1998 Rome Statute. | (25) 第2条草案第2款(a)项载有与1998年《罗马规约》第七条第(二)款第1项所列的同样的政策要件。 |
| The Elements of Crimes under the Rome Statute provide that a “‘policy to commit such attack’ requires that the State or organization actively promote or encourage such an attack against a civilian population”, and that “a policy may, in exceptional circumstances, be implemented by a deliberate failure to take action, which is consciously aimed at encouraging such attack”. | 《罗马规约》之下的《犯罪要件》规定，“‘攻击平民人口的政策’要求‘国家或组织积极推动或鼓励这种攻击平民人口的行为’” 且“在特殊情况下，这种政策的实施方式可以是故意不采取行动，刻意以此助长这种攻击”。 |
| (26) This “policy” element has been addressed in several cases at the International Criminal Court. | (26) 国际刑事法院的若干案件都涉及了这一“政策”要件。 |
| In the 2014 judgment in Katanga, an International Criminal Court Trial Chamber stressed that the policy requirement is not synonymous with “systematic”, since that would contradict the disjunctive requirement in article 7 of the 1998 Rome Statute of a “widespread” or “systematic” attack. | 在Katanga案2014年的判决中，国际刑事法院一审判分庭强调，政策条件与“有系统”条件的意义并不相同，若是相同就会违背1998年《罗马规约》第七条对攻击的“广泛”或“有系统”择一的要求。 |
| Rather, while “systematic” requires high levels of organization and patterns of conduct or recurrence of violence, to “establish a ‘policy’, it need be demonstrated only that the State or organisation meant to commit an attack against a civilian population. | “有系统”要求的是高度的组织性和行为的规律或暴力的反复发生， 而要“确定存在‘政策’，则只需证明国家或组织有意对平民人口实施攻击。 |
| An analysis of the systematic nature of the attack therefore goes beyond the existence of any policy seeking to eliminate, persecute or undermine a community”. | 因此，分析有关攻击是否具有系统性，不仅是确定是否存在任何旨在消灭、迫害或损害某一社群的政策。 |
| Further, the “policy” requirement does not require formal designs or pre-established plans, can be implemented by action or inaction, and can be inferred from the circumstances. | ” 此外，“政策”条件不要求有正式的设计或预先制定的计划，可以由作为或者不作为实现，也可从有关情况推导得出。 |
| The Trial Chamber found that the policy need not be formally established or promulgated in advance of the attack and can be deduced from the repetition of acts, from preparatory activities, or from a collective mobilization. | 审判分庭认定，政策不需要在攻击之前正式推行或颁布，可从有关行为的重复发生、从准备活动，或从集体动员中推导得出。 |
| Moreover, the policy need not be concrete or precise, and it may evolve over time as circumstances unfold. | 此外，政策不需要具体或精确，且可随着时间的推移根据情况的发展而变化。 |
| Furthermore, the Trial Chamber in Bemba held that the requirement that the course of conduct was committed pursuant to or in furtherance of the State or organizational policy is satisfied not only where a perpetrator deliberately acts to further the policy, but also where a perpetrator has engaged in conduct envisaged by the policy, and with knowledge thereof. | 另外，审判分庭在Bemba案中认为，根据国家和组织政策或为推行这种政策而实施一系列行为的要求在下列情况下均得到满足：其一是行为者为推行政策而蓄意为之，其二是行为者在明知的情况下实施了政策所设想的行为。 |
| (27) Similarly, in its decision confirming the indictment of Laurent Gbagbo, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber held that “policy” should not be conflated with “systematic”. | (27) 同样，国际刑事法院一预审分庭在确认起诉Laurent Gbagbo的决定中强调，“政策”不应与“系统性”混淆。 |
| Specifically, the Trial Chamber stated that “evidence of planning, organisation or direction by a State or organisation may be relevant to prove both the policy and the systematic nature of the attack, although the two concepts should not be conflated as they serve different purposes and imply different thresholds under article 7 (1) and (2) (a) of the Statute”. | 具体而言，审判分庭表示，“国家或组织计划、组织或指挥有关攻击的证据可能与证明攻击的政策性和系统性有关，但这两个概念目的不同，并且在《规约》第七条第(一)款和第(二)款第1项下分别指不同的门槛，因此不应混淆”。 |
| The policy element requires that the acts be “linked” to a State or organization, and it excludes “spontaneous or isolated acts of violence”, but a policy need not be formally adopted and proof of a particular rationale or motive is not required. | 政策要件要求有关行为与国家和组织“相关联”， 且排除了“自发或孤立的暴力行为”，但政策本身并不需要得到正式通过，且不需要证明存在具体的理由或动机。 |
| In the Bemba case, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber found that the attack was pursuant to an organizational policy based on evidence establishing that the MLC troops “carried out attacks following the same pattern”. | 在Bemba案中，国际刑事法院一预审分庭根据刚解运部队“遵循同一规律实施攻击”的证据认定，有关攻击是按照组织政策实施的。 |
| The Trial Chamber later found that the MLC troops knew that their individual acts were part of a broader attack directed against the civilian population in the Central African Republic. | 审判分庭后来认为，刚解运部队知道他们的具体行为是对中非共和国平民人口实施的广泛攻击的一部分。 |
| (28) The second part of draft article 2, paragraph 2 (a), refers to either a “State” or “organizational” policy to commit such an attack, as does article 7, paragraph 2 (a), of the 1998 Rome Statute. | (28) 第2条草案第2款(a)项前半部分提到“国家”或“组织”攻击平民人口的政策，与1998年《罗马规约》第七条第(二)款第1项相同。 |
| In its Situation in the Republic of Kenya decision, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber suggested that the meaning of “State” in article 7, paragraph 2 (a), is “self-explanatory”. | 国际刑事法院一预审分庭在肯尼亚共和国状况案的决定中表示，第七条第(二)款第1项中“国家”的含义是“不言自明的”。 |
| The Chamber went on to note that a policy adopted by regional or local organs of the State could satisfy the requirement of State policy. | 该分庭随后指出，国家区域机关或地方机关通过的政策可以满足国家政策这一条件。 |
| (29) Jurisprudence from the International Criminal Court suggests that “organizational” includes any organization or group with the capacity and resources to plan and carry out a widespread or systematic attack. | (29) 国际刑事法院的判例显示，“组织”包括任何有能力和资源计划和实施广泛或有系统攻击的组织或团体。 |
| For example, a Pre-Trial Chamber in Katanga stated: “Such a policy may be made either by groups of persons who govern a specific territory or by any organisation with the capability to commit a widespread or systematic attack against a civilian population”. | 例如，一预审分庭在Katanga案中表示：“制定这种政策的，可以是管理某特定地区的人群，或任何有能力针对平民人口实施广泛或有系统攻击的组织”。 |
| An International Criminal Court Trial Chamber in Katanga held that the organization must have “sufficient resources, means and capacity to bring about the course of conduct or the operation involving the multiple commission of acts” and “a set of structures or mechanisms, whatever those may be, that are sufficiently efficient to ensure the coordination necessary to carry out an attack directed against a civilian population”. | 国际刑事法院一审判分庭在Katanga案中裁定，有关组织必须具有“充足的资源、手段和能力，能够实现涉及多次实施有关行为的系列行为或行动”和“一系列足够高效的结构或机制，无论是哪种结构或机制，要能确保具备实施针对平民人口的攻击所需的协调”。 |
| (30) In its Situation in the Republic of Kenya decision, a majority of an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber rejected the idea that “only State-like organizations may qualify” as organizations for the purpose of article 7, paragraph 2 (a), and further stated that “the formal nature of a group and the level of its organization should not be the defining criterion. | (30) 在肯尼亚共和国状况案的决定中，国际刑事法院一预审分庭的多数意见不同意“只有类似国家的组织才可算作”符合第七条第(二)款第1项的组织，并进而指出，“团体是否具有正式性质及其组织性的高低不应成为决定性标准。 |
| Instead … a distinction should be drawn on whether a group has the capability to perform acts which infringe on basic human values”. | 反之…应当区分有关团体是否有能力从事违反基本人类价值观的行为”。 |
| In 2012, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber in Ruto stated that, when determining whether a particular group qualifies as an “organization” under article 7 of the 1998 Rome Statute: | 2012年，国际刑事法院一预审分庭在Ruto案中表示，在确定某团体是否属于1998年《罗马规约》第七条所指的“组织”时： |
| the Chamber may take into account a number of factors, inter alia: (i) whether the group is under a responsible command, or has an established hierarchy; | 分庭可考虑若干因素，除其他外：(一) 有关团体是否由负责任的领导指挥，或具备既定的等级结构； |
| (ii) whether the group possesses, in fact, the means to carry out a widespread or systematic attack against a civilian population; | (二) 有关团体事实上是否具备针对平民人口实施广泛或有系统攻击的手段； |
| (iii) whether the group exercises control over part of the territory of a State; | (三) 有关团体是否控制着一国的部分领土； |
| (iv) whether the group has criminal activities against the civilian population as a primary purpose; | (四) 有关团体是否将针对平民人口的犯罪活动作为首要目标； |
| (v) whether the group articulates, explicitly or implicitly, an intention to attack a civilian population; | (五) 有关团体是否明确或隐晦地表露了攻击平民人口的意图； |
| (vi) whether the group is part of a larger group, which fulfils some or all of the abovementioned criteria. | (六) 有关团体是否属于某符合上述部分或全部标准的更大团体。 |
| (31) As a consequence of the “policy” potentially emanating from a non-State organization, the definition set forth in paragraphs 1 and 2 of draft article 2 does not require that the offender be a State official or agent. | (31) 由于“政策”也可出自非国家组织，第2条草案第1和第2款所载定义并不要求犯罪人是国家官员或代理人。 |
| This approach is consistent with the development of crimes against humanity under international law. | 这一处理方法与国际法之下危害人类罪的发展情况相符。 |
| The Commission, commenting in 1991 on the draft provision on crimes against humanity for what would become the 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, stated that “the draft article does not confine possible perpetrators of the crimes to public officials or representatives alone” and that it “does not rule out the possibility that private individuals with de facto power or organized in criminal gangs or groups might also commit the kind of systematic or mass violations of human rights covered by the article; in that case, their acts would come under the draft Code”. | 1991年，委员会在评论关于危害人类罪条文草案(最终形成1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》)时表示：“本条草案没有把可能犯此种罪行的人仅仅局限于政府官员或代表”，且“没有排除这样的可能性：具有实际权力或者加入犯罪团伙或集团的个人也能够犯下本条规定的那种系统性或大规模侵害人权的行为，遇此情况，他们的行为即属治罪法草案的范围”。 |
| As discussed previously, the 1996 draft Code added the requirement that, to be crimes against humanity, the inhumane acts must be “instigated or directed by a Government or by any organization or group”. | 如先前讨论的，1996年《治罪法草案》增加了一项条件，即不人道行为要构成危害人类罪，必须是“由某一政府或任何组织或团体唆使或指挥的”。 |
| In its commentary to this requirement, the Commission noted: “The instigation or direction of a Government or any organization or group, which may or may not be affiliated with a Government, gives the act its great dimension and makes it a crime against humanity imputable to private persons or agents of a State”. | 委员会在对这一条件的评注中指出：“政府或不管是否附属于政府的任何组织或团体的唆使或指挥，使此种行为与其高度相关，并使这种行为变成可归于个人或国家代理人员的危害人类罪行”。 |
| While an organized criminal group or gang normally does not commit the kind of widespread or systematic violations covered by draft article 2, it might in certain circumstances. | 尽管有组织犯罪集团或团伙通常不会实施第2条草案规定的这种广泛或有系统的暴行，但某些情况下也可能这样做。 |
| (32) Jurisprudence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia accepted the possibility of non-State actors being prosecuted for crimes against humanity. | (32) 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭判例接受以危害人类罪起诉非国家行为体的可能性。 |
| For example, a Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in the Tadić case stated that, “the law in relation to crimes against humanity has developed to take into account forces which, although not those of the legitimate government, have de facto control over, or are able to move freely within, defined territory”. | 例如，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭一审判分庭在Tadić案中表示，“危害人类罪方面的法律已经有所发展，纳入了虽不隶属于合法政府但实际上控制着指定领土，或者可在该领土上自由行动的军事力量”。 |
| That finding was echoed in the Limaj case, where the Trial Chamber viewed the defendant members of the Kosovo Liberation Army as prosecutable for crimes against humanity. | 这一裁决在Limaj案中得到了响应，该案审判分庭认为能够以危害人类罪起诉科索沃解放军的被告成员。 |
| (33) In the Ntaganda case at the International Criminal Court, charges were confirmed against a defendant associated with two paramilitary groups, the Union des patriotes congolais and the Forces patriotiques pour la libération du Congo in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. | (33) 国际刑事法院在Ntaganda案中，确认了对一名与刚果民主共和国境内的刚果爱国者联盟和争取刚果自由爱国力量这两个准军事团体有关的被告的多项指控。 |
| Similarly, in the Mbarushimana case, the prosecutor pursued charges against a defendant associated with the Forces démocratiques de libération du Rwanda, described, according to its statute, as an “armed group seeking to ‘reconquérir et défendre la souveraineté nationale’ of Rwanda”. | 同样，在Mbarushimana案中，检察官对一名与解放卢旺达民主力量有关的被告提出了多项指控，根据该组织条例的描述，这一组织是“旨在‘收回和保卫’卢旺达‘国家主权’的武装团体”。 |
| In the case against Joseph Kony relating to the situation in Uganda, the defendant is allegedly associated with the Lord’s Resistance Army, “an armed group carrying out an insurgency against the Government of Uganda and the Ugandan Army” which “is organised in a military-type hierarchy and operates as an army”. | 在与乌干达状况有关的诉Joseph Kony案中，被告据称与圣灵抵抗军这一“对乌干达政府和乌干达军队实施叛乱的武装团体” 有关，该团体“组织结构采用军事化的等级划分并作为军队从事活动”。 |
| With respect to the situation in Kenya, a Pre-Trial Chamber confirmed charges of crimes against humanity against defendants due to their association in a “network” of perpetrators “comprised of eminent [Orange Democratic Movement Party (ODM)] political representatives, representatives of the media, former members of the Kenyan police and army, Kalenjin elders and local leaders”. | 关于肯尼亚的状况，一预审分庭确认了对多名被告的危害人类罪指控，因为他们与一“系列”行为人有关，“包括知名的[橙色民主运动(橙民运)]政党代表、媒体代表、肯尼亚前警员和军人、卡伦金长老和地方领袖”。 |
| Likewise, charges were confirmed with respect to other defendants associated with “coordinated attacks that were perpetrated by the Mungiki and pro-Party of National Unity (‘PNU’) youth in different parts of Nakuru and Naivasha” that “were targeted at perceived (ODM) supporters using a variety of means of identification such as lists, physical attributes, roadblocks and language”. | 同样，对其他被告的指控也得到了确认，这些被告涉嫌参与“群众帮与民族团结党青年在纳库鲁和奈瓦沙不同地区使用查询名单、辨别外貌、设置路障和辨识语言等多种识别手段，针对其认为的[橙民运]支持者的协同攻击”。 |
| “With knowledge of the attack” | “在明知这一攻击的情况下” |
| (34) The third overall requirement is that the perpetrator must commit the act “with knowledge of the attack”. | (34) 第三项总体条件是，行为人必须是“在明知这一攻击的情况下”实施有关行为。 |
| Jurisprudence from the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda has concluded that the perpetrator must have knowledge that there is an attack on the civilian population and, further, that his or her act is a part of that attack. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭和卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭的判例断定，行为人必须对攻击平民人口一事知情，且明知自身的行为就是该攻击的一部分。 |
| This two-part approach is reflected in the Elements of Crimes under the 1998 Rome Statute, which requires as the last element for each of the proscribed acts: “The perpetrator knew that the conduct was part of or intended the conduct to be part of a widespread or systematic attack against a civilian population”. | 1998年《罗马规约》之下的《犯罪要件》反映了这一“两部分”处理方法，规定每项禁止的行为的最后一项要件均为：“行为人知晓有关行为是对平民人口广泛或有系统的攻击的一部分，或有意让有关行为成为上述攻击的一部分”。 |
| Even so, | 即便如此， |
| the last element should not be interpreted as requiring proof that the perpetrator had knowledge of all characteristics of the attack or the precise details of the plan or policy of the State or organization. | 最后一项要件不应被解释为必须证明行为人知道攻击的所有特性，或国家或组织的计划或政策的详情。 |
| In the case of an emerging widespread or systematic attack against a civilian population, the intent clause of the last element indicates that this mental element is satisfied if the perpetrator intended to further such an attack. | 如果广泛或有系统地针对平民人口进行攻击为新出现的情况，最后一项要件的故意要素是指，行为人如果有意推行这种攻击，即具备这一心理要件。 |
| (35) In its decision confirming the charges against Laurent Gbagbo, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber found that “it is only necessary to establish that the person had knowledge of the attack in general terms”. | (35) 国际刑事法院一预审分庭在确认对Laurent Gbagbo的指控的决定中认定，“仅需确证该人大体上知道攻击之事”。 |
| Indeed, it need not be proven that the perpetrator knew the specific details of the attack; | 实际上，不需要证明行为人知悉攻击的具体细节； |
| rather, the perpetrator’s knowledge may be inferred from circumstantial evidence. | 相反，行为人知情与否可以从间接证据推导得出。 |
| Thus, when finding in the Bemba case that the MLC troops acted with knowledge of the attack, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber stated that the troops’ knowledge could be “inferred from the methods of the attack they followed”, which reflected a clear pattern. | 因此，国际刑事法院一预审分庭在Bemba案中认定刚解运部队在行事时对攻击知情，同时指出部队的知情可从“他们采取的攻击方法中推导得出”，这些攻击方法反映出了明确的规律。 |
| In the Katanga case, an International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber found that | 在Katanga案中，国际刑事法院一预审分庭认定： |
| knowledge of the attack and the perpetrator’s awareness that his conduct was part of such attack may be inferred from circumstantial evidence, such as: the accused’s position in the military hierarchy; | 对攻击知情与否，以及行为人是否意识到自己的行为是此种攻击的一部分，可从间接证据推导得出，例如：被告在军队等级中的位置； |
| his assuming an important role in the broader criminal campaign; | 他在更广泛的犯罪活动中是否发挥重要作用； |
| his presence at the scene of the crimes; | 他是否出现在犯罪现场； |
| his references to the superiority of his group over the enemy group; | 他是否提到本人所属团体比敌对团体优越； |
| and the general historical and political environment in which the acts occurred. | 以及发生有关行为的总体历史和政治环境。 |
| (36) Furthermore, the personal motive of the perpetrator for taking part in the attack is irrelevant; | (36) 再者，行为人参与攻击的个人动机无关紧要； |
| the perpetrator does not need to share the purpose or goal of the broader attack. | 行为人不需要拥有与更广泛攻击相同的目的或目标。 |
| According to the Appeals Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in Kunarac, evidence that the perpetrator committed the prohibited acts for personal reasons could at most “be indicative of a rebuttable assumption that he was not aware that his acts were part of that attack”. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭上诉分庭在Kunarac案中指出，证明行为人是出于个人原因实施违禁行为的证据最多可以“表示存在一种可反驳的假定，即他没有意识到自己的行为是有关攻击的一部分”。 |
| It is the perpetrator’s knowledge or intent that his or her act is part of the attack that is relevant to satisfying this requirement. | 行为人知道自己的行为是攻击的一部分或有意让自己的行为成为攻击的一部分，这才是与满足这一条件有关的问题。 |
| Additionally, this element will be satisfied where it can be proven that the underlying offence was committed by directly taking advantage of the broader attack, or where the commission of the underlying offence had the effect of perpetuating the broader attack. | 此外，若能证明所涉罪行是直接利用更广泛攻击实施的，或其实施有延长更广泛攻击的效果，亦能满足这一要件。 |
| For example, in the Kunarac case, the perpetrators were accused of various forms of sexual violence, acts of torture, and enslavement in regard to Muslim women and girls. | 例如，在Kunarac案中，行为人被指控犯下各种形式的针对穆斯林妇女和女童的性暴力、酷刑行为和奴役。 |
| A Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found that the accused had the requisite knowledge because they not only knew of the attack against the Muslim civilian population, but also perpetuated the attack “by directly taking advantage of the situation created” and “fully embraced the ethnicity-based aggression”. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭一审判分庭认定，被告满足知情这一要件，因为他们不仅了解对穆斯林平民人口的攻击，还“直接利用攻击所创造的局面”延长了攻击，并“充分接受这一基于族裔的侵略行为”。 |
| Likewise, an International Criminal Court Trial Chamber has held that the perpetrator must know that the act is part of the widespread or systematic attack against the civilian population, but the perpetrator’s motive is irrelevant for the act to be characterized as a crime against humanity. | 同样，国际刑事法院一审判分庭认定，行为人必须知道有关行为是针对平民人口的广泛或有系统攻击的一部分，但行为人的动机与是否将有关行为定为危害人类罪无关。 |
| It is not necessary for the perpetrator to have knowledge of all the characteristics or details of the attack, nor is it required for the perpetrator to subscribe to the “State or the organisation’s criminal design”. | 行为人不需要了解攻击的所有特点或详情，也不需要赞同“国家或组织的犯罪设想”。 |
| Prohibited acts | 禁止的行为 |
| (37) Like article 7 of the 1998 Rome Statute, draft article 2, paragraph 1, at subparagraphs (a)–(k), lists the prohibited acts for crimes against humanity. | (37) 与1998年《罗马规约》第七条相同，第2条草案第1款(a)项至(k)项列出了所禁止的危害人类罪行为。 |
| These prohibited acts also appear as part of the definition of crimes against humanity contained in article 18 of the Commission’s 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, although the language differs slightly. | 这些禁止的行为也出现在委员会1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第18条所载的危害人类罪的定义中，但用语略有不同。 |
| An individual who commits one of these acts can commit a crime against humanity; | 个人实施这些行为之一，即可构成犯危害人类罪； |
| the individual need not have committed multiple acts, but the individual’s act must be “part of” a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population. | 该人的行为不必是多项行为，但行为必须是针对任何平民人口的广泛或有系统攻击的“一部分”。 |
| Determining whether the requisite nexus exists requires making “an objective assessment, considering, in particular, the characteristics, aims, nature and/or consequences of the act. | 要确定是否存在必要的联系，需要开展“客观的评估，特别是要考虑行为的特点、目的、性质和/或后果。 |
| Isolated acts that clearly differ in their context and circumstances from other acts that occur during an attack fall outside the scope of” draft article 2, paragraph 1. | 孤立行为所处的背景和情形明显不同于攻击期间发生的其他行为，不属于第2条草案第1款的范围”。 |
| The offence does not need to be committed in the heat of the attack against the civilian population to satisfy this requirement; | 要满足这一条件，所涉罪行并不需要是在对平民人口的攻击最激烈时实施的； |
| the offence can be part of the attack if it can be sufficiently connected to the attack. | 只要可以充分将其与攻击联系起来，就可以是攻击的一部分。 |
| (38) Two aspects of these subparagraphs bear mention. | (38) 上述几项案文中有两个方面值得提及。 |
| First, with respect to subparagraph (h), article 7, paragraph 1 (h), of the 1998 Rome Statute that criminalizes acts of persecution when undertaken in connection with “any act referred to in this paragraph or any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court”. | 首先是(h)项：1998年《罗马规约》第七条第(一)款第8项规定属于犯罪的是与“任何一种本款提及的行为或任何一种本法院管辖权内的犯罪”结合发生的迫害行为。 |
| The clause “or any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court” has not been retained for paragraph 1 (h) of draft article 2. | 第2条草案第1款(h)项未保留“或任何一种本法院管辖权内的犯罪”这一短语。 |
| The Commission considered this clause to be designed to establish a specific jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court and not to indicate the scope of what should constitute persecution as a crime against humanity more generally or for purposes of national law. | 委员会认为该短语旨在确立国际刑事法院特定的管辖权，而不是为了指明在更普遍意义上或为国内法之目的，构成危害人类罪的迫害行为的范围。 |
| Such a clause is not used as a jurisdictional threshold for other contemporary international criminal tribunals. | 当代其他国际性刑事法庭没有采用此种短语作为管辖权的门槛。 |
| At the same time, the clause “in connection with any act referred to in this paragraph” has been retained due to: (a) a concern that otherwise the text would bring within the definition of crimes against humanity a wide range of discriminatory practices that do not necessarily amount to crimes against humanity; | 与此同时，“与本款提及的任何一种行为有关”一语得到保留，原因有二：(a) 担心若不予保留，案文会将多种未必构成危害人类罪的歧视性做法纳入危害人类罪的定义； |
| and (b) a recognition that subparagraph 1 (k) encompasses, in accordance with its terms, other inhumane acts. | (b) 确认第1款(k)项依照其规定涵盖其他不人道行为。 |
| As such, the “in connection with any act referred to in this paragraph” clause provides guidance as to the nature of the persecution that constitutes a crime against humanity, specifically persecutory acts of a similar character and severity to those acts listed in the other subparagraphs of paragraph 1. | 这样，“与本款提及的任何一种行为有关”这一短语就构成危害人类罪的迫害行为的性质提供指导，具体而言是与第1款其他各项所列行为的性质和严重程度相似的迫害行为。 |
| Separately, it is noted that the clause “or other grounds …” in subparagraph (h) allows for persecution on grounds other than those expressly listed, provided that such grounds “are universally recognized as impermissible under international law”. | 另外需指出，(h)项中“或其他理由…”一语留有余地，包含了明确列出的理由之外的其他理由的迫害，只要这些理由“公认为国际法所不容”。 |
| Certain other grounds have been suggested in this regard, such as persecution in the form of acts targeting children on the basis of age or birth. | 已就此提出某些其他理由，例如基于年龄或出生针对儿童的迫害行为。 |
| (39) Second, with respect to subparagraph (k) on “other inhumane acts”, it is noted that the Elements of Crimes under the 1998 Rome Statute provide for the following requirements to constitute a crime against humanity: | (39) 其次，对于涉及“其他不人道行为”的(k)项，1998年《罗马规约》之下的《犯罪要件》规定，构成危害人类罪需满足下列条件： |
| (1) The perpetrator inflicted great suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health, by means of an inhumane act. | (1) 行为人以不人道行为造成重大痛苦，或对人体或精神或身体健康造成严重伤害。 |
| (2) Such act was of a character similar to any other act referred to in article 7, paragraph 1, of the Statute. | (2) 行为的性质与《规约》第七条第(一)款提及的任何其他行为相当。 |
| (3) The perpetrator was aware of the factual circumstances that established the character of the act. | (3) 行为人知道确定行为的性质的事实情况。 |
| (4) The conduct was committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against a civilian population. | (4) 实施的行为属于广泛或有系统地针对平民人口进行的攻击的一部分。 |
| (5) The perpetrator knew that the conduct was part of or intended the conduct to be part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against a civilian population. | (5) 行为人知道或有意使该行为属于广泛或有系统地针对平民人口进行的攻击的一部分。 |
| Definitions within the definition | 定义内的定义 |
| (40) As noted above, draft article 2, paragraph 2 (a), defines “attack directed against any civilian population” for the purpose of draft article 2, paragraph 1. | (40) 如上文所述，为了第2条草案第1款的目的，第2条草案第2款(a)项界定了“针对任何平民人口进行的攻击”。 |
| The remaining subparagraphs (b)–(i) of draft article 2, paragraph 2, define further terms that appear in paragraph 1, specifically: “extermination”; “enslavement”; “deportation or forcible transfer of population”; | 第2条草案第2款余下的(b)项至(i)项界定了第1款中出现的其他术语，具体是：“灭绝”、“奴役”、“驱逐出境或强行迁移人口”、“酷刑”、“强迫怀孕”、“迫害”、“种族隔离罪”，以及“强迫人员失踪”。 |
| “torture”; “forced pregnancy”; “persecution”; “the crime of apartheid”; | |
| and “enforced disappearance of persons”. These definitions also appear in article 7 of the 1998 Rome Statute and were viewed by the Commission as relevant for retention in draft article 2. | 这些定义也见于1998年《罗马规约》第七条，委员会认为有必要在第2条草案中予以保留。 |
| (41) Article 7, paragraph 3, of the 1998 Rome Statute provides for the purposes of that Statute a definition of “gender” as referring “to the two sexes, male and female, within the context of society. | (41) 1998年《罗马规约》第七条第(三)款为该规约的目的规定，“性别”的定义是指“社会语境下的男女两性。 |
| The term ‘gender’ does not indicate any meaning different from the above”. | ‘性别’一词仅反映上述意思”。 |
| That paragraph (as well as a cross-reference to that paragraph in article 7, paragraph 1 (h)), has not been retained in draft article 2. | 该条款(以及第七条第(一)款第8项中对该款的交叉引用)在第2条草案未予保留。 |
| Since the adoption of the Rome Statute, several developments in international human rights law and international criminal law have occurred, reflecting the current understanding as to the meaning of the term “gender”, notably: the 2004 guidance document by the International Committee of the Red Cross; | 自《罗马规约》通过以来，国际人权法和国际刑法出现了若干发展，反映了对“性别”一词含义的当代解读，主要有：2004年红十字国际委员会的指导文件； |
| the 2010 Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women general recommendation No. 28; | 2010年消除对妇女歧视委员会第28号一般性建议； |
| the 2011 Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence; | 2011年《欧洲委员会防止和打击暴力侵害妇女行为及家庭暴力公约》； |
| and recent reports of United Nations special rapporteurs or independent experts. | 以及联合国特别报告员或独立专家近期的报告。 |
| Moreover, the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court in 2014 issued the “Policy paper on sexual and gender-based crimes”, which states: | 此外，国际刑事法院检察官办公室于2014年发布了“关于性犯罪和基于性别的犯罪的政策文件”，其中指出： |
| Article 7 (3) of the Statute defines “gender” as referring to “the two sexes, male and female, within the context of society. | 《规约》第七条第(三)款规定，“性别”的定义是指“社会语境下的男女两性。 |
| The term ‘gender’ does not indicate any meaning different from the above. | ‘性别’一词仅反映上述意思。 |
| ” This definition acknowledges the social construction of gender and the accompanying roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes assigned to women and men, and girls and boys. | ”该定义承认性别的社会构建，以及分派给妇女和男子及女童和男童的相应角色、行为、活动和特质。 |
| The Office will apply and interpret this in accordance with internationally recognised human rights pursuant to article 21(3) [of the 1998 Rome Statute]. | 对此，本办公室将依照[1998年《罗马规约》]第二十一条第(三)款，根据国际上承认的人权，加以适用和解释。 |
| A similar approach of viewing gender as a socially constructed (rather than biological) concept has been taken by various other international authorities and in the jurisprudence of international criminal courts and tribunals. | 其他各类国际机构 及国际性刑事法院和法庭在判例中 也采取了类似办法，认为性别是一个社会构建(而非生物学)概念。 |
| (42) Accordingly, the Commission decided not to include the definition of “gender” found in article 7, paragraph 3, of the 1998 Rome Statute, thereby allowing the term to be applied for the purposes of the present draft articles based on an evolving understanding as to its meaning. | (42) 因此，委员会决定不列入1998年《罗马规约》第七条第(三)款中的“性别”定义，从而允许为本条款草案的目的，依据对其含义逐步形成的理解，适用这一术语。 |
| While the term is therefore undefined in the present draft articles, the same is true as well for various other terms used in draft article 2, paragraph 1 (h), such as “political”, “racial”, “national”, “ethnic”, “cultural”, or “religious”. | 本条款草案没有界定这一术语，同时也没有界定第2条草案第1款(h)项中使用的其他各种术语，例如“政治”、“种族”、“民族”、“族裔”、“文化”或“宗教”。 |
| States, however, may be guided by the sources indicated above for understanding the meaning of the term “gender”. | 然而，各国在理解“性别”一词的含义时，可以上述渊源为指导。 |
| Paragraph 3 | 第3款 |
| (43) Paragraph 3 of draft article 2 provides: “This draft article is without prejudice to any broader definition provided for in any international instrument, in customary international law or in national law”. | (43) 第2条第3款草案规定：“本条草案不妨碍任何国际文书、习惯国际法或国内法规定的任何更为宽泛的定义。 |
| This provision is similar to article 1, paragraph 2, of the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, which provides: “This article is without prejudice to any international instrument or national legislation which does or may contain provisions of wider application”. | ”这一条款与1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》第1条第2款类似，该款规定：“本条规定并不妨碍载有或可能载有适用范围较广的规定的任何国际文书或国内法”。 |
| Article 10 of the 1998 Rome Statute (appearing in Part II on “Jurisdiction, admissibility, and applicable law”) also contains a “without prejudice clause”, which reads: “Nothing in this Part shall be interpreted as limiting or prejudicing in any way existing or developing rules of international law for purposes other than this Statute”. | 1998年《罗马规约》第十条(见于第二编“管辖权、可受理性和适用的法律”)也包含一项“不妨碍条款”，内容是：“除为了本规约的目的以外，本编的任何规定不得解释为限制或损害现有或发展中的国际法规则”。 |
| (44) Paragraph 3 is meant to ensure that the definition of “crimes against humanity” set forth in the first two paragraphs of draft article 2 does not call into question any broader definitions that may exist in international law, in particular in international instruments or in customary international law, or in national legislation. | (44) 第3款旨在确保第2条草案头两款所载的“危害人类罪”定义不会引起对国际法(特别是国际文书或习惯国际法)或国内法中可能存在的更宽泛定义的疑问。 |
| “International instrument” is to be understood as being broader than just a legally binding international agreement, but as being limited to instruments developed by States or international organizations, such as the United Nations. | 对“国际文书”范围的理解应更为广泛，不只是具有约束力的国际协定，但须限于由各国或联合国等国际组织制定的文书。 |
| To the extent that the definition of crimes against humanity is broader in certain respects under customary international law, then here too the present draft articles are without prejudice to such law. | 习惯国际法中的危害人类罪定义在某些方面更为宽泛，此种情形下，本条款草案也不妨碍此类法。 |
| States also may adopt national laws that contain a broader definition of crimes against humanity, perhaps under the influence of broader definitions that may exist in international instruments or in customary international law. | 各国也可以通过载有更宽泛的危害人类罪定义的国内法，这可能是受到国际文书或习惯国际法中可能存在的更宽泛定义的影响。 |
| Thus, notwithstanding that an important objective of the draft articles is the harmonization of national laws, so that they may serve as the basis for robust inter-State cooperation, if a State wishes to adopt or retain a broader definition in its national law, the present draft articles do not preclude it from doing so. | 因此，尽管本条款草案的一项重要目标是协调各个国内法，使其可以成为坚实的国家间合作的基础，但如果某国希望在国内法中采用或保留更为宽泛的定义，本条款草案并不妨碍它这么做。 |
| (45) For example, the definition of “enforced disappearance of persons” as contained in draft article 2 follows article 7 of the 1998 Rome Statute, but differs from the definition contained in the 1992 Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, in the 1994 Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons and in the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons against Enforced Disappearance. | (45) 例如，第2条草案所载的“强迫人员失踪”的定义沿用1998年《罗马规约》第七条，但与1992年《保护所有人不遭受强迫失踪宣言》、1994年《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》 以及2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》 所载的定义不同。 |
| Those differences principally are that the latter instruments do not include the element “with the intention of removing them from the protection of the law”, do not include the words “for a prolonged period of time” and do not refer to organizations as potential perpetrators of the crime when they act without State participation. | 区别主要是后面的三项文书没有包括“目的是将其…置于法律保护之外”这一要件，不包括“长期”这一词语，以及没有提到组织也可在国家没有参与的情况下成为这一犯罪的潜在行为人。 |
| (46) In light of such differences, the Commission thought it prudent to include the “without prejudice” clause that appears in draft article 2, paragraph 3. | (46) 鉴于上述区别，委员会认为慎重的做法是列入第2条草案第3款中的“不妨碍”条款。 |
| However, any elements adopted in a national law, which do not fall within the scope of the present draft articles, would not benefit from the provisions set forth within them, including on extradition and mutual legal assistance, unless the States concerned so agree. | 然而，国内法中通过的不属于本条款草案范围的任何要件，包括关于引渡和司法协助的要件，不受益于本条款草案所载的规定，除非有关国家对此同意。 |
| Article 3 General obligations | 第3条 一般义务 |
| 1. Each State has the obligation not to engage in acts that constitute crimes against humanity. | 1. 各国有义务不参与构成危害人类罪的行为。 |
| 2. Each State undertakes to prevent and to punish crimes against humanity, which are crimes under international law, whether or not committed in time of armed conflict. | 2. 各国承诺防止及惩治危害人类罪，此种罪行不论是否发生于武装冲突之时，均系国际法上的罪行。 |
| 3. No exceptional circumstances whatsoever, such as armed conflict, internal political instability or other public emergency, may be invoked as a justification of crimes against humanity. | 3. 任何特殊情况，诸如武装冲突、国内政局动荡、其他公共紧急状态等，均不得援引为施行危害人类罪的理由。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 3 sets forth in paragraph 1 the general obligation of States not to engage in acts that constitute crimes against humanity. | (1) 第3条草案第1款规定国家不得参与构成危害人类罪的行为的一般义务。 |
| Paragraph 2 sets forth a further general obligation to prevent and punish crimes against humanity. | 第2款进一步规定防止及惩治危害人类罪的一般义务。 |
| Paragraph 3 makes clear that no exceptional circumstances whatsoever may be invoked as a justification of crimes against humanity. | 第3款明确指出，任何特殊情况均不得援引为危害人类罪的理由。 |
| (2) Paragraph 1 of draft article 3 sets forth the first general obligation, which is that “Each State has the obligation not to engage in acts that constitute crimes against humanity. | (2) 第3条草案第1款规定第一项一般义务，即“各国有义务不参与构成危害人类罪的行为”。 |
| ” Prior conventions, including the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and the 1984 Convention against Torture, usually have not expressly provided that States shall not commit the acts at issue in those conventions. | 之前的公约，包括1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》和1984年《禁止酷刑公约》，通常未明确规定各国不得实施公约针对的行为。 |
| Nevertheless, the Commission viewed it as desirable for such an obligation to be made explicit in draft article 3. | 然而，委员会认为，宜在第3条草案中明确规定这一义务。 |
| A formula that calls for States not to engage in “acts that constitute” crimes against humanity is appropriate since States themselves do not commit crimes; | 要求各国“不参与”“构成”危害人类罪的行为这一表述是恰当的，因为国家本身不会犯罪； |
| rather, crimes are committed by persons, but the “acts” that “constitute” such crimes may be acts attributable to the State under the rules on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 相反，罪行由个人所犯，但“构成”这种罪行的“行为”，可根据国家对国际不法行为的责任规则归于国家。 |
| (3) The general obligation “not to engage in acts” contains two components. | (3) “不参与…行为”这项一般义务包括两部分。 |
| First, States have an obligation not “to commit such acts through their own organs, or persons over whom they have such firm control that their conduct is attributable to the State concerned under international law”. | 首先，各国有义务不“通过本国的机关或者本国能够稳固控制、因而根据国际法其行为可归于相关国家的人，实施此类行为”。 |
| In Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), the International Court of Justice found that the identification of genocide as a crime, as well as the obligation of a State to prevent genocide, necessarily implies an obligation of the State not to commit genocide: | 在《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那诉塞尔维亚和黑山)中，国际法院认定，认定灭绝种族为一罪行，以及一国防止灭绝种族的义务必然意味该国有义务不实施种族灭绝： |
| Under Article I the States parties are bound to prevent such an act, which it describes as ‘a crime under international law’, being committed. | 根据第一条，各缔约国有义务防止实施此类行为，该条将此类行为称为‘国际法认定的犯罪行为’。 |
| The Article does not expressis verbis require States to refrain from themselves committing genocide. | 该条没有明文规定各国自己不要实施种族灭绝。 |
| However, in the view of the Court, taking into account the established purpose of the Convention, the effect of Article I is to prohibit States from themselves committing genocide. | 不过，法院认为，考虑到该《公约》的既定目的，第一条的含义就是要禁止各国自己实施灭绝种族。 |
| Such a prohibition follows, first, from the fact that the Article categorizes genocide as ‘a crime under international law’: by agreeing to such a categorization, the States parties must logically be undertaking not to commit the act so described. | 推定这一禁止含义的第一个依据是，该条将灭绝种族归为‘国际法认定的罪行’：而缔约国要是同意这一归类，在逻辑上就必须保证不实施所述行为。 |
| Secondly, it follows from the expressly stated obligation to prevent the commission of acts of genocide. | 第二个依据是，明确规定有义务防止实施灭绝种族行为。 |
| That obligation requires the States parties, inter alia, to employ the means at their disposal, in circumstances to be described more specifically later in this Judgment, to prevent persons or groups not directly under their authority from committing an act of genocide or any of the other acts mentioned in Article III. It would be paradoxical if States were thus under an obligation to prevent, so far as within their power, commission of genocide by persons over whom they have a certain influence, but were not forbidden to commit such acts through their own organs, or persons over whom they have such firm control that their conduct is attributable to the State concerned under international law. | 这一义务要求缔约国在该判决书后文具体说明的情况下，除其他外，利用所掌握的手段，防止不直接受其权力支配的个人或群体实施灭绝种族行为或第三条所述的任何其他行为。 因此，如果说一方面规定国家有义务在其权力范围内防止它们能施加一定影响力的个人实施犯灭绝种族行为，另一方面却又不禁止各国通过自身的机关或通过受其严密控制因而根据国际法其行为被归于国家的个人实施此类行为，那将是自相矛盾的。 |
| In short, the obligation to prevent genocide necessarily implies the prohibition of the commission of genocide. | 简言之，防止灭绝种族的义务必然意味着禁止实施灭绝种族。 |
| (4) The Court also decided that the substantive obligation reflected in article I was not, on its face, limited by territory but, rather, applied “to a State wherever it may be acting or may be able to act in ways appropriate to meeting the obligations […] in question”. | (4) 法院还认定，第一条所反映的实质性义务字面上看并不受地域限制，而是适用于“可能正在或也许能以与履行有关义务[…]相适合的方式行事的国家”。 |
| (5) A breach of the obligation not to commit directly such acts engages the responsibility of the State if the conduct at issue is attributable to the State pursuant to the rules on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | (5) 如果相关行为根据国家责任规则归责于国家，则违反不直接实施此类行为的义务意味着国家要承担责任。 |
| Indeed, in the context of disputes that may arise under the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, article IX refers, inter alia, to disputes “relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide”. | 实际上，就可能出现的关于1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的争端而言，第九条除其他外提到“关于某一国家对于灭绝种族罪…的责任的”争端。 |
| Although much of the focus of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide is upon prosecuting individuals for the crime of genocide, the International Court of Justice has stressed that the breach of the obligation not to commit genocide is not a criminal violation by the State but, rather, concerns a breach of international law that engages State responsibility. | 虽然1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的重点主要是起诉犯有灭绝种族罪的个人，但是国际法院强调，违反防止义务不是国家实施的属于刑事犯罪的违反行为，而是一种涉及国家责任的违反国际法行为。 |
| The Court’s approach is consistent with views previously expressed by the Commission, including in the commentary to the 2001 draft articles on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts: “Where crimes against international law are committed by State officials, it will often be the case that the State itself is responsible for the acts in question or for failure to prevent or punish them”. | 法院的做法同委员会曾经表达过的意见一致， 包括关于2001年《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》的评注：“当国家官员实施违反国际法罪行时，通常的情况是国家对此行为负责或对没有防止或惩治这种行为的结果负责”。 |
| (6) Second, States have obligations under international law not to aid or assist, or to direct, control or coerce, another State in the commission of an internationally wrongful act. | (6) 其次，各国根据国际法有义务避免援助或协助、或指挥、控制或胁迫另一国实施一国际不法行为。 |
| (7) Paragraph 2 of draft article 3 sets forth a second general obligation: “Each State undertakes to prevent and to punish crimes against humanity, which are crimes under international law, whether or not committed in time of armed conflict. | (7) 第3条草案第2款规定第二项一般性义务：“各国承诺防止及惩治危害人类罪，此种罪行不论是否发生于武装冲突之时，均系国际法上的罪行。 |
| ” In Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), the International Court of Justice found (again when considering article I of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide) that States have an obligation “to employ the means at their disposal … to prevent persons or groups not directly under their authority from committing” acts of genocide. | ”在《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那诉塞尔维亚和黑山)中，国际法院(还是在审议1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》第一条时)指出，各国有义务“采取能够动用的各种手段，…防止不属于本国直接管辖的人或团体实施”灭绝种族行为。 |
| In that instance, the State party is expected to use its best efforts (a due diligence standard) when it has a “capacity to influence effectively the action of persons likely to commit, or already committing” the acts, which in turn depends on the State party’s geographic, political and other links to the persons or groups at issue. | 在这种情况下，当缔约国在“有能力对很可能实施、或者已经在实施灭绝种族行为的人的行动产生有效影响的情况下”尽最大努力(尽责标准)，而这种能力反过来又取决于缔约国同所涉个人或团体的地域、政治和其他联系。 |
| At the same time, the Court found that “a State can be held responsible for breaching the obligation to prevent genocide only if genocide was actually committed”. | 同时，法院认为，“只有灭绝种族实际发生时，才能追究有关国家违反防止灭绝种族义务的责任”。 |
| Further content of this second general obligation is addressed in various ways through the more specific obligations set forth in the draft articles that follow, beginning with draft article 4. | 第二项一般义务的更多内容通过在随后从第4条草案开始的若干条款草案中规定各种更为具体的义务加以处理。 |
| Those specific obligations address steps that States are to take within their national legal systems, as well as their cooperation with other States, with relevant intergovernmental organizations and with, as appropriate, other organizations. | 这些具体义务规定各国在自己国内法律系统内须采取的步骤，以及与其他国家合作、与有关政府间组织合作，并酌情与其他组织合作。 |
| (8) The Court also analysed the meaning of “undertake” as contained in article I of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. | (8) 国际法院还分析了1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》第一条所载“承允”的含义。 |
| At the provisional measures phase, the Court determined that such an undertaking imposes “a clear obligation” on the parties “to do all in their power to prevent the commission of any such acts in the future”. | 在临时措施阶段，法院判定这种承允对缔约国施加了“尽其所能防止将来发生此种行为”的“一项明确义务”。 |
| At the merits phase, the Court described the ordinary meaning of the word “undertake” in that context as | 在审理实质问题阶段，法院对“承允”一词在该语境下的通常含义描述如下： |
| to give a formal promise, to bind or engage oneself, to give a pledge or promise, to agree, to accept an obligation. | 做出正式承诺，使自身负有义务或允诺，做出保证或承诺，同意，接受义务。 |
| It is a word regularly used in treaties setting out the obligations of the Contracting Parties … | 该词通常用于规定缔约国义务的条约中…它不仅是为了告诫性或宗旨性的。 |
| It is not merely hortatory or purposive. | 承允是不受条件限制的…； |
| The undertaking is unqualified … and it is not to be read merely as an introduction to later express references to legislation, prosecution and extradition. | 不应把它仅解读为后文明确提到立法、起诉和引渡之处的引言。 |
| Those features support the conclusion that Article I, in particular its undertaking to prevent, creates obligations distinct from those which appear in the subsequent Articles. | 这些特征支持的是这样一个结论：第一条(尤其是承允防止部分)产生了与后续条款中出现的义务不同的义务。 |
| The undertaking to prevent and punish crimes against humanity, as formulated in paragraph 2 of draft article 3, is intended to express the same kind of legally binding obligation upon States; | 第3条草案第2款制定的对防止危害人类罪的承允，意在表达对各国同样的法律约束力； |
| it, too, is not merely hortatory or purposive, and is not merely an introduction to later draft articles. | 它也不仅是告诫性或宗旨性的，并且不仅仅是对之后各条草案的引言。 |
| (9) The International Court of Justice also noted that the duty to punish in the context of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide is connected to but distinct from the duty to prevent. | (9) 国际法院还指出，在1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》语境下的惩治职责与防止职责有联系，但有区别。 |
| While “one of the most effective ways of preventing criminal acts, in general, is to provide penalties for persons committing such acts, and to impose those penalties effectively on those who commit the acts one is trying to prevent”, the Court found that “the duty to prevent genocide and the duty to punish its perpetrators … are … two distinct yet connected obligations”. | 虽然“总体上，防止犯罪的一个最有效的办法是规定对实施此类行为的人的刑罚，并对实施所要防止的行为的人切实处以此类刑罚，” 但法院认定“防止灭绝种族的责任与惩治行为人的责任…是…两项截然不同但彼此联系的义务。 |
| Indeed, the “obligation on each contracting State to prevent genocide is both normative and compelling. | ” 的确，“每一缔约国防止灭绝种族的义务是规范性和强制性的。 |
| It is not merged in the duty to punish, nor can it be regarded as simply a component of that duty”. | 这个义务没有并入惩治的职责，也不能被视为只是惩治职责的一个组成部分”。 |
| (10) In the course of stating this second general obligation “to prevent and to punish crimes against humanity”, paragraph 2 of draft article 3 recognizes such crimes as “crimes under international law, whether or not committed in time of armed conflict”. | (10) 第3条草案第2款陈述“防止及惩治危害人类罪”的第二项一般义务，承认此种罪行“不论是否发生于武装冲突之时，均系国际法上的罪行”。 |
| While such language might have been incorporated in paragraph 1 of draft article 3, it is used in paragraph 2 where the focus is on the prevention and punishment of “crimes” committed by individuals, rather than on the acts of States. | 尽管这一表述也可列入第3条草案第1款，但还是列入第2款，重点强调防止及惩治个人犯下的“罪行”，而不是国家行为。 |
| (11) With respect to crimes against humanity being “crimes under international law”, the Nürnberg Charter included “crimes against humanity” as a component of the jurisdiction of the Tribunal. | (11) 关于危害人类罪是“国际法上的罪行”，《纽伦堡宪章》将“危害人类罪”列为该法庭管辖的内容。 |
| Among other things, the Tribunal noted that “individuals can be punished for violations of international law. | 除其他外，该法庭指出，“个人可因违反国际法而受到惩治。 |
| Crimes against international law are committed by men, not by abstract entities, and only by punishing individuals who commit such crimes can the provisions of international law be enforced”. | 违反国际法的罪行是由人而不是由抽象实体实施的，只有惩处实施这些罪行的个人，国际法的规定才能得到执行。 |
| Crimes against humanity were also within the jurisdiction of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (hereinafter “Tokyo Tribunal”). | ” 危害人类罪也在远东国际军事法庭(下称“东京法庭”)的管辖之内。 |
| (12) The principles of international law recognized in the Nürnberg Charter were noted and reaffirmed in 1946 by the General Assembly. | (12) 联大在1946年提到并重申了《纽伦堡宪章》所确认的国际法原则。 |
| The Assembly also directed the Commission to “formulate” the Nürnberg Charter principles and to prepare a draft code of offences. | 联大还指示委员会“编订”《纽伦堡宪章》原则并拟订一个治罪法草案。 |
| The Commission in 1950 produced the Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal, which stated that crimes against humanity were “punishable as crimes under international law”. | 委员会于1950年拟出了《纽伦堡法庭组织法及法庭判决中所确认之国际法原则》，说明危害人类罪为“违反国际法应受处罚的罪行”。 |
| Further, the Commission completed in 1954 a draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind, which, in article 2, paragraph 11, included as an offence a series of inhuman acts that are today understood to be crimes against humanity, and which stated in article 1 that “[o]ffences against the peace and security of mankind, as defined in this Code, are crimes under international law, for which the responsible individuals shall be punished”. | 此外，委员会于1954年完成了《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》，其第二条第11款中列出了视为罪行的一系列不人道行为，这些行为今天均视为危害人类罪。 该草案在第一条中写明：“本法所定之危害人类和平及安全的罪行系国际法上的罪行，其责任人应受惩罚”。 |
| (13) The characterization of crimes against humanity as “crimes under international law” indicates that they exist as crimes whether or not the conduct has been criminalized under national law. | (13) 将危害人类罪定性为“国际法上的罪行”，表明这种罪行是自然成立的，不论相关行为在国内法之下是否被定为罪行。 |
| Article 6 (c) of the Nürnberg Charter defined crimes against humanity as the commission of certain acts “whether or not in violation of the domestic law of the country where perpetrated”. | 《纽伦堡宪章》第6条(c)项界定危害人类罪是实施某些行为，“不论是否违反此等行为所在地的国内法”。 |
| In 1996, the Commission completed a draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, which provided, inter alia, that crimes against humanity were “crimes under international law and punishable as such, whether or not they are punishable under national law”. | 1996年，委员会完成了《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》，其中除其他外规定危害人类罪是“在国际法范围内，就此而论可予惩罚，而不论是否可依国内法予以惩罚的罪行”。 |
| The gravity of such crimes is clear; | 这种罪行的严重性是很清楚的； |
| the Commission has previously indicated that the prohibition of crimes against humanity is “clearly accepted and recognized” as a peremptory norm of international law. | 委员会以前就指出过，禁止危害人类罪“被明确接受和承认”为一项国际法强制性规范。 |
| (14) Paragraph 2 of draft article 3 also identifies crimes against humanity as crimes under international law “whether or not committed in time of armed conflict”. | (14) 第3条草案第2款还确定危害人类罪“不论是否发生于武装冲突之时，”都是国际法上的罪行。 |
| The reference to “armed conflict” should be read as including both international and non-international armed conflict. | 提及“武装冲突”应理解为包括国际和非国际武装冲突。 |
| The Nürnberg Charter definition of crimes against humanity, as amended by the Berlin Protocol, linked the jurisdiction of the International Military Tribunal over crimes against humanity to the existence of an international armed conflict; | 经《柏林议定书》 修正的《纽伦堡宪章》关于危害人类罪的定义将国际军事法庭对危害人类罪的管辖权与国际武装冲突的存在相联系； |
| the acts fell under the Tribunal’s jurisdiction only if committed “in execution of or in connection with” any crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal, meaning a crime against peace or a war crime. | 只有所涉行为发生“系随实施”国际军事法庭管辖范围内“任何罪行”――即危害和平罪或战争罪――“而起或与之有关者”，方归属该法庭管辖。 |
| As such, while the Charter did not exclude jurisdiction over acts that had been committed prior to the armed conflict, the justification for dealing with matters that traditionally were within the national jurisdiction of a State was based on the crime’s connection to inter-State conflict. | 在这个意义上，虽然《宪章》并未排除对武装冲突前所犯行为的管辖权，但处理传统上属一国国内管辖范围的事项的依据在于罪行与国家间冲突的联系。 |
| That connection, in turn, suggested heinous crimes occurring on a large-scale, perhaps as part of a pattern of conduct. | 而这种联系又意味着大规模发生最严重罪行，可能作为某种行为模式的一部分。 |
| The International Military Tribunal, charged with trying the senior political and military leaders of the Third Reich, convicted several defendants for crimes against humanity committed during the armed conflict, although in some instances the connection of those crimes with other crimes within the jurisdiction of the International Military Tribunal was tenuous. | 负责审判第三帝国高级政治和军事领导人的国际军事法庭判定若干被告在武装冲突期间犯危害人类罪，尽管有些情况下这些罪行与国际军事法庭管辖范围内的其他罪行之间的关系不够明确。 |
| (15) The Commission’s 1950 Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal also defined crimes against humanity in Principle VI (c) in a manner that required a connection to an armed conflict. | (15) 委员会1950年《纽伦堡法庭组织法及法庭判决中所确认之原则》在原则六(三)中界定危害人类罪时也要求存在与武装冲突的联系。 |
| In its commentary to this principle, the Commission emphasized that the crime need not be committed during a war, but maintained that pre-war crimes must nevertheless be in connection with a crime against peace. | 在该原则的评注中，委员会强调罪行并非必须是在战争期间所发生，但对于战前罪行则主张必须存在与危害和平罪的联系。 |
| At the same time, the Commission maintained that “acts may be crimes against humanity even if they are committed by the perpetrator against his own population”. | 与此同时，委员会主张“行为仍可属危害人类罪，即便该行为是行为人针对本国人口所为”。 |
| The 1968 Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity referred, in article I (b), to “[c]rimes against humanity whether committed in time of war or in time of peace as they are defined in the Charter of the International Military Tribunal, Nürnberg, of 8 August 1945 and confirmed by resolutions 3 (I) of 13 February 1946 and 95 (I) of 11 December 1946 of the General Assembly of the United Nations”. | 1968年《战争罪及危害人类罪不适用法定时效公约》在第一条(乙)项中写明，“一九四五年八月八日纽伦堡国际军事法庭组织法明定并经联合国大会一九四六年二月十三日第3(I)号决议及一九四六年十二月十一日第95(I)号决议确认的危害人类罪，无论犯罪系在战时抑或在平时。 |
| (16) The jurisdiction of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia included “crimes against humanity”. | ” (16) 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭的管辖范围包括“危害人类罪”。 |
| Article 5 of its Statute provided that the Tribunal may prosecute persons responsible for a series of acts (such as murder, torture or rape) “when committed in armed conflict, whether international or internal in character, and directed against any civilian population”. | 其《规约》第5条规定，该法庭可对“国际或国内武装冲突中犯下”一系列“针对平民的”行为(诸如谋杀、酷刑或强奸)负有责任的人提起诉讼。 |
| Thus, the formulation used in article 5 retained a connection to armed conflict, but it is best understood contextually. The Statute of the Tribunal was developed in 1993 with an understanding that armed conflict in fact existed in the former Yugoslavia. | 所以，第5条所用的措词保留了与武装冲突的联系，但结合相关背景很容易理解：该法庭《规约》是1993年拟订的，当时的理解是，前南斯拉夫境内实际存在着武装冲突。 |
| As such, the formulation used in article 5 (“armed conflict”) was designed principally to dispel the notion that crimes against humanity had to be linked to an “international armed conflict”. | 就此而言，第5条所用的措词(“武装冲突”)主要是为了消除一种认为危害人类罪须与“国际武装冲突”存在联系的观念。 |
| To the extent that this formulation might be read to suggest that customary international law requires a nexus to armed conflict, the Tribunal’s Appeals Chamber later clarified that there was “no logical or legal basis” for retaining a connection to armed conflict, since “it has been abandoned” in State practice since Nürnberg. | 鉴于这种措词可能被解读为习惯国际法要求须存在与武装冲突的联系，该法庭上诉分庭后来澄清说，保留与武装冲突的联系“没有逻辑或法律基础”，因为自纽伦堡审判以来，在国家实践中这种联系“已被放弃”。 |
| The Appeals Chamber also noted that the “obsolescence of the nexus requirement is evidenced by international conventions regarding genocide and apartheid, both of which prohibit particular types of crimes against humanity regardless of any connection to armed conflict”. | 上诉分庭还指出，“关于种族灭绝和种族隔离的国际公约显示，联系要求已经过时，这两项公约都禁止某些种类的危害人类罪而不论是否与武装冲突有联系”。 |
| Indeed, the Appeals Chamber later maintained that such a connection in the Statute of the Tribunal was simply circumscribing the subject-matter of its jurisdiction, not codifying customary international law. | 事实上，上诉分庭此后还表示认为，该法庭《规约》中的这种联系只是限定其属事管辖，并非对习惯国际法的编纂。 |
| (17) In 1994, the Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and provided it with jurisdiction over “crimes against humanity”. | (17) 1994年，安全理事会设立了卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭并规定了它对“危害人类罪”的管辖权。 |
| Although article 3 of the Statute of that Tribunal retained the same series of acts as appeared in the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the chapeau language did not retain the reference to armed conflict. | 虽然该法庭《规约》第3条保留了《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》中的同样一系列行为，但起首部分没有保留武装冲突的提法。 |
| Likewise, article 7 of the 1998 Rome Statute did not retain any reference to armed conflict, nor has it existed with respect to other relevant criminal tribunals. | 同样，1998年《罗马规约》第七条也没有再提及武装冲突，其他有关刑事法庭也不存在这种提法。 |
| (18) As such, while early definitions of crimes against humanity required that the underlying acts be accomplished in connection with armed conflict, that connection has disappeared from the statutes of contemporary international criminal courts and tribunals, including the 1998 Rome Statute. | (18) 就此而言，虽然危害人类罪的早期定义要求相关行为须与武装冲突有联系，但这种联系已不再见诸包括1998年《罗马规约》在内的当代国际性刑事法院和法庭规约。 |
| In its place, as discussed in relation to the “chapeau” requirements of draft article 2, paragraph 1 (in conjunction with paragraph 2 (a)), the crime must be committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population pursuant to or in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit such attack. | 取而代之的是，如关于第2条草案第1款(结合第2款(a)项)“起首部分”要求的讨论所述，罪行必须是作为根据国家或组织的政策或为了推行这种政策，针对任何平民人口实施的广泛或有系统的攻击的一部分。 |
| (19) Such treaty practice, jurisprudence, and the well-settled acceptance by States establish that crimes against humanity are crimes under international law that should be prevented and punished whether or not committed in time of armed conflict, and whether or not criminalized under national law. | (19) 这种条约实践、判例以及深为各国接受的观点证实，危害人类罪无论是否在武装冲突时发生，也无论是否被国内法定为犯罪，都是国际法上应当防止及惩治的罪行。 |
| (20) Draft article 3, paragraph 3, indicates that no exceptional circumstances may be invoked as a justification of crimes against humanity. | (20) 第3条草案第3款写明，任何情况均不得用来作为危害人类罪的辩护理由。 |
| This text is inspired by article 2, paragraph 2, of the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, but has been refined for the context of crimes against humanity. | 这段文字受到了1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》第2条第2款的启发， 但为适应危害人类罪的上下文做了调整。 |
| The expression “state of war or threat of war” has been replaced by the expression “armed conflict,” as was done in draft article 3, paragraph 2. | 与第3条草案第2款一样，用“武装冲突”一语取代了“战争状态或战争威胁”的表述。 |
| In addition, the words “such as” are used to stress that the examples given are not meant to be exhaustive. | 另外，用“诸如”一词是为了强调所举例子并非详尽无遗。 |
| (21) Comparable language may be found in other treaties addressing serious crimes at the global or regional level. | (21) 在全球或区域层面处理严重罪行的其他条约中可以找到相似的语言。 |
| For example, article 1, paragraph 2, of the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance contains similar language, as does article 5 of the 1985 Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture. | 例如，2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》第一条第二款，以及1985年《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》第5条 都载有类似语言。 |
| (22) One advantage of the formulation in draft article 3, paragraph 3, with respect to crimes against humanity is that it is drafted in a manner that relates to the conduct of either State or non-State actors. | (22) 用第3条草案第3款的方式表述危害人类罪的好处之一是，这种写法既可以指向国家行为体的行为，也可以指向非国家行为体的行为。 |
| At the same time, the paragraph is addressing this issue only in the context of the obligations of States as set forth in paragraphs 1 and 2 and not, for example, in the context of possible defences by an individual in a criminal proceeding or other grounds for excluding criminal responsibility. | 同时，本款处理这一问题所联系的仅是第1和第2款规定的国家义务，而不是刑事诉讼中个人可用的辩护理由或是其他排除刑事责任的理由等。 |
| Article 4 Obligation of prevention | 第4条 防止义务 |
| Each State undertakes to prevent crimes against humanity, in conformity with international law, through: | 各国承诺依据国际法防止危害人类罪，办法是： |
| (a) effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other appropriate preventive measures in any territory under its jurisdiction; and | (a) 在其管辖的任何领土内采取有效的立法、行政、司法措施或其他适当的防止措施； |
| (b) cooperation with other States, relevant intergovernmental organizations, and, as appropriate, other organizations. | (b) 与其他国家和有关政府间组织合作，并酌情与其他组织合作。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 4 elaborates upon the obligation to prevent crimes against humanity that is set forth in general terms in draft article 3, paragraph 2. | (1) 第4条草案详细阐述第3条草案第2款笼统规定的防止危害人类罪的义务。 |
| In considering such an obligation, the Commission viewed it as pertinent to survey existing treaty practice concerning the prevention of crimes and other acts. | 委员会在审议这一义务时认为，与此相关的工作是考察防止犯罪和其他行为的现有条约实践。 |
| In many instances, those treaties address acts that, when committed under certain circumstances, can constitute crimes against humanity (for example, genocide, torture, apartheid, or enforced disappearance). | 很多情况下，这些条约处理的是在一定情形下可能构成危害人类罪的行为(例如灭绝种族、酷刑、种族隔离或强迫失踪)。 |
| As such, the obligation of prevention set forth in those treaties extends as well to prevention of the acts in question when they also qualify as crimes against humanity. | 因此，当有关行为也构成危害人类罪时，这些条约规定的防止义务也延伸到对这些行为的防止。 |
| (2) An early significant example of an obligation of prevention may be found in the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, which provides in article I: “The Contracting Parties confirm that genocide, whether committed in time of peace or in time of war, is a crime under international law which they undertake to prevent and to punish”. | (2) 早先的一个重要的防止义务例子可见于1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》，该公约第一条规定：“缔约国确认灭绝种族行为，不论发生于平时或战时，均系国际法上的一种罪行，承允防止并惩治之”。 |
| Further, article V provides: “The Contracting Parties undertake to enact, in accordance with their respective Constitutions, the necessary legislation to give effect to the provisions of the present Convention and, in particular, to provide effective penalties for persons guilty of genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in article III”. | 此外，第五条规定：“缔约国承允各依照其本国宪法制定必要的法律，以实施本公约各项规定，而对于犯灭绝种族罪或有第三条所列其他行为之一者尤应规定有效的惩治”。 |
| Article VIII provides: “Any Contracting Party may call upon the competent organs of the United Nations to take such action under the Charter of the United Nations as they consider appropriate for the prevention and suppression of acts of genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in article III”. | 第八条规定：“任何缔约国得提请联合国的主管机关遵照联合国宪章，采取其认为适当的行动，以防止及惩治灭绝种族的行为或第三条所列任何其他行为”。 |
| As such, the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide contains within it several elements relating to prevention: a general obligation to prevent genocide; an obligation to enact national measures to give effect to the provisions of the Convention; and a provision for States parties to call upon the competent organs of the United Nations to act for the prevention of genocide. | 因此，1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》中包含了几个与防止相关的要素：防止灭绝种族的总体义务，制定国家措施以实施《公约》规定的义务，以及缔约国提请联合国主管机关就防止灭绝种族作出行动的规定。 |
| (3) Such an obligation to take preventive measures is a feature of most multilateral treaties addressing crimes since the 1960s. Examples include: the 1971 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation; the 1973 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents; | (3) 这一采取防止措施的义务是1960年代以来处理犯罪问题的多数多边条约的一个特征。 |
| the 1973 Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid; the 1979 International Convention against the Taking of Hostages; the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; | 例如：1971年《关于制止危害民用航空安全的非法行为的公约》、 1973年《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》、 1973年《禁止并惩治种族隔离罪行国际公约》、 1979年《反对劫持人质国际公约》、 1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》、 1985年《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》、 1994年《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》、 1994年《联合国人员和有关人员安全公约》、 1997年《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》、 2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》、 2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于预防、禁止和惩治贩运人口特别是妇女和儿童行为的补充议定书》、 2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于打击陆、海、空偷运移民的补充议定书》、 2001年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于打击非法制造和贩运枪支及其零部件和弹药的补充议定书》、 2002年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约任择议定书》、 2003年《联合国反腐败公约》 和2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》。 |
| the 1985 Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture; the 1994 Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearance of Persons; the 1994 Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel; | (4) 一些多边人权条约虽然不侧重于防止及惩治此类罪行，但载有与防止和遏制侵犯人权行为相关的义务。 |
| the 1997 International Convention on the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings; the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime; the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime; | 例如：1966年《消除一切形式种族歧视国际公约》、1979年《消除对妇女一切形式歧视公约》 和2011年《欧洲委员会防止和打击暴力侵害妇女行为及家庭暴力公约》。 |
| the 2000 Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime; the 2001 Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime; | 一些条约没有明确提到“防止”或“消除”此种行为，而是把重点放在采取适当的立法、行政和其他措施的义务上，从而“实施”或“执行”条约； |
| the 2002 Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; | 可以将此视为包含了防止此类行为的必要或适当措施。 |
| the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption; and the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. | 例如1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》 和1989年《儿童权利公约》。 |
| (4) Some multilateral human rights treaties, even though not focused on the prevention and punishment of crimes as such, contain obligations to prevent and suppress human rights violations. | (5) 国际法院曾指出，在采取防止措施时，“各国明显只能在国际法允许的限度内行事”。 |
| Examples include: the 1966 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; and the 2011 Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence. | 委员会认为，应该在第4条草案起首部分中把这个要求明确表述出来，因而加入了任何防止措施都必须“按照国际法”的字句。 |
| Some treaties do not refer expressly to “prevention” or “elimination” of the act but, rather, focus on an obligation to take appropriate legislative, administrative, and other measures to “give effect” to or to “implement” the treaty, which may be seen as encompassing necessary or appropriate measures to prevent the act. | 因此，国家为履行其防止危害人类罪的义务而采取的措施必须符合国际法规则，包括《联合国宪章》、国际人道法和人权法中规定的关于使用武力的规则。 |
| Examples include the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child. | 国家仅有义务根据国际法为防止危害人类罪采取法律允许的措施。 |
| (5) The International Court of Justice has stated that, when engaging in measures of prevention, “it is clear that every State may only act within the limits permitted by international law”. | (6) 第4条草案从(a)项和(b)项分别所述的两个具体方面规定各国有义务防止危害人类罪。 |
| The Commission deemed it important to express that requirement explicitly in the chapeau of draft article 4, and therefore has included a clause indicating that any measures of prevention must be “in conformity with international law”. Thus, the measures undertaken by a State to fulfil its obligation to prevent crimes against humanity must be consistent with the rules of international law, including rules on the use of force set forth in the Charter of the United Nations, international humanitarian law, and human rights law. | (7) 首先，根据第4条草案(a)项，各国必须积极推进并事先采取旨在帮助防止该罪行发生的措施，办法包括采取“在其管辖的任何领土内采取有效的立法、行政、司法或其他适当防止措施”。 |
| The State is only expected to take such measures as it legally can take under international law to prevent crimes against humanity. (6) Draft article 4 obliges States to prevent crimes against humanity in two specific ways provided for in subparagraphs (a) and (b), respectively. (7) First, pursuant to subparagraph (a) of draft article 4, States must pursue actively and in advance measures designed to help prevent the offence from occurring, through “effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other appropriate preventive measures in any territory under its jurisdiction”. | 这一条文受到了1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》第2条第1款的启发，该条款规定：“每一缔约国应采取有效的立法、行政、司法或其他措施，防止在其管辖的任何领土内出现酷刑的行为”。 |
| This text is inspired by article 2, paragraph 1, of the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, which provides: “Each State Party shall take effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other measures to prevent acts of torture in any territory under its jurisdiction”. | (8) 使用“其他适当防止措施”这一用语，而不是仅仅用“其他措施”，是为了强调(a)项所涉及的措施仅仅是旨在防止的措施。 |
| (8) The term “other appropriate preventive measures” rather than just “other measures” is used to reinforce the point that the measures at issue in subparagraph (a) relate solely to those aimed at prevention. | “适当”一词为国家履行义务提供了一些灵活性，允许其在特殊情况下自由采取其他的防止措施。 |
| The term “appropriate” offers some flexibility to each State when implementing this obligation, allowing it to tailor other preventive measures to the circumstances faced by that particular State. | “有效”一词意味着国家应保持其已经采取的相关措施，并在这些措施有缺陷的情况下应通过更有效的措施加以改进。 |
| The term “effective” implies that the State is expected to keep the measures that it has taken under review and, if they are deficient, to improve them through more effective measures. In commenting on the analogous provision in the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, the Committee against Torture has stated: | 禁止酷刑委员会在关于1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》所载类似条款的意见中说： |
| States parties are obligated to eliminate any legal or other obstacles that impede the eradication of torture and ill-treatment; and to take positive effective measures to ensure that such conduct and any recurrences thereof are effectively prevented. | 缔约国有义务消除任何阻碍根除酷刑和虐待的法律或其他障碍，并有义务采取积极有效措施，确保有效防止此类行为的发生和重演。 |
| States parties also have the obligation continually to keep under review and improve their national laws and performance under the Convention in accordance with the Committee’s concluding observations and views adopted on individual communications. | 缔约国还有义务不断审查其本国法律和执行《公约》的情况，并按照委员会就个别来文通过的意见和结论性意见加以改进。 |
| If the measures adopted by the State party fail to accomplish the purpose of eradicating acts of torture, the Convention requires that they be revised and/or that new, more effective measures be adopted. | 如果缔约国采取的措施未能实现杜绝酷刑行为这一目标，则按照《公约》的要求，缔约国须作出改进和/或采取新的、更为有效的措施。 |
| (9) As to the specific types of measures that shall be pursued by a State, in 2015 the Human Rights Council adopted a resolution on the prevention of genocide that provides some insights into the kinds of measures that are expected in fulfilment of article I of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. | (9) 至于国家应努力采取哪些具体类别的措施，人权理事会于2015年通过了一份关于防止灭绝种族的决议，使得人们能够有所了解为履行1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》第一条而应采取何种措施。 |
| Among other things, the resolution: (a) reiterated “the responsibility of each individual State to protect its population from genocide, which entails the prevention of such a crime, including incitement to it, through appropriate and necessary means”; | 该决议：(a) 重申“每个国家都有责任通过适当和必要的手段保护其人民免遭种族灭绝，这意味着要防止此种罪行，包括防止煽动灭绝种族”； |
| (b) encouraged “Member States to build their capacity to prevent genocide through the development of individual expertise and the creation of appropriate offices within Governments to strengthen the work on prevention”; | (b) 鼓励“会员国通过培养个人专门技能和在政府内部设立适当单位加强防止工作，建立防止灭绝种族罪的能力”； |
| and (c) encouraged “States to consider the appointment of focal points on the prevention of genocide, who could cooperate and exchange information and best practices among themselves and with the Special Adviser to the Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide, relevant United Nations bodies and with regional and subregional mechanisms”. | (c) 鼓励“各国考虑指定关于防止灭绝种族罪的协调中心，以便在相互间并与秘书长防止灭绝种族问题特别顾问、联合国有关机构及区域和次区域机制进行合作并交流信息和最佳做法”。 |
| (10) In the regional context, the 1950 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights) contains no express obligation to “prevent” violations of the Convention, but the European Court of Human Rights has construed article 2, paragraph 1 (on the right to life), to contain a positive obligation on States parties to safeguard the lives of those within their jurisdiction, consisting of two aspects: (a) the duty to provide a regulatory framework and (b) the obligation to take preventive measures. | (10) 从区域方面看，1950年《保护人权与基本自由公约》(《欧洲人权公约》) 没有规定“防止”违反该《公约》的行为的明确义务，但欧洲人权法院已作出解释，(关于生命权的)第2条第1款含有一项积极义务，要求缔约国保障其管辖范围内的人的生命，这项义务包括两个方面：(a) 提供监管框架的义务； (b) 采取防止措施的义务。 |
| At the same time, the Court has recognized that the State party’s obligation in this regard is limited. | 同时，法院确认缔约国在这方面的义务是有限的。 |
| The Court has similarly held that States parties have an obligation, pursuant to article 3 of the Convention to prevent torture and other forms of ill-treatment. | 法院同样认为，根据《公约》第3条，缔约国有义务防止酷刑和其他形式的虐待。 |
| Likewise, although the 1969 American Convention on Human Rights contains no express obligation to “prevent” violations of the Convention, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, when construing the obligation of the States parties to “ensure” the free and full exercise of the rights recognized by the Convention, has found that this obligation implies a “duty to prevent”, which in turn requires the State party to pursue certain steps. | 同样，虽然1969年《美洲人权公约》 未载有“防止”违反该《公约》的明确义务，但美洲人权法院在解释缔约国应“确保”该《公约》认可的各项权利得到自由且充分的行使的义务 时认定，这一义务意味着缔约国有“防止的职责”，而这又要求缔约国采取某些步骤。 |
| The Court has said: | 法院说： |
| This duty to prevent includes all those means of a legal, political, administrative and cultural nature that promote the protection of human rights and ensure that any violations are considered and treated as illegal acts, which, as such, may lead to the punishment of those responsible and the obligation to indemnify the victims for damages. | 这一防止职责包括采取一切法律、政治、行政和文化手段，促进保护人权，确保任何侵犯行为均被视为非法行为，并当作非法行为来处理，因而可能导致对负责任者加以处罚，并产生对损害的受害者提供补偿的义务。 |
| It is not possible to make a detailed list of all such measures, since they vary with the law and the conditions of each State Party. | 此类措施不可能详细列出，因为它们因每个缔约国的法律和情况的不同而存在差异。 |
| Similar reasoning has animated the Court’s approach to the interpretation of article 6 of the 1985 Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture. | 法院也是依据类似的推理对1985年《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》第6条作出了解释。 |
| (11) Thus, the specific preventive measures that any given State shall pursue with respect to crimes against humanity will depend on the context and risks at issue for that State with respect to these offences. | (11) 因此，任何具体国家对危害人类罪应采取的具体防止措施取决于这些犯罪行为对该国而言的相关背景和风险。 |
| Such an obligation usually would oblige the State at least to: (a) adopt national laws and policies as necessary to establish awareness of the criminality of the act and to promote early detection of any risk of its commission; | 这一义务通常要求国家至少：(a) 制定必要的国家法律和政策，培养人们对此类行为犯罪性质的认识，促使提早发现此类行为发生的风险； |
| (b) continually keep those laws and policies under review and as necessary improve them; | (b) 不断审查这些法律和政策并作出必要改进； |
| (c) pursue initiatives that educate governmental officials as to the State’s obligations under the draft articles; | (c) 就相关条约制度下国家的义务对政府官员进行教育； |
| (d) implement training programmes for police, military, militia and other relevant personnel as necessary to help prevent the commission of crimes against humanity; | (d) 对警察、军队、民兵和其他相关人员开展必要的培训项目，从而帮助防止危害人类罪的发生； |
| and (e) once the proscribed act is committed, fulfil in good faith any other obligations to investigate and either prosecute or extradite offenders, since doing so serves, in part, to deter future acts by others. | (e) 一旦违禁行为发生，即善意履行关于调查并起诉或引渡行为人的其他义务，因为这样做在一定程度上可以遏制他人今后的行为。 |
| Some measures, such as training programmes, may already exist in the State to help prevent wrongful acts (such as murder, torture or rape) that relate to crimes against humanity. | 某些用以防止与危害人类罪有关的不法行为(诸如谋杀、酷刑、强奸等)的措施，例如培训方案等，可能在该国已经存在。 |
| The State is obliged to supplement those measures, as necessary, specifically to prevent crimes against humanity. | 该国有义务视必要对那些措施加以补充，专门防止危害人类罪的发生。 |
| Here, too, international responsibility of the State arises if the State has failed to use its best efforts to organize the governmental and administrative apparatus, as necessary and appropriate, in order to prevent as far as possible crimes against humanity. | 在这里，如果缔约国没有视需要和情况尽最大努力动用政府和行政机器尽量防止危害人类罪的发生，也会产生国家的国际责任。 |
| (12) Subparagraph (a) of draft article 4, refers to a State pursuing effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other preventive measures “in any territory under its jurisdiction”. | (12) 第4条草案(a)项提到国家应“在其管辖的任何领土内”采取有效的立法、行政、司法或其他防止措施。 |
| Such a formulation, which is used at various places in the draft articles, covers the territory of a State, but also covers other territory under the State’s jurisdiction. | 本条款草案各处均采用的这一表述方式，不仅涵盖一国的领土，也涵盖该国管辖下的其他领土。 |
| As the Commission has previously explained, | 正如委员会曾作出的如下解释： |
| it covers situations in which a State is exercising de facto jurisdiction, even though it lacks jurisdiction de jure, such as in cases of unlawful intervention, occupation and unlawful annexation. | 这涵盖一国即便没有法律上的管辖权但却行使事实上的管辖权的情况，例如非法干涉、占领和非法吞并。 |
| Reference may be made, in this respect, to the advisory opinion by [the International Court of Justice] in the Namibia case. | 在这一方面可以参照国际法院在纳米比亚案中作出的咨询意见。 |
| In that advisory opinion, the Court, after holding South Africa responsible for having created and maintained a situation which the Court declared illegal and finding South Africa under an obligation to withdraw its administration from Namibia, nevertheless attached certain legal consequences to the de facto control of South Africa over Namibia. | 在这份咨询意见中，法院判定南非对于产生并维持被法院宣布为非法的一种状况应负责任，并认定南非有义务从纳米比亚撤回其行政管理，但仍认为南非对纳米比亚的事实上的控制产生了某些法律后果。 |
| (13) Second, pursuant to subparagraph (b) of draft article 4, States have an obligation to pursue certain forms of cooperation with other States, relevant intergovernmental organizations, and, as appropriate, other organizations. | (13) 其次，根据第4条草案(b)项，各国有义务彼此间，与相关政府间组织，以及酌情与其他组织开展某些形式的合作。 |
| The duty of States to cooperate in the prevention of crimes against humanity arises, in the first instance, from Article 1, paragraph 3, of the Charter of the United Nations, which indicates that one of the purposes of the Charter is to “achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of … [a] humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all”. | 各国合作防止危害人类罪的义务第一次出现在《联合国宪章》第一条第三款中：该款指出《宪章》的宗旨之一是“促成国际合作，以解决国际间属于…人类福利性质之国际问题，且增进并激励对于全体人类之人权及基本自由之尊重”。 |
| Further, in Articles 55 and 56 of the Charter, all Members of the United Nations pledge “to take joint and separate action in cooperation with the Organization for the achievement of” certain purposes, including “universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all”. | 此外，在《宪章》第五十五和第五十六条中，联合国所有会员国担允“采取共同及个别行动与本组织合作，以达成”某些宗旨，包括“全体人类之人权及基本自由之普遍尊重与遵守”。 |
| Specifically with respect to preventing crimes against humanity, the General Assembly of the United Nations recognized in its 1973 Principles of International Cooperation in the Detection, Arrest, Extradition and Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity a general responsibility for inter-State cooperation and intra-State action to prevent the commission of war crimes and crimes against humanity. | 在具体防止危害人类罪的方面，联合国大会在1973年《关于侦察、逮捕、引渡和惩治战争罪犯和危害人类罪犯的国际合作原则》中承认，为了防止实施战争罪和危害人类罪而应开展国家间合作、采取国家间行动的一般义务。 |
| Among other things, the Assembly declared that “States shall co-operate with each other on a bilateral and multilateral basis with a view to halting and preventing war crimes and crimes against humanity, and shall take the domestic and international measures necessary for that purpose”. | 除其他事项外，联大宣布“各国应在双边和多边基础上相互合作，以期制止并防止战争罪和危害人类罪，并为此目的，采取必要的国内和国际措施”。 |
| (14) Consequently, subparagraph (b) of draft article 4 indicates that States shall cooperate with each other to prevent crimes against humanity and cooperate with relevant intergovernmental organizations. | (14) 因此，第4条草案(b)项写明各国应互相合作防止危害人类罪，并与有关政府间组织合作。 |
| The term “relevant” is intended to indicate that cooperation with any particular intergovernmental organization will depend, among other things, on the organization’s functions and mandate, on the legal relationship of the State to that organization, and on the context in which the need for cooperation arises. | “有关”一词意在表明与任何特定政府间组织的合作将取决于该组织的职能和任务、国家与该组织的法律关系、需要开展合作的背景，等等。 |
| Further, subparagraph (b) provides that States shall cooperate, as appropriate, with other organizations, such as the components of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, within the limits of their respective mandates. | (b)项还进一步规定各国应酌情与其他组织如国际红十字和红新月运动的组成部分，在其各自任务范围内合作。 |
| These organizations include non-governmental organizations that could play an important role in the prevention of crimes against humanity in specific countries. | 这些组织包括可以在具体国家防止危害人类罪中发挥重要作用的非政府组织。 |
| The term “as appropriate” is used to indicate that the obligation of cooperation, in addition to being contextual in nature, does not extend to these organizations to the same extent as it does to States and relevant intergovernmental organizations. | 使用“酌情”一词是为了表明合作义务在本质上取决于具体情况，而且对这些组织的适用程度不同于对国家和相关政府间组织的适用程度。 |
| Article 5 Non-refoulement | 第5条 不推回 |
| 1. No State shall expel, return (refouler), surrender or extradite a person to another State where there are substantial grounds for believing that he or she would be in danger of being subjected to a crime against humanity. | 1. 如有充分理由相信任何人在另一国将有遭受危害人类罪的危险，则任何国家不得将该人驱逐、遣返(推回)、移交或引渡至该国。 |
| 2. For the purpose of determining whether there are such grounds, the competent authorities shall take into account all relevant considerations, including, where applicable, the existence in the State concerned of a consistent pattern of gross, flagrant or mass violations of human rights or of serious violations of international humanitarian law. | 2. 为了确定这种理由是否存在，主管当局应考虑到所有有关因素，包括在适当情况下考虑到在有关国家内是否存在一贯严重、公然或大规模侵犯人权或严重违反国际人道法的情况。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Consistent with the broad objective of prevention addressed in draft article 4, draft article 5, paragraph 1, provides that no State shall send a person to another State where there are substantial grounds for believing that such person would be in danger of being subjected to a crime against humanity. | (1) 根据第4条草案所述的广泛的防止目标，第5条草案第1款规定，如有充分理由相信任何人在另一国将有遭受危害人类罪的危险，则任何国家不得将该人送至该国。 |
| Thus, this provision uses the principle of non-refoulement to prevent persons in certain circumstances from being exposed to crimes against humanity. | 因此，这一规定利用不推回原则来防止个人在某些情形下遭受危害人类罪。 |
| (2) As a general matter, the principle of non-refoulement obligates a State not to return or otherwise transfer a person to another State where there are substantial grounds for believing that he or she will be in danger of persecution or some other specified harm. | (2) 总的来说，不推回原则要求一国在有充分理由相信任何人在另一国将有可能遭到迫害或其他特定伤害的情况下，不得将该人遣返或以其他方式移送至该国。 |
| Paragraph 1 refers to such transfer “to another State” rather than “to territory under the jurisdiction of another State” so as also to encompass situations where the person is transferred from the control of one State to that of another even if it occurs within the same territory or occurs outside any territory (such as on or over the high seas). | 第1款称此种移送为“至另一国”，而不是“至另一国管辖的领土”，是为了同时涵盖将人员由一国控制下移送至另一国控制下的情况，即使移送发生在同一领土内或发生在任何领土之外(如公海海域和空域)。 |
| The principle was incorporated in various treaties during the twentieth century, including the 1949 Fourth Geneva Convention, but is most commonly associated with international refugee law and, in particular, article 33 of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees. | 此项原则在二十世纪已写入多项条约，包括1949年《日内瓦第四公约》， 但在大多数情况下则列入了国际难民法，特别是1951年《关于难民地位的公约》第三十三条。 |
| Other conventions and instruments addressing refugees have incorporated the principle, such as the 1969 Organization of African Unity Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa. | 其他涉及难民的公约和文书 列入了这项原则，如1969年《非洲统一组织关于非洲难民问题特定方面的公约》。 |
| (3) The principle also has been applied with respect to all aliens (not just refugees) in various instruments and treaties, such as the 1969 American Convention on Human Rights and the 1981 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. | (3) 在各种文书 和条约中，这项原则也被适用于所有外国人(不仅是难民)，如1969年《美洲人权公约》 和1981年《非洲人权和人民权利宪章》。 |
| Indeed, the principle was addressed in this broader sense in the Commission’s 2014 draft articles on the expulsion of aliens. | 事实上，委员会2014年关于驱逐外国人的条款草案就在这种更广泛的意义上述及该原则。 |
| The Human Rights Committee and the European Court of Human Rights have construed the prohibition against torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, contained in article 7 of the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 3 of the 1950 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms respectively, as implicitly imposing an obligation of non-refoulement even though these conventions contain no such express obligation. | 人权事务委员会和欧洲人权法院将分别载于1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第七条 和1950年《保护人权与基本自由公约》第3条 的禁止酷刑和残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇的规定解释为含蓄地提到不推回义务，尽管这两个公约未并明确规定此项义务。 |
| Further, the principle of non-refoulement is often reflected in extradition treaties, by stating that nothing in the treaty shall be interpreted as imposing an obligation to extradite an alleged offender if the requested State party has substantial grounds for believing the request has been made to persecute the alleged offender on specified grounds. | 此外，不推回原则还经常被列入引渡条约，其中指出，如果被请求缔约国有充分理由认为提出引渡请求的目的是以特定理由对被指控罪犯实施迫害，则条约中的任何内容均不得理解为规定了引渡被指控罪犯的义务。 |
| Draft article 13, paragraph 11, of the present draft articles is a provision of this type. | 本条款草案的第13条草案第11款就属于这类规定。 |
| (4) Of particular relevance for the present draft articles, the principle has been incorporated in treaties addressing specific crimes, such as torture and enforced disappearance. | (4) 与本条款草案特别相关的是，这项原则载于涉及特定罪行，如酷刑和强迫失踪的条约。 |
| For example, article 3 of the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment provides: | 例如，1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》第3条规定： |
| 1. No State Party shall expel, return (refouler) or extradite a person to another State where there are substantial grounds for believing that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture. | 1. 如有充分理由相信任何人在另一国家将有遭受酷刑的危险，任何缔约国不得将该人驱逐、遣返(推回)或引渡至该国。 |
| 2. For the purpose of determining whether there are such grounds, the competent authorities shall take into account all relevant considerations, including, where applicable, the existence in the State concerned of a consistent pattern of gross, flagrant or mass violations of human rights. | 2. 为了确定这种理由是否存在，有关当局应考虑到所有有关的因素，包括在适当情况下，考虑到在有关国家境内是否存在一贯严重、公然或大规模侵犯人权的情况。 |
| (5) This provision was modelled on the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, but added the additional element of “extradition” to cover another possible means by which a person is physically transferred to another State. | (5) 上述条款仿照了1951年《关于难民地位的公约》，但额外增加了“引渡”内容，以涵盖将某人移送至另一国家的另一可能方式。 |
| Similarly, article 16 of the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance provides that: | 同样，2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》第十六条规定： |
| 1. No State Party shall expel, return (“refouler”), surrender or extradite a person to another State where there are substantial grounds for believing that he or she would be in danger of being subjected to enforced disappearance. | 一、 如果有充分理由相信，将某人驱逐、送返(“驱回”)、移交或引渡到另一国家，有造成此人遭受强迫失踪的危险，任何缔约国均不得采取上述行动。 |
| 2. For the purpose of determining whether there are such grounds, the competent authorities shall take into account all relevant considerations, including, where applicable, the existence in the State concerned of a consistent pattern of gross, flagrant or mass violations of human rights or of serious violations of international humanitarian law. | 二、 为确定是否存在这种理由，主管当局应斟酌一切有关因素，包括在适用的情况下，考虑有关国家是否存在一贯严重、公然或大规模侵犯人权或严重违反国际人道法的情况。 |
| (6) While, as in earlier conventions, the State’s obligation under draft article 5, paragraph 1, is focused on avoiding exposure of a person to crimes against humanity, this obligation is without prejudice to other obligations of non-refoulement arising from treaties or customary international law. | (6) 尽管如以前的公约那样，第5条草案第1款规定的国家义务重在使个人免遭危害人类罪，但此项义务不妨碍依据条约或习惯国际法产生的其他不推回义务。 |
| Indeed, the obligations of States contained in all relevant treaties continue to apply in accordance with their terms. | 事实上，所有相关条约所载的国家义务继续按照其条款适用。 |
| (7) Draft article 5, paragraph 1, provides that the State shall not send the person to another State “where there are substantial grounds for believing that he or she would be in danger” of being subjected to a crime against humanity. | (7) 第5条草案第1款规定，“如有充分理由相信任何人将有”遭受危害人类罪的“危险”，则该国不得将该人送往另一国。 |
| This “substantial grounds” standard has been addressed by various expert treaty bodies and by international courts. | 许多专家条约机构和国际性法院都讨论过“充分理由”这一标准。 |
| For example, the Committee against Torture, in considering communications alleging that a State has violated article 3 of the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, has stated that “substantial grounds” exist whenever the risk of torture is “foreseeable, personal, present, and real”. | 例如，禁止酷刑委员会在审议指称一国违反1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》第3条的来文时指出，只要遭受酷刑的风险是可预见的、针对个人的、现实存在的和真实的，即有“充分理由”。 |
| It has also explained that each person’s “case should be examined individually, impartially and independently by the State party through competent administrative and/or judicial authorities, in conformity with essential procedural safeguards”. | 该委员会还解释称，每个人的“案件应由缔约国通过主管的行政和(或)司法当局进行单独、公正和独立的审查，审查应符合关键的程序性保障”。 |
| (8) In guidance to States, the Human Rights Committee has indicated that a State has an obligation “not to extradite, deport, expel or otherwise remove a person from their territory, where there are substantial grounds for believing that there is a real risk of irreparable harm, such as that contemplated by articles 6 and 7 of the Covenant, either in the country to which removal is to be effected or in any country to which the person may subsequently be removed”. | (8) 人权事务委员会在对各国的指导意见中指出，“如果有重大理由相信，在实施驱赶的国家或者有关人士可能最终被赶往的国家之中确实存在《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第六条和第七条所设想的那种会造成不可弥补伤害的风险”，一国“有义务不采取引渡、驱逐出境或者其他手段将有关人士逐出其国境。 |
| In interpreting this standard, the Human Rights Committee has concluded that States must refrain from exposing individuals to a real risk of violations of their rights under the Covenant, as a “necessary and foreseeable consequence” of expulsion. | ” 在解释这一标准时，人权事务委员会认为，各国不得因驱逐的“必然和可预见的后果”而给个人造成其根据《公约》享有的权利可能受到侵犯的实际风险。 |
| It has further maintained that the existence of such a real risk must be decided “in the light of the information that was known, or ought to have been known” to the State party’s authorities at the time and does not require “proof of actual torture having subsequently occurred although information as to subsequent events is relevant to the assessment of initial risk”. | 委员会还认为，必须“参考缔约国当局在引渡时已知或应知资料”，判定是否存在这种实际风险，但不需要“提供证据证明随后发生的实际酷刑，尽管关于随后事件的资料关系到初始风险评估。 |
| (9) The European Court of Human Rights has found that a State’s obligation is engaged where there are substantial grounds for believing that an individual would face a real risk of being subjected to treatment contrary to article 3 of the 1950 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. | ” (9) 欧洲人权法院认定，如果有充分理由相信一个人将面临有违1950年《保护人权与基本自由公约》第3条的待遇的实际风险，则国家有义务不予推回。 |
| In applying this legal test, States must examine the “foreseeable consequences” of sending an individual to the receiving country. | 在适用这种法律标准时，各国必须审查将个人送到接受国的“可预见的后果”。 |
| While a “mere possibility” of ill-treatment is not sufficient, it is not necessary according to the European Court to show that subjection to ill-treatment is “more likely than not”. | 虽然“仅有”虐待的“可能性”还不够，但欧洲法院认为无需证明虐待达到“很有可能”的程度。 |
| The European Court has stressed that the examination of evidence of a real risk must be “rigorous”. | 欧洲法院强调指出，必须“严格”审查实际风险的证据。 |
| Further, and similarly to the Human Rights Committee, the evidence of the risk “must be assessed primarily with reference to those facts which were known or ought to have been known to the Contracting State at the time of the expulsion”, though regard can be had to information that comes to light subsequently. | 此外，与人权事务委员会的观点相类似，该法院认为在“评估”相关风险的证据时“必须主要看缔约国在驱逐出境时已知或应该已知的事实”， 但也要顾及此后了解到的情况。 |
| (10) Draft article 5, paragraph 2, provides that States shall take into account “all relevant considerations” when determining whether there are substantial grounds for the purposes of paragraph 1. | (10) 第5条草案第2款规定，在为第1款的目的确定是否有充足理由时，各国应考虑到“所有有关因素”。 |
| Such considerations include, but are not limited to, “the existence in the State concerned of a consistent pattern of gross, flagrant or mass violations of human rights or of serious violations of international humanitarian law”. | 这些因素包括但不限于“在有关国家内是否存在一贯严重、公然或大规模侵犯人权行为或严重违反国际人道法的情况”。 |
| Indeed, various considerations may be relevant. | 事实上，很多因素可能都具有相关性。 |
| When interpreting the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Human Rights Committee has stated that all relevant factors should be considered, and that “[t]he existence of assurances, their content and the existence and implementation of enforcement mechanisms are all elements which are relevant to the overall determination of whether, in fact, a real risk of proscribed ill-treatment existed”. | 人权事务委员会在解释1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》时指出，所有相关因素均应予以考虑，“保证的存在和内容以及执行机制的存在和实施都是相关因素，关系到总体判定事实上是否存在发生被禁止的虐待行为的切实风险”。 |
| The Committee against Torture has developed, for the purposes of the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, a detailed list of “non-exhaustive examples of human rights situations that may constitute an indication of risk of torture, to which [States parties] should give consideration in their decisions on the removal of a person from their territory and take into account when applying the principle of ‘non-refoulement’”. | 为了1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》的目的，禁止酷刑委员会详细列出了“可能构成酷刑风险迹象的一些人权状况，[缔约国]在做出遣返某人离开其领土的决定及适用“不推回”原则时应予以考虑，这些例子并非详尽无遗”。 |
| When considering whether it is appropriate for States to rely on assurances made by other States, the European Court of Human Rights considers such factors as whether the assurances are specific or are general and vague, whether compliance with the assurances can be objectively verified through diplomatic or other monitoring mechanisms, and whether there is an effective system of protection against the violation in the receiving State. | 在审议各国依赖其他国家作出的保证是否适当时， 欧洲人权法院考虑了如下因素：这些保证是具体的还是笼统而模糊的； 是否能够通过外交机制或其他监测机制客观核实遵守这些保证的情况； 接受国是否存在防止违反行为的有效保护制度。 |
| (11) The 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees contains exceptions to the non-refoulement obligation to allow return where the person has committed a crime or presented a serious security risk. | (11) 1951年《关于难民地位的公约》载有不推回义务的例外情况，以允许遣返实施犯罪或造成严重安全风险的个人。 |
| Treaties since that time, however, have not included such exceptions, treating the obligation as absolute in nature. | 但此后订立的条约并不包含此类例外情况，从而将不推回义务视为一项绝对义务。 |
| The Commission deemed it appropriate for draft article 5 to contain no such exception. | 委员会认为第5条草案不包含这种例外是适当的。 |
| Article 6 Criminalization under national law | 第6条 在国内法中定为刑事犯罪 |
| 1. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that crimes against humanity constitute offences under its criminal law. | 1. 各国应采取必要措施，确保本国刑法规定危害人类罪构成犯罪。 |
| 2. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that the following acts are offences under its criminal law: | 2. 各国应采取必要措施，确保本国刑法将下列行为定为犯罪： |
| (a) committing a crime against humanity; | (a) 实施危害人类罪行； |
| (b) attempting to commit such a crime; | (b) 企图实施这种罪行； |
| and | 以及 |
| (c) ordering, soliciting, inducing, aiding, abetting or otherwise assisting in or contributing to the commission or attempted commission of such a crime. | (c) 命令、怂恿、引诱、协助、教唆或以其他方式帮助或促成实施或企图实施这种罪行。 |
| 3. Each State shall also take the necessary measures to ensure that commanders and other superiors are criminally responsible for crimes against humanity committed by their subordinates if they knew, or had reason to know, that the subordinates were about to commit or were committing such crimes and did not take all necessary and reasonable measures in their power to prevent their commission, or if such crimes had been committed, to punish the persons responsible. | 3. 各国还应采取必要措施，确保指挥官和其他上级人员如知道或理应知道下属即将实施或正在实施危害人类罪，却没有在其权力范围内采取一切必要和合理措施防止实施这种罪行，或没有在这种罪行已经实施的情况下对责任人予以惩罚，则对这种罪行负刑事责任。 |
| 4. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that, under its criminal law, the fact that an offence referred to in this draft article was committed pursuant to an order of a Government or of a superior, whether military or civilian, is not a ground for excluding criminal responsibility of a subordinate. | 4. 各国应采取必要措施，确保本国刑法规定，依照政府或者军事或文职上级的命令实施本条草案所述罪行的事实不成为免除下级刑事责任的理由。 |
| 5. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that, under its criminal law, the fact that an offence referred to in this draft article was committed by a person holding an official position is not a ground for excluding criminal responsibility. | 5. 各国应采取必要措施，确保根据本国刑法，本条草案所述罪行由担任公职的人实施的事实不成为免除刑事责任的理由。 |
| 6. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that, under its criminal law, the offences referred to in this draft article shall not be subject to any statute of limitations. | 6. 各国应采取必要措施，确保本国刑法规定，本条草案所述罪行不应受到任何时效限制。 |
| 7. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that, under its criminal law, the offences referred to in this draft article shall be punishable by appropriate penalties that take into account their grave nature. | 7. 各国应采取必要措施，确保本国刑法规定，对本条草案所述罪行，应考虑到其严重性，处以适当的刑罚。 |
| 8. Subject to the provisions of its national law, each State shall take measures, where appropriate, to establish the liability of legal persons for the offences referred to in this draft article. | 8. 在不违反本国法律规定的情况下，各国应酌情采取适当措施确定法人对本条草案所述罪行的责任。 |
| Subject to the legal principles of the State, such liability of legal persons may be criminal, civil or administrative. | 在不违反本国法律原则的情况下，法人的这一责任可以为刑事、民事或行政责任。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 6 sets forth various measures that each State must take under its criminal law to ensure that crimes against humanity constitute offences, to preclude certain defences or any statute of limitation, and to provide for appropriate penalties commensurate with the grave nature of such crimes. | (1) 第6条草案规定了各国为确保危害人类罪构成犯罪，排除某些辩护理由或任何法定时效，实行与此类罪行严重性质相称的惩治而必须在本国刑法上采取的各种措施。 |
| Measures of this kind are essential for the proper functioning of the subsequent draft articles relating to the establishment and exercise of jurisdiction over alleged offenders. | 对以下就被指控罪犯建立和行使管辖的相关条款草案的妥善运作而言，这类措施是至关重要的。 |
| Ensuring that “crimes against humanity” are offences in national criminal law | 确保本国刑法规定“危害人类罪”构成犯罪 |
| (2) Draft article 6, paragraph 1, provides that each State “shall take the necessary measures to ensure that crimes against humanity constitute offences under its criminal law. | (2) 第6条草案第1款规定：各国“应采取必要措施，确保本国刑法规定危害人类罪构成犯罪。 |
| ” The International Military Tribunal at Nürnberg recognized the importance of punishing individuals, inter alia, for crimes against humanity when it stated that: “Crimes against international law are committed by men, not by abstract entities, and only by punishing individuals who commit such crimes can the provisions of international law be enforced”. | ”纽伦堡国际军事法庭认识到惩治犯有危害人类罪等罪行的个人的重要性，宣布：“犯下违反国际法罪行的是人，而不是抽象的实体，只有通过惩治犯有此种罪行的人才能够执行国际法的规定”。 |
| The Commission’s 1950 Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal provided that: “Any person who commits an act which constitutes a crime under international law is responsible therefor and liable to punishment”. | 委员会1950年“纽伦堡法庭宪章及法庭判决中所确认之原则”规定：“任何人所犯行为如构成国际法规定之罪行，则须为其承担责任并受到处罚”。 |
| The 1968 Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity provided in its preamble that “the effective punishment of … crimes against humanity is an important element in the prevention of such crimes, the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms, the encouragement of confidence, the furtherance of co-operation among peoples and the promotion of international peace and security”. | 1968年《战争罪及危害人类罪不适用法定时效公约》序言部分宣布，“有效惩治…危害人类罪为防止此种罪行、保障人权与基本自由、鼓励信心、促进民族间合作、及增进国际和平与安全的一个重要因素”。 |
| The preamble to the 1998 Rome Statute affirms “that the most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole must not go unpunished and that their effective prosecution must be ensured by taking measures at the national level and by enhancing international cooperation”. | 1998年《罗马规约》的序言申明，“对整个国际社会关注的最严重犯罪，绝不能听之任之不予处罚，为有效惩治罪犯，必须通过国家一级采取措施并加强国际合作”。 |
| (3) Many States have adopted laws on crimes against humanity that provide for the prosecution of such crimes in their national system. | (3) 很多国家通过了关于危害人类罪的法律，规定了本国体系中对此类罪行的惩治。 |
| The 1998 Rome Statute, in particular, has inspired the enactment or revision of a number of national laws on crimes against humanity that define such crimes in terms identical to or very similar to the offence as defined in article 7 of that Statute. | 特别是在1998年《罗马规约》的影响下，一些国家颁布或修订了关于危害人类罪的国家法律，以与《规约》第七条所述相同或非常相似的措辞界定了此种罪行。 |
| At the same time, many States have adopted national laws that differ, sometimes significantly, from the definition set forth in article 7. | 同时，也有很多国家通过了与《规约》第七条不同的本国法律，有些还有重大差异。 |
| Moreover, still other States have not adopted any national law on crimes against humanity. | 另外，还有一些国家尚未就危害人类罪通过本国法律。 |
| Those States typically do have national criminal laws that provide for punishment in some fashion of many of the individual acts that, under certain circumstances, may constitute crimes against humanity, such as murder, torture or rape. | 这些国家的刑法一般都对谋杀、酷刑、强奸等多种行为确实有某种形式的惩治规定，而此类行为在某些情况下可能构成危害人类罪。 |
| Yet those States have not criminalized crimes against humanity as such and this lacuna may preclude prosecution and punishment of the conduct, including in terms commensurate with the gravity of the offence. | 然而，由于这些国家尚未将危害人类罪本身定为犯罪，这种空白可能会妨碍对犯罪行为进行起诉和惩治，包括与行为的严重性相称的起诉和惩治。 |
| (4) The 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment provides in article 4, paragraph 1, that: “Each State Party shall ensure that all acts of torture are offences under its criminal law”. | (4) 1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》第4条第1款规定：“每一缔约国应保证将一切酷刑行为定为刑事罪行”。 |
| The Committee against Torture has stressed the importance of fulfilling such an obligation so as to avoid possible discrepancies between the crime as defined in the Convention and the crime as it is addressed in national law: | 禁止酷刑委员会强调必须履行此项义务以避免《公约》中的定义与国内法中纳入的定义有重大差距： |
| Serious discrepancies between the Convention’s definition and that incorporated into domestic law create actual or potential loopholes for impunity. | 《公约》中的定义如与国内法中纳入的定义有重大差距，就会出现实际或可能的漏洞，从而导致有罪不罚现象。 |
| In some cases, although similar language may be used, its meaning may be qualified by domestic law or by judicial interpretation and thus the Committee calls upon each State party to ensure that all parts of its Government adhere to the definition set forth in the Convention for the purpose of defining the obligations of the State. | 在某些情况下，尽管用语也许相近，但国内法或司法解释可能对其含义做了限定，因此委员会要求每一缔约国确保政府所有部门都根据《公约》中的定义来界定国家义务。 |
| (5) To help avoid such loopholes with respect to crimes against humanity, draft article 6, paragraph 1, provides that each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that crimes against humanity, as such, constitute offences under its criminal law. | (5) 为了帮助避免在危害人类罪问题上出现此类漏洞，第6条草案第1款规定各国应采取必要措施确保本国刑法规定危害人类罪本身构成犯罪。 |
| Draft article 6, paragraphs 2 and 3 (discussed below), then further obligate the State to criminalize certain ways by which natural persons might engage in such crimes. | 第6条草案第2和3款(讨论如下)则进一步规定了国家在此类罪行为自然人以某些方式实施时将这些方式定为犯罪的义务。 |
| (6) Since the term “crimes against humanity” is defined in draft article 2, paragraphs 1 and 2, the obligation set forth in draft article 6, paragraph 1, requires that the crimes so defined are made offences under the State’s national criminal laws. | (6) 由于第2条草案第1和第2款界定了“危害人类罪”一词，第6条草案第1款规定的义务要求符合此种定义的罪行在各国刑法中被定为犯罪。 |
| While there might be some deviations from the exact language of draft article 2, paragraphs 1 and 2, so as to take account of terminological or other issues specific to any given State, such deviations should not result in qualifications or alterations that significantly depart from the meaning of crimes against humanity as defined in draft article 2, paragraphs 1 and 2. | 虽然为了照顾任何具体国家可能有特定的术语或其他问题，措辞上可能与第2条草案第1和第2款的确切用语有所偏离，但这种偏离造成的限定或改变不应当严重脱离第2条草案第1和第2款所界定的危害人类罪含义。 |
| The term “crimes against humanity” used in draft article 6 (and in other draft articles), however, does not include the “without prejudice” clause contained in draft article 2, paragraph 3. | 但是，第6条草案(及其他各条款草案)中使用的“危害人类罪”一词并不包括第2条草案第3款具有的“不妨碍”条款。 |
| While that clause recognizes the possibility of a broader definition of “crimes against humanity” in any international instrument, in customary international law or in national law, for the purposes of these draft articles the definition of “crimes against humanity” is limited to draft article 2, paragraphs 1 and 2. | 该款承认在任何国际文书、习惯国际法或国内法中“危害人类罪”可能具有更广泛的定义，但就本条款草案而言，“危害人类罪”的定义限于第2条草案第1和第2款的范围。 |
| (7) Like the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, many treaties in the areas of international humanitarian law, human rights and international criminal law require that a State party ensure that the prohibited conduct is an “offence” or “punishable” under its national law, though the exact wording of the obligation varies. | (7) 与1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》一样，国际人道法、人权和国际刑法领域中的很多条约都要求缔约各国确保被禁止的行为在国内法中被定为“犯罪”或“可予惩罚”的行为，尽管关于这方面义务的措辞有所不同。 |
| Some treaties, such as the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and the 1949 Geneva Conventions, contain an obligation to enact “legislation”, but the Commission viewed it appropriate to model draft article 6, paragraph 1, on more recent treaties, such as the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. | 有些条约，如1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》 和1949年日内瓦四公约 载有颁布“立法”的义务，但委员会认为，以较为近期的条约如1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》作为第6条草案第1款的模板是恰当的。 |
| Committing, attempting to commit, assisting in or contributing to a crime against humanity | 实施、企图实施、协助或促成危害人类罪 |
| (8) Draft article 6, paragraph 2, provides that each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that certain ways by which natural persons might engage in crimes against humanity are criminalized under national law, specifically: committing a crime against humanity; attempting to commit such a crime; and ordering, soliciting, inducing, aiding, abetting or otherwise assisting in or contributing to the commission or attempted commission of such a crime. | (8) 第6条草案第2款规定，各国应采取必要措施确保自然人借以犯下危害人类罪的某些方式在本国法律中被定为犯罪，具体为：实施危害人类罪行，企图实施这种罪行，命令、怂恿、引诱、协助、教唆或以其他方式帮助或促成实施或企图实施这种罪行。 |
| (9) In the context of crimes against humanity, a survey of both international instruments and national laws suggests that various types (or modes) of individual criminal responsibility are addressed. | (9) 考察表明，国际文书和国内法均就危害人类罪的各类(或各种形式)个人刑事责任作出了规定。 |
| First, all jurisdictions that have criminalized “crimes against humanity” impose criminal responsibility upon a person who “commits” the offence (sometimes referred to in national law as “direct” commission, as “perpetration” of the act or as being a “principal” in the commission of the act). | 首先，将“危害人类罪”定为犯罪的所有司法体系都规定“实施”罪行者(有的国内法称之为“直接”实施罪行者，有的称之为“犯下”罪行者，有的称之为实施罪行的“主犯”)都负有刑事责任。 |
| For example, the Nürnberg Charter, in article 6, provided jurisdiction for the International Military Tribunal over “persons who, acting in the interests of the European Axis countries, whether as individuals or as members of organizations, committed any of the following crimes”. | 例如，《纽伦堡宪章》第6条规定，国际军事法庭对“无论作为个人还是组织成员、为欧洲轴心国之利益行事而犯有任何下列罪行之人”具有管辖权。 |
| Likewise, the Statutes of both the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda provided that a person who “committed” crimes against humanity “shall be individually responsible for the crime”. | 同样，《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》 和《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》 也规定，凡“实施”危害人类罪的人“应当为该项犯罪负个人责任”。 |
| The 1998 Rome Statute provides that: “A person who commits a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court shall be individually responsible and liable for punishment” and “a person shall be criminally responsible and liable for punishment for a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court if that person: (a) [c]ommits such a crime, whether as an individual [or] jointly with another”. | 1998年《罗马规约》规定，“实施本法院管辖权内的犯罪的人，应依照本规约的规定负个人责任，并受到处罚”，而且“有下列情形之一的人，应依照本规约的规定，对一项本法院管辖权内的犯罪负刑事责任，并受到处罚：(a) 单独[或]伙同他人，实施这一犯罪。 |
| Similarly, the instruments regulating the Special Court for Sierra Leone, the Special Panels for Serious Crimes in East Timor, the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, the Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal and the Extraordinary African Chambers within the Senegalese Judicial System all provide for the criminal responsibility of a person who “commits” crimes against humanity. | 同样，塞拉利昂问题特别法庭、 东帝汶重罪特别审判分庭、 柬埔寨法院特别法庭、 伊拉克最高刑事法庭、 塞内加尔司法系统内的非洲特别法庭 的规约文书均规定，“实施”危害人类罪的人负有刑事责任。 |
| National laws that address crimes against humanity invariably criminalize the “commission” of such crimes. | 处理危害人类罪的各国国内法无不将“实施”该罪行认定为犯罪。 |
| Treaties addressing other types of crimes also call upon States parties to adopt national laws proscribing “commission” of the offence. | 针对其他类型罪行的条约也要求缔约国通过禁止直接犯下相关罪行的国内法。 |
| For example, the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide provides for individual criminal responsibility for the “commission” of genocide, while the 1949 Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I call upon States parties to enact any legislation necessary to provide effective penal sanctions for persons “committing” any of the grave breaches of those treaties. | 例如，1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》规定“实施”灭绝种族罪须负个人刑事责任， 1949年日内瓦四公约及《第一附加议定书》要求缔约国制定任何必要立法，对“实施”任何严重破坏公约之行为的人，处以有效刑事制裁。 |
| In light of the above, paragraph 2 (a) requires each State to take the necessary measures to ensure the act of “committing a crime against humanity” is an offence under its criminal law. | 有鉴于此，第2款(a)项要求各国采取必要措施，确保本国刑法将“实施危害人类罪行”的行为定为犯罪。 |
| (10) Second, almost all such national or international jurisdictions, to one degree or another, also impose criminal responsibility upon a person who participates in the offence in the form of an “attempt” to commit the offence. | (10) 第二，几乎所有这些国内或国际司法机构在某种程度上也规定以“企图”实施犯罪的形式参与罪行的人承担刑事责任。 |
| The Statutes of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the Special Court for Sierra Leone contained no provision for such responsibility. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭、卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭和塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约没有对这类责任做出规定。 |
| In contrast, the 1998 Rome Statute provides for the criminal responsibility of a person who attempts to commit the crime, unless he or she abandons the effort or otherwise prevents completion of the crime. | 相比之下，1998年《罗马规约》规定了企图实施犯罪者的刑事责任，除非此人放弃实施犯罪或以其他方式防止完成犯罪。 |
| In the Banda and Jerbo case, a pre-trial chamber asserted that criminal responsibility for attempt “requires that, in the ordinary course of events, the perpetrator’s conduct [would] have resulted in the crime being completed, had circumstances outside the perpetrator’s control not intervened”. | 在Benda and Jerbo案中，一预审分庭指出，对未遂罪承担刑事责任的“前提是：若非不受犯罪人控制的外部环境干预，则犯罪人的行为在正常情况下本来会导致完成犯罪。 |
| With this in mind, paragraph 2 (b) requires each State to take the necessary measures to ensure the act of “attempting to commit” a crime against humanity is an offence under its criminal law. | ” 考虑到这一点，第2款(b)项要求各国采取必要措施，确保本国刑法将“企图实施危害人类罪行”的行为定为犯罪。 |
| (11) Third, all such national or international jurisdictions, to one degree or another, also impose criminal responsibility upon a person who participates in the offence in the form of “accessorial” responsibility. | (11) 第三，几乎所有这些国内或国际司法机构在某种程度上也规定以“从犯”责任的形式参与罪行的人承担刑事责任。 |
| Such a concept is addressed in international instruments through various terms, such as “ordering”, “soliciting”, “inducing”, “instigating”, “inciting”, “aiding and abetting”, “conspiracy to commit”, “being an accomplice to”, “participating in”, “planning”, or “joint criminal enterprise”. | 国际文书通过各种不同的术语界定这一概念，如“命令”、“怂恿”、“引诱”、“煽动”、“鼓动”、“协助或唆使”、“进行共谋”、“作为共犯”、“参与”、“策划”或“共同犯罪活动”。 |
| Thus, the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia provides: “A person who planned, instigated, ordered, committed or otherwise aided and abetted in the planning, preparation or execution of a crime referred to in articles 2 to 5 of the present Statute, shall be individually responsible for the crime”. | 因此，《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》规定，“凡计划、教唆、命令、犯下或协助或煽动他人计划、准备或进行本规约第2至5条所指罪行的人应当为该项犯罪负个人责任”。 |
| The Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda used virtually identical language. | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》使用的措词几乎如出一辙。 |
| Both tribunals have convicted defendants for participation in such offences within their respective jurisdictions. | 两个法庭均已就被告参与其各自管辖范围内的罪行将被告定罪。 |
| Similarly, the instruments regulating the Special Court for Sierra Leone, the Special Panels for Serious Crimes in East Timor, the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, the Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal and the Extraordinary African Chambers within the Senegalese Judicial System all provided for the criminal responsibility of a person who, in one form or another, participates in the commission of crimes against humanity. | 同样，塞拉利昂问题特别法庭、 东帝汶重罪特别审判分庭、 柬埔寨法院特别法庭、 伊拉克最高刑事法庭 和塞内加尔司法系统内的非洲特别法庭 的文书均规定，以任何形式参与实施危害人类罪的人负有刑事责任。 |
| (12) The 1998 Rome Statute provides for criminal responsibility if the person commits “such a crime … through another person”, if the person “[o]rders, solicits or induces the commission of the crime which in fact occurs or is attempted”, if the person “for the purpose of facilitating the commission of such a crime, aids, abets or otherwise assists in its commission or its attempted commission, including providing the means for its commission” or if the person “in any other way contributes to the commission or attempted commission of such a crime by a group of persons acting with common purpose”, subject to certain conditions. | (12) 1998年《罗马规约》规定，如果某人“通过…另一人实施这一犯罪”，如果此人“命令、唆使、引诱实施这一犯罪，而该犯罪事实上是既遂或未遂的”，如果此人“为了便利实施这一犯罪，帮助、教唆或以其他方式协助实施或企图实施这一犯罪，包括提供犯罪手段”，或如果此人在符合某些条件的情况下“以任何其他方式支助以共同目的行事的团伙实施或企图实施这一犯罪”，则应负刑事责任。 |
| So as to allow national legal systems to approach such accessorial responsibility in a manner consistent with their criminal laws, the Commission decided to use a streamlined version of the various terms set forth in the 1998 Rome Statute as the basis for the terms used in draft article 6, subparagraph 2 (c). | 为使各国法律制度能够以与本国刑法相一致的方式处理这种从犯责任，委员会决定采用1998年《罗马规约》中的各条措辞的简化版本作为第6条草案第2款(c)项的基础。 |
| (13) The Commission considered whether to refer expressly to “conspiracy” or “incitement” in draft article 6, paragraph 2. | (13) 委员会考虑了是否在第6条草案第2款中明确提及“共谋”或“煽动”。 |
| The 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide addresses not just the commission of genocide, but also “[c]onspiracy to commit genocide” and “[d]irect and public incitement to commit genocide”. | 1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》不仅处理了灭绝种族罪的实施，而且还有“预谋灭绝种族”和“直接公然煽动灭绝种族”。 |
| The 1968 Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity broadly provides that: “If any of the crimes mentioned in article I is committed, the provisions of this Convention shall apply to representatives of the State authority and private individuals who, as principals or accomplices, participate in or who directly incite others to the commission of any of those crimes, or who conspire to commit them, irrespective of the degree of completion, and to representatives of the State authority who tolerate their commission”. | 1968年《战争罪及危害人类罪不适用法定时效公约》的概括规定是：“遇犯有第一条所称各罪情事，本公约的规定适用于以正犯或从犯身份参加或直接煽动他人犯各该罪，或共谋犯各该罪的国家当局代表及私人，不问既遂的程度如何，并适用于容许犯此种罪的国家当局代表”。 |
| The Commission referred expressly to “incitement” and “conspiracy” in its 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, but only included them in circumstances where “the crime … in fact occurr[ed]”. | 在1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》中，委员会明确提及“煽动”和“共谋”，但仅在“罪行…实际发生”的情况下才包括在内。 |
| The Rome Statute does not refer to either “conspiracy” or “incitement” with respect to crimes against humanity, an approach which the Commission has elected to follow for the present draft articles. | 《罗马规约》在危害人类罪方面并未提及“共谋”或“煽动”，委员会选择在本条款草案中沿用这一做法。 |
| The Rome Statute does refer to direct and public incitement to commit genocide, but the negotiating history indicates that States consciously chose not to include in the Rome Statute direct and public incitement to commit crimes against humanity. | 《罗马规约》确实提到公然煽动灭绝种族， 但谈判过程表明，各国有意识地选择不将直接公然煽动实施危害人类罪列入《罗马规约》。 |
| Paragraph 2 does not cover the concept of incitement as an inchoate or incomplete offence (i.e., an offence that can occur even if the crime is not consummated, such as “attempt” in subparagraph 2 (b)). | 第2款不涵盖“煽动”这一未完成或不完整犯罪(即使罪行没有得到完全发展也能发生的犯罪，如第2款(b)项中的“企图”)的概念。 |
| At the same time, the various terms found in paragraph 2 (c) do encompass the concept of incitement to a crime against humanity when the crime in fact occurs. | 同时，第2款(c)项中的各种用语的确包含罪行实际发生时煽动危害人类罪的概念。 |
| (14) The concept in these various instruments of “ordering” the crime differs from (and complements) the concept of “command” or other superior responsibility. | (14) 这些不同文书中的“命令”犯罪这一概念不同于“指挥”或其他上级责任的概念，并补充了后者。 |
| Here, “ordering” concerns the criminal responsibility of the superior for affirmatively instructing that action be committed that constitutes an offence. | 在这里，“命令”涉及上级明确指示实施构成犯罪的行为的刑事责任。 |
| In contrast, command or other superior responsibility concerns the criminal responsibility of the superior for a failure to act; | 与之相对，指挥或其他上级责任涉及上级未采取行动的刑事责任； |
| specifically, in situations where the superior knew or had reason to know that subordinates were about to commit such acts or had done so, and the superior failed to take necessary and reasonable measures in their power to prevent such acts or to punish the perpetrators. | 具体而言，是上级知道或应当知道部下将有这种犯罪行为或者已经犯罪而上级没有在其权力范围内采取必要和合理的措施予以阻止或处罚犯罪者的情况。 |
| (15) As a general matter, treaties addressing the establishment and exercise of national jurisdiction over crimes other than crimes against humanity typically call for criminal responsibility of persons using broad terminology, so as not to require States to alter the preferred terminology or modalities that are well settled in national criminal law. | (15) 一般而言，关于对危害人类罪以外的罪行确立和行使国家管辖权的条约通常使用的宽泛术语要求个人承担刑事责任，以便各国不需要改变国内刑法中已牢固确立的首选术语或方式。 |
| In other words, such treaties use general terms rather than detailed language, allowing States to spell out the precise contours of the criminal responsibility through existing national statutes, jurisprudence and legal tradition. | 换言之，这些条约使用笼统术语而不是具体用语，使各国能够通过现有国内法规、判例或法律传统规定刑事责任的确切范围。 |
| For example, the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance broadly provides: “Each State Party shall take the necessary measures to hold criminally responsible at least … [a]ny person who commits, orders, solicits or induces the commission of, attempts to commit, is an accomplice to or participates in an enforced disappearance”. | 例如，2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》做出宽泛规定：“各缔约国应采取必要措施，至少追究下列人员的刑事责任：…所有制造、指令、唆使或诱导制造或企图制造强迫失踪的人，以及同谋或参与制造强迫失踪的人”。 |
| The language of draft article 6, paragraph 2, takes a similar approach. | 第6条草案第2款采取了类似的办法。 |
| Command or other superior responsibility | 指挥责任或其他上级责任 |
| (16) Draft article 6, paragraph 3, addresses the issue of command or other superior responsibility. | (16) 第6条草案第3款处理的是指挥官或其他上级人员的责任问题。 |
| In general, this paragraph provides that superiors are criminally responsible for crimes against humanity committed by subordinates, in circumstances where the superior has failed to take measures with respect to the subordinates’ conduct. | 该款一般性地规定，如果上级人员对下属的行为未能采取措施，则应对下属实施的危害人类罪负刑事责任。 |
| (17) International jurisdictions that have addressed crimes against humanity impute criminal responsibility to a military commander or other superior for an offence committed by subordinates in certain circumstances. | (17) 处理了危害人类罪的国际司法机构将下级在某些情况下实施罪行的刑事责任归咎于其军事指挥官或其他上级。 |
| Notably, the Nürnberg and Tokyo tribunals used command responsibility with respect to both military and civilian commanders, an approach that influenced later tribunals. | 值得注意的是，纽伦堡和东京法庭针对军事和文职指挥官均运用了指挥责任概念，这一做法影响到后来的法庭。 |
| As indicated by a trial chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Prosecutor v. Alfred Musema: “As to whether the form of individual criminal responsibility referred to under Article 6(3) of the [International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda] Statute also applies to persons in both military and civilian authority, it is important to note that during the Tokyo Trials, civilian authorities were convicted of war crimes under this principle”. | 正如卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭一审判分庭在检察官诉Alfred Musema案中所述，“对于《[卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭]规约》第6条第3款中所述个人刑事责任的形式是否也适用于军事和文职当局人员，值得注意的是，在东京审判期间，文职官员根据这项原则被宣判犯有战争罪行”。 |
| (18) Article 86, paragraph 2, of Additional Protocol I to the 1949 Geneva Conventions contains a general provision addressing command/superior responsibility: | (18) 1949年日内瓦四公约《第一附加议定书》第八十六条第二款载有关于指挥(上级)责任的一般规定： |
| The fact that a breach of the Conventions or of this Protocol was committed by a subordinate does not absolve his superiors from penal or disciplinary responsibility, as the case may be, if they knew, or had information which should have enabled them to conclude in the circumstances at the time, that he was committing or was going to commit such a breach and if they did not take all feasible measures within their power to prevent or repress the breach. | 部下破坏各公约或本议定书的事实，并不使其上级免除按照情形所应负的刑事或纪律责任，如果上级知悉或有情报使其能对当时情况作出结论，其部下是正在从事或将要从事这种破约行为，而且如果上级不在其权力内采取一切可能的防止或取缔该破约行为的措施。 |
| (19) The Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia followed this general approach. It provides that: | (19) 《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》沿用了这种一般办法，规定： |
| The fact that any of the acts referred to in articles 2 to 5 of the present Statute was committed by a subordinate does not relieve his superior of criminal responsibility if he knew or had reason to know that the subordinate was about to commit such acts or had done so and the superior failed to take the necessary and reasonable measures to prevent such acts or to punish the perpetrators thereof. | 如果一个部下犯下本《规约》第2至5条所指的任何行为，而他的上级知道或应当知道部下将有这种犯罪行为或者已经犯罪而上级没有采取合理的必要措施予以阻止或处罚犯罪者，则不能免除该上级的刑事责任。 |
| Several defendants were convicted by the Tribunal on such a basis. | 法庭以此为依据将若干名被告定罪。 |
| The same language appears in the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, which also convicted several defendants on such a basis. | 同样的措辞出现在《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》中， 该法庭也以同样依据将几名被告定罪。 |
| Similar language appears in the instruments regulating the Special Court for Sierra Leone, the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, the Special Panels for Serious Crimes in East Timor, the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, the Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal and the Extraordinary African Chambers within the Senegalese Judicial System. | 类似的措词出现在塞拉利昂问题特别法庭、黎巴嫩问题特别法庭、东帝汶重罪特别审判分庭、柬埔寨法院特别法庭、伊拉克最高刑事法庭 和塞内加尔司法系统内的非洲特别法庭 的规范文书中。 |
| (20) Article 28 of the 1998 Rome Statute contains a more detailed standard by which criminal responsibility applies to a military commander or person effectively acting as a military commander with regard to the acts of others. | (20) 1998年《罗马规约》第二十八条载有将他人行为的刑事责任归于军事指挥官或以军事指挥官身份有效行事的人的更详细标准。 |
| As a general matter, criminal responsibility arises when: (a) there is a relationship of subordination; | 一般而言，下列情况会引发刑事责任：(a) 有从属关系； |
| (b) the commander knew or should have known that his or her subordinates were committing or about to commit the offence; | (b) 指挥官知道或本应知道他的部下正在实施或即将实施罪行； |
| and (c) the commander failed to take all necessary and reasonable measures within his or her power to prevent or repress their commission or to submit the matter for investigation and prosecution. | (c) 指挥官未采取在其权力范围内的一切必要而合理的措施，防止或制止这些犯罪的实施，或报请就此事进行调查和起诉。 |
| Article 28 also addresses the issue of other “superior and subordinate relationships” arising in a non-military or civilian context. | 第二十八条还述及非军事或文职方面出现的“上下级关系”问题。 |
| Such superiors include civilians that “lead” but are not “embedded” in military activities. | 这种上级包括“担任领导”但不“参与”军事活动的文官。 |
| (21) National laws and military manuals also often contain this type of criminal responsibility for war crimes, and sometimes for genocide and crimes against humanity, under the influence of both treaty obligations and calls by relevant international bodies. | (21) 受条约义务和相关国际机构的呼吁的影响，国内法和军事手册也经常载有关于战争罪、有时也有关于灭绝种族罪和危害人类罪的这类刑事责任规定。 |
| Based on a detailed analysis of State practice, as well as of international and national jurisprudence, the 2005 ICRC study on Customary International Humanitarian Law formulated a general standard for war crimes as follows: | 在详细分析了国家实践以及国际和国家判例的基础上，红十字国际委员会2005年关于习惯国际人道法的研究报告制定了战争罪的一般标准如下： |
| Commanders and other superiors are criminally responsible for war crimes committed by their subordinates if they knew, or had reason to know, that the subordinates were about to commit or were committing such crimes and did not take all necessary and reasonable measures in their power to prevent their commission, or if such crimes had been committed, to punish the persons responsible. | 指挥官和其他上级人员如知道或理应知道下属即将实施或正在实施战争罪，却没有在其权力范围内采取一切必要和合理措施防止实施这种罪行，或没有在这种罪行已经实施的情况下对责任人予以惩罚，则对这种罪行负刑事责任。 |
| (22) Draft article 6, paragraph 3, uses similar language to express a general standard for addressing command/superior responsibility in the context of crimes against humanity. | (22) 第6条草案第3款采用类似措辞来表达处理危害人类罪中指挥(上级)责任的一般标准。 |
| While a more detailed standard might be used, draft article 6 as a whole generally seeks not to be overly prescriptive, allowing States instead to implement their international obligations in a manner that takes account of existing national laws, practice and jurisprudence. | 虽然可以使用更详细的标准，但第6条草案总体上力求避免作出过于硬性的规定，以便各国能够以考虑到现有国内法律、实践和判例的方式履行其国际义务。 |
| Doing so for paragraph 3 does not, however, foreclose any State from adopting a more detailed standard in its national law, such as appears in article 28 of the Rome Statute, should it wish to do so. | 然而，这样处理第3款并不妨碍任何国家按照自身意愿，在国内法中采用更详细的标准，如《罗马规约》第二十八条中的标准。 |
| Superior orders | 上级命令 |
| (23) Draft article 6, paragraph 4, provides that each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that the fact that an offence referred to in the article was committed pursuant to an order of a Government or of a superior, whether military or civilian, is not a ground for excluding the criminal responsibility of a subordinate. | (23) 第6条草案第4款规定，各国应采取必要措施，确保依照政府或者军事或文职上级的命令实施本条所述罪行的事实不成为免除下级刑事责任的理由。 |
| (24) All jurisdictions that address crimes against humanity provide grounds for excluding substantive criminal responsibility to one degree or another. | (24) 所有处理危害人类罪的司法体系均在一定程度上允许依据某些理由免除实质性刑事责任。 |
| For example, most jurisdictions preclude criminal responsibility if the alleged perpetrator suffered from a mental disease that prevented the person from appreciating the unlawfulness of his or her conduct. | 例如，如果被指控施害者患有精神疾病，无法认识到其行为是非法的，则大多数司法体系会免除其刑事责任。 |
| Some jurisdictions provide that a state of intoxication also precludes criminal responsibility, at least in some circumstances. | 有些司法体系规定，至少在某些情况下，也免除处于醉酒或药物麻醉等神志不清状态者的刑事责任。 |
| The fact that the person acted in self-defence may also preclude responsibility, as may duress resulting from a threat of imminent harm or death. | 为自卫采取的行动以及因迫近伤害或死亡的威胁带来的胁迫所采取的行动也可以免负责任。 |
| In some instances, the person must have achieved a certain age to be criminally responsible. | 在有些情况下，当事人必须达到一定的年龄，才须负刑事责任。 |
| The exact grounds vary by jurisdiction and, with respect to national systems, are usually embedded in that jurisdiction’s approach to criminal responsibility generally, not just in the context of crimes against humanity. | 各司法体系允许提出的确切理由各不相同。 就国内制度而言，这些理由通常根植于该司法体系处理刑事责任的一般做法，而并不单单针对危害人类罪。 |
| (25) At the same time, most jurisdictions that address crimes against humanity provide that perpetrators of such crimes cannot invoke as a defence to criminal responsibility that they were ordered by a superior to commit the offence. | (25) 与此同时，大多数处理危害人类罪的司法体系规定，犯下这类罪行的人不能以上级命令他们犯下该罪行作为辩护理由。 |
| Article 8 of the Nürnberg Charter provides: “The fact that the Defendant acted pursuant to order of his Government or of a superior shall not free him from responsibility, but may be considered in mitigation of punishment if the Tribunal determines that justice so requires”. | 《纽伦堡宪章》第八条规定：“被告不得因按照政府或上级命令犯罪而免除刑事责任，但如法庭认为符合公正审判之需要时，此种情况于刑罚之减轻上得加以考虑”。 |
| Consistent with article 8, the International Military Tribunal found that the fact that “a soldier was ordered to kill or torture in violation of the international law of war has never been recognized as a defence to such acts of brutality”. | 因此，国际军事法庭按照第八条认定：“士兵按照命令违反国际战争法而杀人或实施酷刑，从未被承认是实施此种暴行的理由”。 |
| Likewise, article 6 of the Charter of the Tokyo Tribunal provided: “Neither the official position, at any time, of an accused, nor the fact that an accused acted pursuant to order of his government or of a superior shall, of itself, be sufficient to free such accused from responsibility for any crime with which he is charged, but such circumstances may be considered in mitigation of punishment if the Tribunal determines that justice so requires”. | 与此相似，《东京法庭宪章》第六条规定：“被告在任何时期所曾任之官职，以及被告系遵从其政府或上级长官之命令而行动之事实，均不足以免除其被控所犯任何罪行之责任。 但如法庭认为符合公正审判之需要时，此种情况于刑罚之减轻上得加以考虑”。 |
| (26) While article 33 of the 1998 Rome Statute allows for a limited superior orders defence, it does so exclusively with respect to war crimes; | (26) 虽然1998年《罗马规约》第三十三条允许以上级命令为由作出有限辩护，但仅针对战争罪； |
| orders to commit acts of genocide or crimes against humanity do not fall within the scope of the defence. | 实施灭绝种族行为或危害人类罪的命令不属于该辩护规定的范围。 |
| The instruments regulating the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the Special Court for Sierra Leone, the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, the Special Panels for Serious Crimes in East Timor, the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, the Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal and the Extraordinary African Chambers within the Senegalese Judicial System all similarly exclude superior orders as a defence for crimes against humanity. | 规范前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭、卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭、塞拉利昂问题特别法庭、黎巴嫩问题特别法庭、东帝汶重罪特别审判分庭、柬埔寨法院特别法庭、伊拉克最高刑事法庭 和塞内加尔司法系统内的非洲特别法庭 的文书中均同样不允许将上级命令作为危害人类罪的辩护理由。 |
| While superior orders are not permitted as a defence to prosecution for an offence, some of the international and national jurisdictions mentioned above allow orders from a superior to serve as a mitigating factor at the sentencing stage. | 虽然不允许将上级命令作为起诉犯罪的辩护理由，但上述一些国际和国家司法体系允许在量刑阶段将上级命令作为一种减刑因素。 |
| (27) Such exclusion of superior orders as a defence exists in a range of treaties addressing crimes, such as: the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; the 1985 Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture; the 1994 Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons; | (27) 一系列针对犯罪的条约中均做出了此类不允许将上级命令作为辩护理由的规定，例如：1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》、1985年《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》、1994年《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》 和2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》。 |
| and the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. In the context of the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, the Committee against Torture has criticized national legislation that permits such a defence or is ambiguous on the issue. | 关于1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》，禁止酷刑委员会批评了允许以此作为辩护理由的国家立法或在此问题上暧昧不清的国家立法。 |
| In some instances, the problem arises from the presence in a State’s national law of what is referred to as a “due obedience” defence. | 在某些情况下，问题源于一国的国内法允许以所谓“正当服从”作为辩护理由。 |
| Official position | 公职 |
| (28) Draft article 6, paragraph 5, provides that the fact that the offence was committed “by a person holding an official position” does not exclude substantive criminal responsibility. | (28) 第6条草案第5款规定，罪行“由担任公职的人实施”这一事实不得排除实质上的刑事责任。 |
| The inability to assert the existence of an official position as a substantive defence to criminal responsibility before international criminal courts and tribunals is a well-established principle of international law. | 在国际性刑事法院和法庭不得以公职的存在作为刑事责任的实质性辩护理由是一项牢固确立的国际法原则。 |
| The Nürnberg Charter provided: “The official position of defendants, whether as Heads of State or responsible officials in Government Departments, shall not be considered as freeing them from responsibility or mitigating punishment”. | 《纽伦堡宪章》规定：“被告的官方地位，无论是国家元首还是政府部门的负责官员，不得被视为免除其责任或减轻刑罚的因素”。 |
| The Commission’s 1950 Principles of International Law recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal provided: “The fact that a person who committed an act which constitutes a crime under international law [i.e., crimes against humanity, crimes against peace, and war crimes] acted as Head of State or responsible Government official does not relieve him from responsibility under international law”. | 经《纽伦堡法庭宪章》和《法庭判决书》确认的委员会1950年《国际法原则》规定：“从事构成国际法所涉犯罪行为[即危害人类罪、破坏和平罪及战争罪]的人是作为国家元首或政府负责官员而采取行动的事实，不能免除其根据国际法承担的责任。 |
| The Tokyo Charter provided: “Neither the official position, at any time, of an accused, nor the fact that an accused acted pursuant to order of his government or of a superior shall, of itself, be sufficient to free such accused from responsibility for any crime with which he is charged, but such circumstances may be considered in mitigation of punishment if the Tribunal determines that justice so requires”. | ”。 《东京宪章》规定：“被告在任何时期所曾任之官职，以及被告系遵从其政府或上级长官之命令而行动之事实，均不足以免除其被控所犯任何罪行之责任。 但如法庭认为符合公正审判之需要时，此种情况于刑罚之减轻上得加以考虑”。 |
| (29) The Commission’s 1954 draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind provided: “The fact that a person acted as Head of State or as responsible government official does not relieve him of responsibility for committing any of the offences defined in this Code”. | (29) 委员会的1954年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》规定：“个人以国家元首或政府首脑的身份行事的事实，不能免除其犯下本法案所规定的任何罪行的责任”。 |
| The Commission’s 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind provided: “The official position of an individual who commits a crime against the peace and security of mankind, even if he acted as head of State or Government, does not relieve him of criminal responsibility or mitigate punishment”. | 委员会1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》规定：“实施危害人类和平及安全罪行的个人，即便是以国家元首或政府首脑的身份行事，其官职也不能使其免除刑事责任或减轻处罚。 |
| The 1998 Rome Statute provides: “This Statute shall apply equally to all persons without any distinction based on official capacity. | ” 1998年《罗马规约》规定：“本规约对任何人一律平等适用，不得因官方身份而差别适用。 |
| In particular, official capacity as a Head of State or Government, a member of a Government or parliament, an elected representative or a government official shall in no case exempt a person from criminal responsibility under this Statute, nor shall it, in and of itself, constitute a ground for reduction of sentence”. | 特别是作为国家元首或政府首脑、政府成员或议会议员、选任代表或政府官员的官方身份，在任何情况下都不得免除个人根据本规约所负的刑事责任，其本身也不得构成减轻刑罚的理由”。 |
| (30) The inability to use official position as a substantive defence to criminal responsibility is also addressed in some treaties relating to national criminal jurisdiction. | (30) 有关国内刑事管辖权的一些条约也处理了不得利用公职作为刑事责任实质性辩护理由的问题。 |
| For example, the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, provides that individuals “shall be punished, whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals”. | 例如1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》规定：“无论其为依宪法负责的统治者、公务员或私人，均应惩治之”。 |
| The 1973 Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid provides that “[i]nternational criminal responsibility shall apply … to … representatives of the State, whether residing in the territory of the State in which the acts are perpetrated or in some other State”. | 1973《禁止并惩治种族隔离罪行公约》规定，“国家代表…应负国际罪责，不论是住在行为发生地的国家的领土内或其他国家”。 |
| (31) In light of such precedents, the Commission deemed it appropriate to include paragraph 5, which provides that each “State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that, under its criminal law, the fact that an offence referred to in this draft article was committed by a person holding an official position is not a ground for excluding criminal responsibility”. | (31) 鉴于此类先例，委员会认为列入第5款是适宜的，其中规定“各国应采取必要措施，确保根据本国刑法，本条草案所述罪行由担任公职的人实施的事实不成为免除刑事责任的理由”。 |
| For the purposes of the present draft articles, paragraph 5 means that an alleged offender cannot raise the fact of his or her official position as a substantive defence so as to negate any criminal responsibility. | 为本条款草案的目的，第5款意味着，被控犯罪者不能以他或她担任公职的事实作为实质性辩护理由，借以否定任何刑事责任。 |
| By contrast, paragraph 5 has no effect on any procedural immunity that a foreign State official may enjoy before a national criminal jurisdiction, which continues to be governed by conventional and customary international law. | 相反，第5款对于外国国家官员面对一国刑事管辖可能享有的任何程序性豁免没有影响，这仍然是由条约和习惯国际法决定的事务。 |
| Further, paragraph 5 is without prejudice to the Commission’s work on the topic “Immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction”. | 此外，第5款不妨碍委员会关于“国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免”专题的工作。 |
| (32) The Commission did not find it necessary to include language in paragraph 5 specifying that one’s official position cannot be raised as a ground for mitigation or reduction of sentence, because the issue of punishment is addressed in draft article 6, paragraph 7. | (32) 委员会认为没有必要在第5款中列入措词以具体规定某人担任公职不能作为减弱或减轻刑罚的理由，因为刑罚问题是在第6条草案第7款中处理的。 |
| According to that paragraph, States are required, in all circumstances, to ensure that crimes against humanity be punishable by appropriate penalties that take into account their grave nature. | 根据该款，对危害人类罪，各国必须在所有情况下确保考虑到罪行的严重性，处以适当的惩罚。 |
| Such language should be understood as precluding the invoking of official position as a ground for mitigation or reduction of sentence. | 这种措辞应理解为排除了援引公职地位作为减弱或减轻刑罚的理由的可能。 |
| Statutes of limitations | 时效 |
| (33) One possible restriction on the prosecution of a person for crimes against humanity in national law concerns the application of a “statute of limitations” (or “period of prescription”), meaning a rule that forbids prosecution of an alleged offender for a crime that was committed more than a specified number of years prior to the initiation of the prosecution. | (33) 国内法中就危害人类罪起诉个人可能受到的一种限制是适用“时效”(“时效期限”)，即禁止就早于开始起诉前特定年数的犯罪对被指控罪犯提出起诉。 |
| Draft article 6, paragraph 6, provides that each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that the offences referred to in the draft article shall not be subject to any statute of limitations. | 第6条草案第6款规定，各国应采取必要措施确保该条草案所述罪行不应受到任何时效限制。 |
| This provision does not obligate a State to prosecute offences referred to in the draft article that took place before such offences have been criminalized in the State’s national law. | 此条款并未规定一国有义务起诉在国内法将本条草案所指罪行定为刑事犯罪之前发生的此类罪行。 |
| Further, as noted in the commentary with respect to draft article 1, if the present draft articles ultimately serve as the basis for a convention, the obligations of a State party under that convention, unless a different intention appears, would only operate with respect to acts or facts that took place, or any situation that existed, after the convention enters into force for that State. | 此外，如第1条草案评注所述，若本条款草案最终成为一项公约的基础，除非另有意图，缔约国在该公约之下的义务将仅适用于公约对该国生效后发生的行为或事实或存在的任何情势。 |
| (34) No rule on statute of limitations with respect to international crimes, including crimes against humanity, was established in the Nürnberg or Tokyo Charters, or in the constituent instruments of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda or the Special Court for Sierra Leone. | (34) 《纽伦堡宪章》或《东京宪章》或前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭、卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭或塞拉利昂问题特别法庭的组成文书都没有就包括危害人类罪在内的国际罪行规定时效规则。 |
| In contrast, Control Council Law No. 10, adopted in December 1945 by the Allied Control Council for Germany to ensure the continued prosecution of alleged offenders, provided that in any trial or prosecution for crimes against humanity (as well as war crimes and crimes against the peace) “the accused shall not be entitled to the benefits of any statute of limitation in respect to the period from 30 January 1933 to 1 July 1945”. | 相形之下，占领德国的盟国在1945年12月为确保继续起诉被指控罪犯通过了管制委员会第10号法令，规定在任何关于危害人类罪(以及战争罪和危害和平罪)的审判或起诉中，“被告无权获益于任何有关1933年1月30日至1945年7月1日期间的时效限制”。 |
| Likewise, the Rome Statute expressly addresses the matter, providing that: “The crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court shall not be subject to any statute of limitations”. | 与此相似，《罗马规约》明确处理了这一问题，规定“本法院管辖权内的犯罪不适用任何时效”。 |
| The drafters of the Statute strongly supported this provision as applied to crimes against humanity. | 《罗马规约》的起草人坚决支持对危害人类罪适用这一规定。 |
| Similarly, the Law on the Establishment of Extraordinary Chambers in Cambodia, the Statute of the Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal and the East Timor Tribunal Charter all explicitly defined crimes against humanity as offences for which there is no statute of limitations. | 同样，《设立柬埔寨法院特别法庭法》以及伊拉克最高刑事法庭和东帝汶重罪特别审判分庭的规约都明确界定危害人类罪是不适用时效的罪行。 |
| (35) With respect to whether a statute of limitations may apply to the prosecution of an alleged offender in national courts, in 1967 the General Assembly noted that “the application to war crimes and crimes against humanity of the rule of municipal law relating to the period of limitation for ordinary crimes is a serious concern to world public opinion, since it prevents the prosecution and punishment of persons responsible for those crimes”. | (35) 关于时效是否可在国内法院适用于对被指控罪犯的起诉，联大在1967年指出，“国内法关于普通罪行之时效规则适用于战争罪及危害人类罪，为世界舆论极感忧虑之事，因其足以防止诉究与惩治犯该罪之人”。 |
| The following year, States adopted the 1968 Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, which requires States parties to adopt “any legislative or other measures necessary to ensure that statutory or other limitations shall not apply to the prosecution and punishment” of these two types of crimes. | 次年，众多国家通过了1968年《战争罪及危害人类罪不适用法定时效公约》，规定缔约国采取“必要立法或其他措施，以确保法定或他种时效不适用于(这两类罪行)之追诉权及行刑权”。 |
| Similarly, in 1974, the Council of Europe adopted the European Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitation to Crimes against Humanity and War Crimes, which uses substantially the same language. | 同样，欧洲委员会1974年通过了《危害人类罪和战争罪不适用法定时效欧洲公约》，采用的措辞大体相同。 |
| At present, there appears to be no State with a law on crimes against humanity that also bars prosecution after a period of time has elapsed. | 目前看来，没有一个国家有禁止在一段时间后提出起诉的危害人类罪相关法律。 |
| Rather, numerous States have specifically legislated against any such limitation. | 相反，众多国家还专门立法反对此类限制。 |
| (36) Many treaties addressing crimes in national law other than crimes against humanity have not contained a prohibition on a statute of limitations. | (36) 许多处理国内法其他罪行的条约没有载列禁止时效的规定。 |
| For example, the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment contains no prohibition on the application of a statute of limitations to torture-related offences. | 例如，1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》就没有载列禁止对酷刑相关罪行适用时效的规定。 |
| Even so, the Committee against Torture has stated that, taking into account their grave nature, such offences should not be subject to any statute of limitations. | 即使如此，禁止酷刑委员会声明，考虑到此类罪行的严重性质，这些罪行不应受到任何时效限制。 |
| Similarly, while the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights does not directly address the issue, the Human Rights Committee has called for the abolition of statutes of limitations in relation to serious violations of the Covenant. | 与此相似，虽然1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》 没有直接论及这一问题，但人权事务委员会呼吁对严重违反该《公约》的罪行取消时效限制。 |
| The United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances requires a long statutory period, as do the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》要求规定较长的时效期限， 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》 和《联合国反腐败公约》 也作出同样规定。 |
| The 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance provides: “A State Party which applies a statute of limitations in respect of enforced disappearance shall take the necessary measures to ensure that the term of limitation for criminal proceedings: (a) Is of long duration and is proportionate to the extreme seriousness of this offence”. | 2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》规定：“对强迫失踪案件实行诉讼时效的缔约国，应采取必要措施，确保对刑事诉讼的时效…(a) 有较长的时段，并与此种犯罪的极端严重性相称”。 |
| The travaux préparatoires of the Convention indicate that this provision was intended to distinguish between those offences that might constitute a crime against humanity – for which there should be no statute of limitations – and all other offences under the Convention. | 《公约》的准备工作文件表明，这一条款旨在区分两类罪行，一是可能构成危害人类罪的罪行，此类罪行不应有时效限制，二是《公约》规定的所有其他罪行。 |
| Appropriate penalties | 适当惩罚 |
| (37) Draft article 6, paragraph 7, provides that each State shall ensure that the offences referred to in the article shall be punishable by appropriate penalties that take into account the grave nature of the offences. | (37) 第6条草案第7款规定，各国应确保对该条草案所述罪行应考虑到罪行的严重性处以适当的惩罚。 |
| (38) The Commission provided in its 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind that: “An individual who is responsible for a crime against the peace and security of mankind shall be liable to punishment. The punishment shall be commensurate with the character and gravity of the crime”. | (38) 国际法委员会在1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》中规定，“应对危害人类和平及安全罪行负责的个人应该受到与该罪行的性质和严重性相称的惩罚”。 |
| The commentary further explained that the “character of a crime is what distinguishes that crime from another crime … The gravity of a crime is inferred from the circumstances in which it is committed and the feelings which impelled the author”. | 评注进一步解释说，“某一罪行的特性是它有别于另一罪行的性质…，某一罪行的严重性是从实行该罪行的情况和促使案犯犯罪的意图加以推论的”。 |
| Thus, “while the criminal act is legally the same, the means and methods used differ, depending on varying degrees of depravity and cruelty. All of these factors should guide the court in applying the penalty”. | 因此，“虽然从法律上说同样是罪行，所使用的手段和方法却因堕落和残忍的程度不同而有所不同”。 |
| (39) To the extent that an international court or tribunal has jurisdiction over crimes against humanity, the penalties attached to such an offence may vary, but are expected to be appropriate given the gravity of the offence. | (39) 在国际性法院或法庭对危害人类罪有管辖权的情形下，对此类罪行适用的惩罚可能是不同的，但要求其与罪行的严重性相称。 |
| The Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia provides that: “The penalty imposed by the Trial Chamber shall be limited to imprisonment. | 《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》规定，“审判分庭判处的刑罚只限于监禁。 |
| In determining the terms of imprisonment, the Trial Chambers shall have recourse to the general practice regarding prison sentences in the courts of the former Yugoslavia”. | 审判分庭在决定监禁期限时应诉诸前南斯拉夫法庭适用的徒刑惯例”。 |
| Furthermore, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia is to “take into account such factors as the gravity of the offence and the individual circumstances of the convicted person”. | 此外，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭应“考虑到像罪行的严重性和被定罪者的个人情况这样的因素”。 |
| The Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda includes identical language, except that recourse is to be had to “the general practice regarding prison sentences in the courts of Rwanda”. | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》有相同的措辞，区别是应诉诸“卢旺达问题法庭适用的徒刑惯例”。 |
| Even for convictions for the most serious crimes of international concern, this can result in a wide range of sentences. | 即便是对国际社会关注的最严重国际罪行的定罪，这也可能导致各种量刑结果。 |
| Article 77 of the 1998 Rome Statute also allows for flexibility of this kind, by providing for a term of imprisonment of up to 30 years or life imprisonment “when justified by the extreme gravity of the crime and the individual circumstances of the convicted person”. | 1998年《罗马规约》第七十七条也具有这种灵活性，规定最高不超过三十年的有期徒刑或无期徒刑，“以犯罪极为严重和被定罪人的个人情况而证明有此必要的情形为限”。 |
| Similar formulations may be found in the instruments regulating the Special Court for Sierra Leone, the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, the Special Panels for Serious Crimes in East Timor, the Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal, and the Extraordinary African Chambers within the Senegalese Judicial System. | 在塞拉利昂问题特别法庭、黎巴嫩问题特别法庭、东帝汶重罪特别审判分庭、伊拉克最高刑事法庭 和塞内加尔司法系统内的非洲特别法庭 的规范文书中，都可发现类似的表述。 |
| Likewise, to the extent that a national jurisdiction has criminalized crimes against humanity, the penalties attached to such an offence may vary, but are expected to be commensurate with the gravity of the offence. | 同样，在一国司法体系把危害人类罪定为刑事犯罪的情形下，对此类罪行适用的惩罚也可能是不同的，但要求其与罪行的严重性相称。 |
| (40) International treaties addressing crimes do not dictate to States parties the penalties to be imposed (or not to be imposed) but, rather, allow them the discretion to determine the punishment, based on the circumstances of the particular offender and offence. | (40) 针对犯罪的国际条约没有规定缔约国应施加(或不施加)什么惩罚，而是由缔约国自由裁量，依据特定犯罪者和罪行的情况，决定施加的惩罚。 |
| The 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide simply calls for “effective penalties for persons guilty of genocide or any of the other acts enumerated … | 1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》仅规定，“对于犯灭绝种族罪或有…所列其他行为之一者尤应规定有效的惩治”。 |
| ”. The 1949 Geneva Conventions also provide a general standard and leave to individual States the discretion to set the appropriate punishment, by simply requiring “[t]he High Contracting Parties [to] undertake to enact any legislation necessary to provide effective penal sanctions for … any of the grave breaches of the present Convention … ”. | 1949年日内瓦四公约也规定了一条普遍性标准，但赋予各国制订恰当处罚的自由裁量权，仅规定“各缔约国担任制定必要之立法，俾对于本身犯有或令人犯有下条所列之严重破坏本公约之行为之人，处以有效之刑事制裁”。 |
| More recent treaties addressing crimes in national legal systems typically indicate that the penalty should be “appropriate”. | 较近期的有关一国法律制度所定罪行的条约通常规定，惩罚应是“适当的”。 |
| Although the Commission initially proposed the term “severe penalties” for use in its draft articles on diplomatic agents and other protected persons, the term “appropriate penalties” was instead used by States in the 1973 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents. | 虽然委员会最初提议在其关于外交代表和其他应受保护人员的条款草案中使用“严厉惩罚”一词，但实际上诸国在1973年《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》中使用了“适当的惩罚”这一术语。 |
| That term has served as a model for subsequent treaties. | 该术语成为后续各项条约的模板。 |
| At the same time, the provision on “appropriate” penalties in the 1973 Convention was accompanied by language calling for the penalty to take into account the “grave nature” of the offence. | 同时，在1973年《公约》中，除规定“适当的惩罚”外，还呼吁在确定如何惩罚时考虑到罪行的“严重性”。 |
| The Commission commented that such a reference was intended to emphasize that the penalty should take into account the important “world interests” at stake in punishing such an offence. | 委员会评论说，这样的提法意在强调在惩治此类犯罪时，处罚措施应考虑到其中所涉的重要“全球利益”。 |
| Since 1973, this approach – that each “State Party shall make these offences punishable by the appropriate penalties which take into account their grave nature” – has been adopted for numerous treaties, including the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. | 自1973年以来，每一“缔约国应按照这类罪行的严重性处以适当的惩罚”这一处理办法已被众多条约采纳，其中包括1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》。 |
| In some treaties, the issue of gravity is expressed using terms such as “extreme seriousness”, “serious nature” or “extreme gravity” of the offences. | 一些条约使用罪行的“极端严重性”、“严重的本质”或“极端严峻性”等词语来表述严重性问题。 |
| Legal persons | 法人 |
| (41) Paragraphs 1 to 7 of draft article 6 are directed at criminal liability of offenders who are natural persons, although the term “natural” is not used, which is consistent with the approach taken in treaties addressing crimes. | (41) 第6条草案第1至第7款涉及自然人的刑事责任，虽然按照关于罪行的条约的一贯做法，没有使用“自然人”一词。 |
| Paragraph 8, in contrast, addresses the liability of “legal persons” for the offences referred to in draft article 6. | 第8款则涉及“法人”对第6条草案所指罪行的责任。 |
| (42) Criminal liability of legal persons has become a feature of the national laws of many States in recent years, but it is still unknown in many other States. | (42) 近年来，法人的刑事责任已成为许多国家国内法的一个重点，但在许多其他国家仍然很陌生。 |
| In States where the concept is known, such liability sometimes exists with respect to international crimes. | 存在这一概念的国家中，在国际罪行方面有时存在这种责任。 |
| Acts that can lead to such liability are, of course, committed by natural persons, who act as officials, directors, officers, or through some other position or agency of the legal person. | 可导致这种责任的行为当然是自然人以公务员、指挥官、军官身份所为，或通过其他一些法人职位或机构犯下的。 |
| Such liability, in States where the concept exists, is typically imposed when the offence at issue was committed by a natural person on behalf of or for the benefit of the legal person. | 存在这一概念的国家中，通常是在自然人代表法人或为了法人的利益犯下相关罪行时，加诸此种责任。 |
| (43) Criminal liability of legal persons has not featured significantly to date in international criminal courts and tribunals. | (43) 迄今为止，国际性刑事法院和法庭尚未太多地涉及法人的刑事责任。 |
| The Nürnberg Charter, in articles 9 and 10, authorized the International Military Tribunal to declare any group or organization as a criminal organization during the trial of an individual, which could lead to the trial of other individuals for membership in the organization. | 《纽伦堡宪章》第9和第10条授权国际军事法庭在审判个人期间宣布任何团体或组织为犯罪组织，这可能导致对作为该组织成员的其他个人的审判。 |
| In the course of the Tribunal’s proceedings, as well as subsequent proceedings under Control Council Law No. 10, a number of such organizations were so designated, but only natural persons were tried and punished. | 在纽伦堡军事法庭的诉讼中，以及根据管制委员会第10号法令进行的后续诉讼中，认定了许多这类组织，但只有自然人受到审判和惩罚。 |
| The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda did not have criminal jurisdiction over legal persons, nor does the Special Court for Sierra Leone, the Special Panels for Serious Crimes in East Timor, the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, the Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal, or the Extraordinary African Chambers within the Senegalese Judicial System. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭和卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭对法人没有刑事管辖权，塞拉利昂问题特别法庭、东帝汶重罪特别审判分庭、柬埔寨法院特别法庭、伊拉克最高刑事法庭以及塞内加尔司法系统内的非洲特别法庭对法人也没有刑事管辖权。 |
| The drafters of the 1998 Rome Statute noted that “[t]here is a deep divergence of views as to the advisability of including criminal responsibility of legal persons in the Statute” and, although proposals for inclusion of a provision on such responsibility were made, the Statute ultimately did not contain such a provision. | 1998年《罗马规约》的起草者指出，“对于规约是否应包括法人刑事责任的问题存在重大分歧”， 虽然有人提议列入一项关于法人刑事责任的规定，但《罗马规约》最终并未载入此类规定。 |
| (44) Liability of legal persons also has not been included in many treaties addressing crimes at the national level, including: the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide; the 1949 Geneva Conventions; the 1970 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft; | (44) 许多关于国家一级罪行的条约也没有列入法人的责任，包括：1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》、1949年日内瓦四公约、1970年《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》、1973年《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》、1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》、1997年《制止恐怖主义爆炸的国际公约》、2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》。 |
| the 1973 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents; the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; | 委员会1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》仅涉及“个人”的刑事责任。 |
| the 1997 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings; and the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. The Commission’s 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind only addressed the criminal responsibility of “an individual”. | (45) 另一方面，修正《非洲司法和人权法院章程》的2014年非洲联盟议定书虽然尚未生效，但是授予了新设立的非洲法院对法人(除国家外)的国际罪行(包括危害人类罪)的管辖权。 |
| (45) On the other hand, the 2014 African Union protocol amending the statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, though not yet in force, provides jurisdiction to the reconstituted African Court over legal persons (with the exception of States) for international crimes, including crimes against humanity. | 再者，《黎巴嫩问题特别法庭规约》虽然没有明文规定对法人(以及对危害人类罪)的刑事管辖权，但是该法庭的上诉分庭2014年得出结论，该法庭有权以藐视法庭罪名起诉法人。 |
| Further, although criminal jurisdiction over legal persons (as well as over crimes against humanity) is not expressly provided for in the statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, the Tribunal’s Appeals Panel concluded in 2014 that the Tribunal had jurisdiction to prosecute a legal person for contempt of court. (46) Moreover, there are several treaties that address the liability of legal persons for criminal offences, notably: the 1973 International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid; the 1989 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal; | (46) 此外，有一些条约涉及法人对刑事犯罪的责任，特别是1973年《禁止并惩治种族隔离罪行国际公约》、1989年《控制危险废物越境转移及其处置巴塞尔公约》、1999年《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》、2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》、2000年《儿童权利公约关于买卖儿童、儿童卖淫和儿童色情制品问题的任择议定书》、2003年《联合国反腐败公约》 以及欧洲委员会内缔结的一系列条约。 |
| the 1999 International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism; the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime; | 还有一些区域文书也涉及法人的刑事责任，主要是在腐败方面。 |
| the 2000 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography; the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption; | 这些条约通常不对“法人”一词下定义，留给国内法律体系适用国内通常适用的定义。 |
| and a series of treaties concluded within the Council of Europe. Other regional instruments address the issue as well, mostly in the context of corruption. Such treaties typically do not define the term “legal person”, leaving it to national legal systems to apply whatever definition would normally operate therein. | (47) 委员会考虑到法人可能卷入在广泛或有系统地针对平民人口的攻击中实施的行为，决定加上一项关于法人对危害人类罪的责任的规定。 |
| (47) The Commission decided to include a provision on liability of legal persons for crimes against humanity, given the potential involvement of legal persons in acts committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against a civilian population. | 委员会特别采用了在其他罪行背景下已被各国广泛接受、并且让各国在履行义务方面有较大灵活性的措辞。 |
| In doing so, it has focused on language that has been widely accepted by States in the context of other crimes and that contains considerable flexibility for States in the implementation of their obligation. | (48) 第6条草案第8款以2000年《儿童权利公约关于买卖儿童、儿童卖淫和儿童色情制品问题的任择议定书》为范本。 |
| (48) Paragraph 8 of draft article 6 is modelled on the 2000 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography. | 《任择议定书》于2000年经联大通过，自2002年起生效。 |
| The Optional Protocol was adopted by the General Assembly in 2000 and entered into force in 2002. As of mid-2019, 176 States are party to the Optional Protocol and another 9 States have signed but not yet ratified it. | 截至2019年中，有176个国家加入了《任择议定书》，另有9个国家已签署但尚未批准该议定书。 |
| Article 3, paragraph 1, of the Optional Protocol obligates States parties to ensure that certain acts are covered under its criminal or penal law, such as the sale of children for sexual exploitation or the offering of a child for prostitution. | 《任择议定书》第3条第1款要求每一缔约国确保本国刑法涵盖特定行为，例如出于性剥削目的出售儿童或提供儿童卖淫。 |
| Article 3, paragraph 4, then reads: “Subject to the provisions of its national law, each State Party shall take measures, where appropriate, to establish the liability of legal persons for offences established in paragraph 1 of the present article. | 第3条第4款规定：“在不违反本国法律规定的情况下，每一缔约国应酌情采取适当措施确定法人对本条第1款规定的罪行的责任。 |
| Subject to the legal principles of the State Party, such liability of legal persons may be criminal, civil or administrative”. | 在不违反缔约国的法律原则的情况下，可将法人的这一责任定为刑事、民事或行政责任”。 |
| (49) Paragraph 8 of draft article 6 uses the same language, but replaces “State Party” with “State” and replaces “for offences established in paragraph 1 of the present article” with “for the offences referred to in this draft article”. | (49) 第6条草案第8款使用同样的措辞，但是将“缔约国”改为“国家”，将“本条第1款规定的罪行”改为“本条草案所指罪行”。 |
| As such, paragraph 8 imposes an obligation upon the State that it “shall take measures”, meaning that it is required to pursue such measures in good faith. | 第8款从而规定了国家“应采取措施”的义务，意味着国家必须本着善意采取这类措施。 |
| At the same time, paragraph 8 provides the State with considerable flexibility to shape those measures in accordance with its national law. | 与此同时，第8款在根据国内法来确定这些措施方面，赋予了国家相当大的灵活性。 |
| First, the clause “[s]ubject to the provisions of its national law” should be understood as according to the State considerable discretion as to the measures that will be adopted; | 首先，“在不违反本国法律规定的情况下”应理解为在将采取的措施方面，赋予国家相当大的裁量权； |
| the obligation is “subject to” the State’s existing approach to liability of legal persons for criminal offences under its national law. | 这一义务“不违反”国内法规定的国家关于法人刑事责任的现有做法。 |
| For example, in most States, liability of legal persons for criminal offences will only apply under national law with respect to certain types of legal persons and not to others. | 例如，在大多数国家，法人对刑事犯罪的责任只根据国内法对特定类型的法人适用。 |
| Indeed, under most national laws, “legal persons” in this context likely excludes States, Governments, other public bodies in the exercise of State authority, and public international organizations. | 实际上，按照大多数国家的法律，这种情况下的“法人”可能排除了国家、政府、行使国家权力的其他公共机构，以及公共国际组织。 |
| Likewise, the liability of legal persons under national laws can vary based on: the range of natural persons whose conduct can be attributed to the legal person; | 同样，国内法规定的法人责任可能存在差异，取决于：其行为可归咎于法人的自然人的范围； |
| which modes of liability of natural persons can result in liability of the legal person; | 自然人哪些形式的责任可导致法人责任； |
| whether it is necessary to prove the mens rea of a natural person to establish liability of the legal person; | 确定法人责任是否需要证明自然人的犯罪意图； |
| or whether it is necessary to prove that a specific natural person committed the offence. | 或是否需要证明某个自然人犯下了有关罪行。 |
| (50) Second, each State is obliged to take measures to establish the legal liability of legal persons “where appropriate”. | (50) 第二，每个国家有“酌情”采取措施确定法人法律责任的义务。 |
| Even if the State, under its national law, is in general able to impose liability upon legal persons for criminal offences, the State may conclude that such a measure is inappropriate in the specific context of crimes against humanity. | 即使国家依据其国内法一般能够要求法人对刑事犯罪承担责任，但国家也可得出结论认为，此种措施在危害人类罪这一具体背景下不适当。 |
| (51) For measures that are adopted, the second sentence of paragraph 8 provides that: “Subject to the legal principles of the State, such liability of legal persons may be criminal, civil or administrative”. | (51) 对于已采取的措施，第8款第二句规定：“在不违反本国法律原则的情况下，可将法人的这一责任定为刑事、民事或行政责任”。 |
| Such a sentence appears not just in the 2000 Optional Protocol, as discussed above, but also in other widely adhered-to treaties, such as the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 这样的句子似乎不仅见于上文讨论过的2000年《任择议定书》，而且出现在其他广泛遵行的条约中，如2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》 和2003年《联合国反腐败公约》。 |
| The flexibility indicated in such language again acknowledges and accommodates the diversity of approaches adopted within national legal systems. | 这种措辞体现的灵活性再次确认并顾及不同国家的法律体系做法的多样性。 |
| As such, there is no obligation to establish criminal liability if doing so is inconsistent with a State’s national legal principles; | 因此，如果确立法人刑事责任不符合本国的法律原则，国家就没有义务那样做； |
| in those cases, a form of civil or administrative liability may be used as an alternative. | 而是可以取而代之以民事或行政责任。 |
| In any event, whether criminal, civil or administrative, such liability is without prejudice to the criminal liability of natural persons provided for in draft article 6. | 无论如何，不论定为刑事、民事还是行政责任，该责任都不妨碍第6条草案规定的自然人的刑事责任。 |
| Article 7 Establishment of national jurisdiction | 第7条 确立国家管辖权 |
| 1. Each State shall take the necessary measures to establish its jurisdiction over the offences covered by the present draft articles in the following cases: | 1. 各国应采取必要措施，确立在下列情况下对本条款草案所述罪行的管辖权： |
| (a) when the offence is committed in any territory under its jurisdiction or on board a ship or aircraft registered in that State; | (a) 罪行发生在该国管辖的任何领土内，或发生在该国注册的船只或飞行器上； |
| (b) when the alleged offender is a national of that State or, if that State considers it appropriate, a stateless person who is habitually resident in that State’s territory; | (b) 被指控罪犯为该国国民，或该国认为应予管辖的、惯常在该国领土内居住的无国籍人； |
| (c) when the victim is a national of that State if that State considers it appropriate. | (c) 受害人为该国国民，而该国认为应予管辖。 |
| 2. Each State shall also take the necessary measures to establish its jurisdiction over the offences covered by the present draft articles in cases where the alleged offender is present in any territory under its jurisdiction and it does not extradite or surrender the person in accordance with the present draft articles. | 2. 各国还应采取必要措施，在被指控罪犯处于其管辖的任何领土内而本国不按照本条款草案予以引渡或移交的情况下，确立对本条款草案所述罪行的管辖权。 |
| 3. The present draft articles do not exclude the exercise of any criminal jurisdiction established by a State in accordance with its national law. | 3. 本条款草案不排除一国行使根据其国内法确立的任何刑事管辖权。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 7 provides that each State must establish jurisdiction over the offences covered by the present draft articles in certain cases, such as when the crime occurs in any territory under its jurisdiction, has been committed by one of its nationals or when the offender is present in any territory under its jurisdiction. | (1) 第7条草案规定，各国必须确立在某些情况下，如罪行发生在其管辖的领土内、由其国民实施、或罪犯处于其管辖的任何领土内时，对本条款草案所述罪行的管辖权。 |
| (2) As a general matter, international instruments have sought to encourage States to establish a relatively wide range of jurisdictional bases under national law to address the most serious crimes of international concern, so that there is no safe haven for those who commit the offence. | (2) 一般说来，国际文书力求鼓励各国根据国内法确立相对广泛的各种管辖权依据，以处理国际社会关注的最严重犯罪，使实施犯罪者没有庇护所。 |
| Thus, according to the Commission’s 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, “each State Party shall take such measures as may be necessary to establish its jurisdiction over the crimes” set out in the draft Code, other than the crime of aggression, “irrespective of where or by whom those crimes were committed”. | 因此，依照委员会1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》，“每一缔约国应采取必要措施确定其对”《治罪法草案》所载罪行(侵略罪除外)“的管辖权而不论这些罪行的实施地点或实施者为何”。 |
| The breadth of such jurisdiction was necessary because: “The Commission considered that the effective implementation of the Code required a combined approach to jurisdiction based on the broadest jurisdiction of national courts together with the possible jurisdiction of an international criminal court”. | 这样的管辖权范围是必要的，因为“委员会认为，为了有效实施本治罪法，应以尽量宽广的国家法院管辖权加上可能的国际性刑事法院管辖权为基础综合处理管辖权问题”。 |
| The preamble to the 1998 Rome Statute provides “that the most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole must not go unpunished and that their effective prosecution must be ensured by taking measures at the national level”, and further “that it is the duty of every State to exercise its criminal jurisdiction over those responsible for international crimes”. | 1998年《罗马规约》序言规定，“对于整个国际社会关注的最严重犯罪，绝不能听之任之不予处罚，为有效惩治罪犯，必须通过国家一级采取措施”，以及“各国有义务对犯有国际罪行的人行使刑事管辖权”。 |
| (3) As such, when treaties concerning crimes address national law implementation, they typically include a provision on the establishment of national jurisdiction. | (3) 因此，涉及犯罪行为的条约在处理国内法实施的问题时，通常会纳入一项确立国内管辖权的条款。 |
| For example, discussions within a working group of the Human Rights Commission convened to draft an international instrument on enforced disappearance concluded that: “The establishment of the broadest possible jurisdiction for domestic criminal courts in respect of enforced disappearance appeared to be essential if the future instrument was to be effective”. | 例如，人权委员会起草强迫失踪问题国际文书工作组的讨论决定，“为了使今后文书行之有效，看来必须为国内刑事法庭确立强迫失踪方面尽可能广泛的管辖权。 ”。 |
| At the same time, such treaties typically only obligate a State party to exercise its jurisdiction when an alleged offender is present in the State party’s territory (see draft article 9 below), leading either to a submission of the matter to the prosecuting authorities within that State party or to extradition or surrender of the alleged offender to another State party or competent international tribunal (see draft article 10 below). | 与此同时，此类条约通常只规定缔约国必须在被指控罪犯处于其境内时行使管辖权(见下文第9条草案)，结果可能是把事项提交该缔约国的起诉机关，或者是把被指控罪犯引渡或移交给另一缔约国或有管辖权的国际性法庭(见下文第10条草案)。 |
| (4) Reflecting on the acceptance of a treaty obligation to establish jurisdiction, and in the context of the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, the International Court of Justice, in the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), stated: | (4) 关于接受确立管辖权这一条约义务，并结合1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》，国际法院在与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(比利时诉塞内加尔)中指出： |
| The obligation for the State to criminalize torture and to establish its jurisdiction over it finds its equivalent in the provisions of many international conventions for the combating of international crimes. | 许多旨在打击国际犯罪的国际公约均规定，国家有义务将酷刑定为刑事罪，并有义务确定国家有权管辖此类罪行。 |
| This obligation, which has to be implemented by the State concerned as soon as it is bound by the Convention, has in particular a preventive and deterrent character, since by equipping themselves with the necessary legal tools to prosecute this type of offence, the States parties ensure that their legal systems will operate to that effect and commit themselves to coordinating their efforts to eliminate any risk of impunity. | 有关国家在接受该《公约》的约束后，必须立即履行此义务，而该义务尤其具有防止和威慑性质，因为缔约国一旦为起诉这类罪行确立必要的法律工具，便确保其法律制度可为此开展活动，而且也承诺协同消除任何发生有罪不罚现象的风险。 |
| This preventive character is all the more pronounced as the number of States parties increases. | 随着缔约国数目不断增加，这种防止性质也日益明显。 |
| (5) Provisions comparable to those appearing in draft article 7 exist in many treaties addressing crimes. | (5) 许多处理犯罪问题的条约中都有与第7条草案中出现的条款类似的规定。 |
| While no treaty yet exists relating to crimes against humanity, Judges Higgins, Kooijmans and Buergenthal indicated in their joint separate opinion in the case concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium) that: | 虽然还没有关于危害人类罪的条约，但希金斯、科艾曼斯和比尔根塔尔法官在2000年4月11日逮捕令案(刚果民主共和国诉比利时)中发表的联合个别意见指出： |
| The series of multilateral treaties with their special jurisdictional provisions reflect a determination by the international community that those engaged in war crimes, hijacking, hostage taking, torture should not go unpunished. | 一系列带有特别管辖权条款的多边条约反映了国际社会的决心，即实施战争罪、劫机、劫持人质、酷刑者不能逍遥法外。 |
| Although crimes against humanity are not yet the object of a distinct convention, a comparable international indignation at such acts is not to be doubted. | 虽然危害人类罪尚不是一项明确的公约的客体，但国际社会对此类行为同样愤慨是不容置疑的。 |
| (6) Draft article 7, paragraph 1 (a), requires that jurisdiction be established when the offence occurs in the State’s territory, a type of jurisdiction often referred to as “territorial jurisdiction”. | (6) 第7条草案第1款(a)项规定在罪行发生在一国领土内的情况下应确立管辖权，此类管辖权通常称为“属地管辖权”。 |
| Rather than refer solely to a State’s “territory”, the Commission considered it appropriate to refer to any territory “under [the State’s] jurisdiction” which, as is the case for draft article 4, is intended to encapsulate the territory de jure of the State, as well as any other territory under its jurisdiction. | 相对于单单提及一国的“领土”，委员会认为宜表述为“[该国]管辖的任何领土”，这与第4条草案的情况一样，用意是涵盖该国的合法领土及其管辖下的任何其他领土。 |
| Draft article 7, paragraph 1 (a), also requires that a State exercise jurisdiction when the offence occurs on board a vessel or aircraft registered in that State. | 第7条草案第1款(a)项还规定对发生在该国注册的船只或飞行器上的罪行确立管辖权。 |
| States that have adopted national laws on crimes against humanity typically establish jurisdiction over acts occurring on such a vessel or aircraft. | 已通过关于危害人类罪的国内法律的国家通常确立对发生在此类船只或飞行器上的行为的管辖权。 |
| (7) Draft article 7, paragraph 1 (b), calls for jurisdiction when the alleged offender is a national of the State, a type of jurisdiction at times referred to as “nationality jurisdiction” or “active personality jurisdiction”. | (7) 第7条草案第1款(b)项要求在被指控罪犯为该国国民时应确立管辖权，此类管辖权有时称为“国籍管辖权”或“积极属人管辖权”。 |
| Paragraph 1 (b) also indicates that the State may, on an optional basis, establish jurisdiction where the offender is “a stateless person who is habitually resident in the territory of that State”. | 第1款(b)项还指出，若罪犯为“惯常在该国领土内居住的无国籍人”，该国可以有选择地确立管辖权。 |
| This formulation is based on the language of certain existing conventions, such as article 5, paragraph 1 (b), of the 1979 International Convention against the Taking of Hostages. | 这种表述是基于一些现行公约的用语，例如1979年《反对劫持人质国际公约》第5条第1款(b)项。 |
| (8) Draft article 7, paragraph 1 (c), concerns jurisdiction when the victim of the offence is a national of the State, a type of jurisdiction at times referred to as “passive personality jurisdiction”. | (8) 第7条草案第1款(c)项涉及犯罪受害人为该国国民时的管辖权，此类管辖权有时称为“消极属人管辖权”。 |
| Given that many States prefer not to exercise this type of jurisdiction, this jurisdiction is optional; | 鉴于许多国家更倾向于不行使此类管辖权，这种管辖权是选择性的； |
| a State may establish such jurisdiction “if that State considers it appropriate”, but the State is not obliged to do so. | “若一国认为应予管辖”便可以确立管辖权，但该国没有义务这样做。 |
| This formulation is also based on the language of a wide variety of existing conventions. | 这种表述也是基于大量现行公约的用语。 |
| (9) Draft article 7, paragraph 2, addresses a situation where the other types of jurisdiction may not exist, but the alleged offender “is present” in the territory under the State’s jurisdiction and the State does not extradite or surrender the person in accordance with the present draft articles. | (9) 第7条草案第2款涉及可能不存在其他类型的管辖权，但被指控罪犯“处于”一国管辖的领土内，而且该国不按照本条款草案予以引渡或移交的情况。 |
| In such a situation, even if the crime was not committed in its territory, the alleged offender is not its national and the victims of the crime are not its nationals, the State nevertheless is obliged to establish jurisdiction given the presence of the alleged offender in territory under its jurisdiction. | 此类情况下，即使罪行不是在该国领土内发生，被指控罪犯不是其国民，犯罪受害人也不是其国民，但鉴于被指控罪犯处于该国管辖的领土内，因此该国仍有义务确立管辖权。 |
| This obligation helps to prevent an alleged offender from seeking refuge in a State that otherwise has no connection with the offence. | 此项义务有助于防止被指控罪犯在本来与罪行没有任何关联的国家寻求庇护。 |
| When taking the “necessary measures” to establish this type of jurisdiction, States should adopt procedural safeguards to ensure its proper exercise. | 采取“必要措施”确立这一类型的管辖权时，国家应采取程序保障，以确保适当行使这一管辖权。 |
| (10) Draft article 7, paragraph 3, makes clear that, while each State is obliged to enact these types of jurisdiction, it does not exclude any other jurisdiction that is available under the national law of that State. | (10) 第7条草案第3款明确指出，虽然各国有义务确立上述各类管辖权，但不排除根据该国国内法可以确立的任何其他管辖权。 |
| Indeed, to preserve the right of States parties to establish national jurisdiction beyond the scope of the treaty, and without prejudice to any applicable rules of international law, treaties addressing crimes typically leave open the possibility that a State party may have established other jurisdictional grounds upon which to hold an alleged offender accountable. | 事实上，为维护缔约国在条约范围之外确立国家管辖权的权利，同时不妨碍任何适用的国际法规则，涉及犯罪行为的条约通常留有余地，让缔约国可以确立其他管辖权依据，据以追究被指控罪犯的责任。 |
| In their joint separate opinion in the Arrest Warrant case, Judges Higgins, Kooijmans and Buergenthal cited, inter alia, such a provision in the Convention against Torture, and stated: | 希金斯、科艾曼斯和比尔根塔尔法官在逮捕令案的联合个别意见中特别引用了《禁止酷刑公约》的这一条款，指出： |
| We reject the suggestion that the battle against impunity is ‘made over’ to international treaties and tribunals, with national courts having no competence in such matters. | 我们反对这样的想法，即认为打击有罪不罚现象的斗争已‘移交’给国际条约和法庭，各国法院无权处理此类事项。 |
| Great care has been taken when formulating the relevant treaty provisions not to exclude other grounds of jurisdiction that may be exercised on a voluntary basis. | 在制定相关条约规定时曾十分小心，力求不排除其他可在自愿基础上行使管辖权的依据。 |
| (11) Establishment of the various types of national jurisdiction set out in draft article 7 are important for supporting an aut dedere aut judicare obligation, as set forth in draft article 10 below. | (11) 确立第7条草案所列的各类国内管辖权，对于支持下文第10条草案所述“或引渡或起诉”义务也十分重要。 |
| In his separate opinion in the Arrest Warrant case, Judge Guillaume remarked on the “system” set up under treaties of this sort: | 纪尧姆法官在逮捕令案的个别意见中谈及这类条约建立的“制度”： |
| Whenever the perpetrator of any of the offences covered by these conventions is found in the territory of a State, that State is under an obligation to arrest him, and then extradite or prosecute. | 一经发现这些公约所述罪行的犯罪人在一国领土内，该国就有义务将其逮捕，然后引渡或起诉。 |
| It must have first conferred jurisdiction on its courts to try him if he is not extradited. | 该国一定先向法院授予了管辖权，若不引渡就对其进行审判。 |
| Thus, universal punishment of all the offences in question is assured, as the perpetrators are denied refuge in all States. | 这样便可保证所有相关罪行均受到惩罚，因为所有国家都拒绝庇护犯罪人。 |
| (12) Treaties addressing crimes typically require various States to establish jurisdiction over the crime, but do not seek to require States to exercise such jurisdiction unless the alleged offender is present in any territory under the State’s jurisdiction (see draft articles 9 and 10 below). | (12) 涉及犯罪行为的条约通常要求多个国家确立对犯罪行为的管辖权，但不试图要求各国行使这种管辖权，除非被指控的罪犯在该国管辖的任何领土内(见下文第9条和第10条草案)。 |
| Once an alleged offender is present, it is possible that one or more other States will have established jurisdiction over the offence and will wish to exercise such jurisdiction, in which case they may seek extradition of the alleged offender from the State where he or she is present. | 当被指控罪犯现身时，有可能其他一个或多个国家将确立对该罪行的管辖权，并希望行使这一管辖权，在这种情况下，它们可以试图将被指控罪犯从其所在的国家引渡。 |
| If so, draft article 13, paragraph 12, requires that the State where the alleged offender is present “give due consideration to the request of the State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the alleged offence has occurred”. | 如果是这样，第13条草案第12款要求被指控罪犯所在的国家“应适当考虑被指控罪行发生在其管辖领土内的国家的请求”。 |
| Article 8 Investigation | 第8条 调查 |
| Each State shall ensure that its competent authorities proceed to a prompt, thorough and impartial investigation whenever there is reasonable ground to believe that acts constituting crimes against humanity have been or are being committed in any territory under its jurisdiction. | 各国应确保在有合理依据认为在其管辖的任何领土内已经或正在发生构成危害人类罪的行为时，其主管当局展开及时、彻底、公正的调查。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 8 addresses situations where there is reasonable ground to believe that acts constituting crimes against humanity have been or are being committed in territory under a State’s jurisdiction. | (1) 第8条草案涉及有合理依据认为在一国管辖的任何领土内已经或正在发生构成危害人类罪的行为的情况。 |
| That State is best situated to conduct such an investigation, so as to determine whether crimes in fact have occurred or are occurring and, if so, whether governmental forces under its control committed the crimes, whether forces under the control of another State did so or whether they were committed by members of a non-State organization. | 该国最适合开展这一调查，以便确定罪行是否确已发生或正在发生，如果是，则确定犯罪者是该国控制的政府武装力量、另一国控制的武装力量还是非国家组织成员。 |
| Such an investigation, which must be conducted in good faith, can lay the foundation not only for identifying alleged offenders and their location, but also for helping to stop (pursuant to draft article 3) the continuance of ongoing crimes or their recurrence by identifying their source. | 这样的调查――必须善意履行――不仅可以为查明被指控罪犯及其方位奠定基础，还有助于追本溯源以阻止(根据第3条草案)罪行延续或再度发生。 |
| Such an investigation should be contrasted with a preliminary inquiry into the facts concerning a particular alleged offender who is present in a State, which is addressed below in draft article 9, paragraph 2. | 应将这一调查与下文第9条草案第2款所述对一国境内被指控罪犯的相关事实进行的初步调查加以对照。 |
| (2) A comparable obligation has featured in some treaties addressing other crimes. | (2) 关于其他罪行的一些条约也载有类似义务。 |
| For example, article 12 of the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment provides: “Each State Party shall ensure that its competent authorities proceed to a prompt and impartial investigation, wherever there is reasonable ground to believe that an act of torture has been committed in any territory under its jurisdiction”. | 例如，1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》第12条规定：“每一缔约国应确保在有适当理由认为在其管辖的任何领土内已发生酷刑行为时，其主管当局立即进行公正的调查”。 |
| That obligation is different from the State party’s obligation under article 6, paragraph 2, of the 1984 Convention against Torture to undertake an inquiry into the facts concerning a particular alleged offender. | 此项义务有别于缔约国根据1984年《禁止酷刑公约》第6条第2款承担的对某被指控罪犯的有关事实进行调查的义务。 |
| (3) Draft article 8 requires that the investigation be carried out whenever there is “reasonable ground to believe” that the offence has been committed. | (3) 第8条草案要求在有“合理依据认为”已发生犯罪行为时开展调查。 |
| According to the Committee against Torture, such a belief arises when relevant information is presented or available to the competent authorities but does not require that victims have formally filed complaints with those authorities. | 根据《禁止酷刑公约》，无论受害人是否已向主管当局正式提出申诉，在主管当局获得或掌握相关信息时，即可以这样“认为”。 |
| Indeed, since it is likely that the more systematic the practice of torture is in a given country, the fewer the number of official torture complaints will be made, a violation of article 12 of the 1984 Convention against Torture is possible even if the State has received no such complaints. | 事实上，很可能酷刑做法越普遍的国家，正式提出酷刑申诉的数目越少，所以即使一国没有接到任何申诉，也可能发生违反1984年《禁止酷刑公约》第12条的行为。 |
| The Committee against Torture has indicated that State authorities must proceed automatically to an investigation whenever there are reasonable grounds to believe that an act of torture or ill-treatment has been committed, with “no special importance being attached to the grounds for the suspicion”. | 禁止酷刑委员会已经指出，凡有适当理由认为发生了酷刑或虐待，国家当局就必须“自动进行”调查，而“无需特别注重怀疑的依据”。 |
| (4) The requirement of a “prompt” investigation means that as soon as there is a reasonable ground to believe that crimes against humanity have been or are being committed, the State must initiate an investigation without delay. | (4) 要求“及时”调查意味着一旦有合理依据认为危害人类罪已经或正在发生，国家应毫不拖延地启动调查。 |
| In most cases where the Committee against Torture found a lack of promptness, no investigation had been carried out at all or had only been commenced after a long period of time had passed. | 在禁止酷刑委员会认为调查不够及时的大多数案件中，或是根本没有进行任何调查，或是过了很长时间才开始调查。 |
| For example, the Committee considered “that a delay of 15 months before an investigation of allegations of torture is initiated, is unreasonably long and not in compliance with the requirement of article 12 of the Convention”. | 例如，委员会认为“对酷刑指控的调查如在酷刑发生后耽搁15个月才启动，属于时间过长，违反了《公约》第12条的规定。 |
| The rationale underlying the promptness requirement is that physical traces that may prove torture can quickly disappear and that victims may be in danger of further torture, which a prompt investigation may be able to prevent. | ” 要求及时调查所依据的理由是，可证明酷刑的物质痕迹可能会很快消失，提出申诉的受害人也有再次遭受酷刑的危险，而及时调查有可能防止这些情况。 |
| (5) The requirement of a “thorough” investigation means that a State must proceed with its investigation in a manner that takes all reasonable steps available to that State to secure evidence and that enables the serious assessment of that evidence. | (5) 要求“彻底”调查意味着国家在进行调查时，必须采取一切可供采取的合理步骤获取证据并且能够对证据进行认真评估。 |
| Inclusion of this element is consistent with article 12 of the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. | 纳入这一要素符合《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》第十二条。 |
| The General Assembly of the United Nations, the Human Rights Committee, and regional human rights courts have also emphasized the requirement of a thorough investigation. | 联合国大会、 人权事务委员会 和区域人权法院也强调了彻底调查的要求。 |
| (6) The requirement of an “impartial” investigation means that the State must proceed with its investigation in a serious, effective and unbiased manner. | (6) 要求“公正”调查意味着国家必须以严肃、有效和不偏不倚的方式进行调查。 |
| Such investigation might be done by a governmental authority, but could also be done by some other entity, such as an independent commission of inquiry, a truth and reconciliation commission, or a national human rights institution. | 可以由政府主管部门，也可以由某个其他实体，如独立调查委员会、真相与和解委员会或国内人权机构，开展这类调查。 |
| In some instances, the Committee against Torture has recommended that investigation of offences be “under the direct supervision of independent members of the judiciary”. | 禁止酷刑委员会曾在一些情况下建议，对犯罪行为的调查应“处于司法机构独立成员的直接监督之下”。 |
| In other instances, it has stated that “all government bodies not authorized to conduct investigations into criminal matters should be strictly prohibited from doing so”. | 委员会曾在另一些情况下表示，“应严格禁止所有无权进行刑事案件调查的政府机构进行此种调查。 |
| The Committee has stated that an impartial investigation gives equal weight to assertions that the offence did or did not occur, and then pursues appropriate avenues of inquiry, such as checking available government records, examining relevant government officials or ordering exhumation of bodies. | ” 委员会指出，公正的调查对犯罪行为发生或未发生的说法给予同等重视，然后通过适当的调查渠道追查，例如检查现有的政府记录、审查相关政府官员、或下令挖尸检验。 |
| (7) Some treaties that do not expressly contain such an obligation to investigate have nevertheless been read as implicitly containing one. | (7) 一些条约没有明确载列这种调查义务，但被理解为其行文暗含这一义务。 |
| The 1949 Geneva Conventions call on States parties to search for and prosecute alleged offenders. | 1949年日内瓦四公约呼吁缔约国搜寻并起诉被指控的罪犯。 |
| This has been interpreted as implying that each State party must provide in its national legislation for the mechanisms and procedures to ensure that it can actively search for alleged offenders, make a preliminary inquiry into facts and, when so warranted, submit any such cases to the appropriate authorities for prosecution. | 这被解释为意味着每个缔约国必须在其本国立法中规定机制和程序，以确保能够积极搜寻被指控的罪犯，对事实进行初步调查，并在有必要的情况下，将任何此类案件提交有关当局起诉。 |
| In addition, although the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights contains no such express obligation to investigate, the Human Rights Committee has repeatedly asserted that States must investigate, in good faith, violations of the Covenant. | 此外，1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》没有明确载列这种调查义务，但人权事务委员会一再申明各国必须本着善意调查违反《公约》的情况。 |
| Regional human rights bodies have also interpreted their legal instruments as implicitly containing a duty to conduct an investigation. | 区域人权机构也将其法律文书解释为隐含着进行调查的义务。 |
| Article 9 Preliminary measures when an alleged offender is present | 第9条 当被指控罪犯在境内时的初步措施 |
| 1. Upon being satisfied, after an examination of information available to it, that the circumstances so warrant, any State in the territory under whose jurisdiction a person alleged to have committed any offence covered by the present draft articles is present shall take the person into custody or take other legal measures to ensure his or her presence. | 1. 任何国家，如果被指控犯有本条款草案所述任何罪行的人在其管辖的领土内，经审查所获情报后认为根据情况有此必要，应将该人羁押或采取其他法律措施确保该人留在境内。 |
| The custody and other legal measures shall be as provided in the law of that State, but may be continued only for such time as is necessary to enable any criminal, extradition or surrender proceedings to be instituted. | 羁押和其他法律措施应符合该国法律的规定，但持续时间只限于提起任何刑事、引渡或移交程序所需的时间。 |
| 2. Such State shall immediately make a preliminary inquiry into the facts. | 2. 该国应立即对事实进行初步调查。 |
| 3. When a State, pursuant to this draft article, has taken a person into custody, it shall immediately notify the States referred to in draft article 7, paragraph 1, of the fact that such person is in custody and of the circumstances which warrant his or her detention. | 3. 一国如果根据本条草案将某人羁押，应立即向第7条草案第1款所述国家通知该人受到羁押的事实和拘留该人之所以必要的情况。 |
| The State which makes the preliminary inquiry contemplated in paragraph 2 of this draft article shall, as appropriate, promptly report its findings to the said States and shall indicate whether it intends to exercise jurisdiction. | 进行本条草案第2款所述初步调查的国家应酌情立即向所述有关国家通报调查结果，并表明是否有意行使管辖权。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 9 provides for certain preliminary measures to be taken by the State in the territory under whose jurisdiction an alleged offender is present. | (1) 第9条草案规定了被指控罪犯在其管辖的领土内时，一国应采取的某些初步措施。 |
| Paragraph 1 calls upon the State, upon being satisfied that the circumstances so warrant, to take the person into custody or take other legal measures to ensure his or her presence, in accordance with that State’s law, but only for such time as is necessary to enable any criminal, extradition or surrender proceedings to be instituted. | 第1款促请该国在根据情况认为有此必要时， 依照本国法律将该人羁押或采取其他法律措施 确保该人留在境内，但只限于提起任何刑事、引渡或移交程序所需的时间。 |
| Such measures are a common step in national criminal proceedings, in particular to avoid further criminal acts and a risk of flight by the alleged offender, and to prevent tampering of evidence by the alleged offender. | 此类措施是一国刑事诉讼程序中的惯常步骤，特别是为了避免进一步的犯罪行为和被指控罪犯逃跑的风险，以及防止被指控罪犯篡改证据。 |
| (2) Paragraph 2 provides that the State shall immediately make a preliminary inquiry into the facts. | (2) 第2款规定该国应立即对事实真相进行初步调查。 |
| The national criminal laws of States typically provide for such a preliminary inquiry to determine whether a prosecutable offence exists. | 各国刑法通常规定进行这种初步调查，以确定是否存在可起诉的罪行。 |
| (3) Paragraph 3 provides that the State shall also, after taking the person into custody, immediately notify the States referred to in draft article 7, paragraph 1, of the detention and of the circumstances which warrant it. | (3) 第3款规定，一国在将某人羁押后，应立即向第7条草案第1款所述国家通知该人受到拘留的事实和拘留该人之所以必要的情况。 |
| Further, after making its preliminary inquiry, the State shall promptly report its findings to those States and shall indicate whether it intends to exercise jurisdiction. | 此外，该国在进行初步调查后，应立即向上述有关国家通报调查结果，并表明是否有意行使管辖权。 |
| Doing so allows those other States to consider whether they wish to exercise jurisdiction, in which case they might seek extradition. | 这种做法使其他国家得以考虑是否希望行使管辖权； 如果是，它们有可能要求引渡。 |
| In some situations, the State may not be fully aware of which other States have established jurisdiction (such as another State that optionally has established jurisdiction with respect to a stateless person who is habitually resident in that State’s territory); | 有些情况下，该国也许并不充分了解哪些其他国家已经确立了管辖权(例如选择对惯常在该国领土内居住的无国籍人确立管辖权的另一国)； |
| in such situations, the feasibility of fulfilling the obligation may depend on the circumstances. | 此种情况下，履行此项义务的可行性也许要视具体情况而定。 |
| The State’s reporting of its findings need only be “as appropriate”, meaning that in some circumstances the State may need to withhold some of the information it has uncovered, for example, to protect the identities of victims or witnesses or to protect an ongoing investigation. | 国家只需“酌情”通报调查结果，这意味着在某些情况下，该国可能需要扣留其掌握的某些信息，以保护受害者或证人的身份，或保护正在进行的调查。 |
| Nevertheless, such withholding of reporting must be undertaken in good faith. | 不过，这种不予通报必须本着善意进行。 |
| (4) Both the General Assembly and the Security Council have recognized the importance of such preliminary measures in the context of crimes against humanity. | (4) 联合国大会和安全理事会均认识到在危害人类罪方面采取此种初步措施的重要性。 |
| Thus, the General Assembly has called upon “all the States concerned to take the necessary measures for the thorough investigation of … crimes against humanity … and for the detection, arrest, extradition and punishment of all … persons guilty of crimes against humanity who have not yet been brought to trial or punished”. | 因此，联大促请“一切有关国家采取必要措施，以彻底调查…危害人类罪…并对所有尚未交付审判或惩治之…危害人类罪犯施行侦查、逮捕、引渡及惩治”。 |
| Similarly, it has said that “refusal by States to co-operate in the arrest, extradition, trial and punishment of persons guilty of … crimes against humanity is contrary to the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and to generally recognized norms of international law”. | 同样，联大还申明，“各国拒绝合作，不肯逮捕、引渡、审判和惩治…危害人类罪犯，便是违反联合国宪章的宗旨和原则以及国际法的公认规范”。 |
| The Security Council has emphasized “the responsibility of States to comply with their relevant obligations to end impunity and to thoroughly investigate and prosecute persons responsible for … crimes against humanity or other serious violations of international humanitarian law in order to prevent violations, avoid their recurrence and seek sustainable peace, justice, truth and reconciliation”. | 安全理事会强调，“各国有责任遵守相关义务，终止有罪不罚的现象，彻底调查并起诉应对…危害人类罪或其他严重违反国际人道法行为负责的人，以防止违犯行为，避免这类行为重演，寻求持久和平、正义、真相与和解”。 |
| (5) Treaties addressing crimes typically provide for such preliminary measures, such as article 6 of the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. | (5) 关于犯罪问题的条约通常会规定此类初步措施， 1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》第6条便是如此。 |
| Reviewing, inter alia, the provisions contained in article 6, the International Court of Justice has explained that “incorporating the appropriate legislation into domestic law … would allow the State in whose territory a suspect is present immediately to make a preliminary inquiry into the facts …, a necessary step in order to enable that State, with knowledge of the facts, to submit the case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution … | 国际法院除其他外在回顾第6条所载规定时解释说，“将适当立法纳入国内法…可使嫌疑人所在国家立即对事实真相进行初步调查…这是使该国在了解事实后将案件提交其主管当局以便起诉的必要步骤…”。 |
| ”. The Court found that the preliminary inquiry is intended, like any inquiry carried out by the competent authorities, to corroborate or not the suspicions regarding the person in question. | 法院认为初步调查与主管当局进行的任何调查一样，是为了证明对所涉人员的怀疑是否属实。 |
| Those authorities who conduct the inquiry have the task of drawing up a case file containing relevant facts and evidence; | 开展调查的机关负责起草案卷，其中载有相关事实和证据； |
| “this may consist of documents or witness statements relating to the events at issue and to the suspect’s possible involvement in the matter concerned”. | “这可能包括与所讨论的事件和与嫌疑人在相关事件中可能的参与情况有关的文件或目击者证词”。 |
| The Court further noted that “the choice of means for conducting the inquiry remains in the hands of the States parties”, but that “steps must be taken as soon as the suspect is identified in the territory of the State, in order to conduct an investigation of that case”. | 法院进一步指出，“选择什么方式进行调查仍然取决于缔约国”，但“确定嫌疑人在该国境内之后，应立即采取步骤对该案件进行调查。 |
| Further, the purpose of such preliminary measures is “to enable proceedings to be brought against the suspect, in the absence of his extradition, and to achieve the object and purpose of the Convention, which is to make more effective the struggle against torture by avoiding impunity for the perpetrators of such acts”. | ” 再者，这种初步措施的目的是“在嫌疑人未被引渡的情况下对其展开司法程序，实现《公约》的宗旨和目标，即通过避免这类行为实施者有罪不罚的现象提高打击酷刑斗争的成效”。 |
| With respect to the appropriate timing for making a preliminary inquiry, the Court found a violation of article 6 where Senegal had “not immediately initiate[d] a preliminary inquiry as soon as [it] had reason to suspect [the alleged perpetrator], who was in [its]territory, of being responsible for acts of torture”. | 关于进行初步调查的适当时间，法院认定，塞内加尔违反了第6条，因为塞内加尔“没有在[它]有理由怀疑在[其]境内的[被指控犯罪人]应对酷刑行为负责时，立即启动初步调查”。 |
| Article 10 Aut dedere aut judicare | 第10条 或引渡或起诉 |
| The State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the alleged offender is present shall, if it does not extradite or surrender the person to another State or competent international criminal court or tribunal, submit the case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution. | 被指控罪犯在其管辖领土内的国家，如不将该人引渡或移交至另一国家或移交至有管辖权的国际性刑事法院或法庭，则应为起诉之目的将该案提交主管当局。 |
| Those authorities shall take their decision in the same manner as in the case of any other offence of a grave nature under the law of that State. | 主管当局应以处理该国法律定为性质严重的任何其他罪行的相同方式作出决定。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 10 obliges a State, in the territory under whose jurisdiction an alleged offender is present, to submit the case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution. | (1) 第10条草案规定，被指控罪犯在其管辖领土内的国家，有义务将该案提交主管当局以便起诉。 |
| The only alternative means of meeting this obligation is if the State extradites or surrenders the alleged offender to another State or competent international criminal court or tribunal that is willing and able itself to submit the case to prosecution. | 履行这项义务的唯一替代手段是该国将被指控罪犯引渡或移交至愿意且有能力自行将该案提交起诉的另一国家或移交有管辖权的国际性刑事法院或法庭。 |
| This obligation is commonly referred to as the principle of aut dedere aut judicare, a principle that has been recently studied by the Commission and that is contained in numerous multilateral treaties addressing crimes. | 这项义务通常称为“或引渡或起诉”(aut dedere aut judicare)原则，这是委员会最近研究的一项原则， 许多有关罪行的多边条约也载有该原则。 |
| While a literal translation of aut dedere aut judicare may not fully capture the meaning of this obligation, the Commission chose to retain the term in the title, given its common use when referring to an obligation of this kind. | 虽然aut dedere aut judicare的直译可能无法充分体现该义务的含义，但鉴于提及此种义务时普遍使用这一短语，委员会决定在标题中保留这一术语。 |
| (2) The Commission’s 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind defined crimes against humanity in article 18 and further provided, in article 9, that: “Without prejudice to the jurisdiction of an international criminal court, the State Party in the territory of which an individual alleged to have committed a crime set out in article 17, 18, 19 or 20 is found shall extradite or prosecute that individual”. | (2) 委员会1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第18条为“危害人类罪”作了定义，并在第9条中进一步规定，“在不妨害国际性刑事法院的管辖权的情形下，在其领土上发现据指控有第17、第18、第19或第20条所述罪行之个人的缔约国应引渡或起诉该个人”。 |
| (3) Most multilateral treaties containing such an obligation use what is referred to as “the Hague formula”, after the 1970 Hague Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft. | (3) 载有这一义务 的大多数多边条约使用得名于1970年《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》的所谓的“海牙套语”。 |
| Under that formula, the obligation arises whenever the alleged offender is present in the territory of the State party, regardless of whether some other State party seeks extradition. | 该套语规定，只要被指控罪犯在缔约国领土上，不管其他缔约国是否要求引渡，都会产生此种义务。 |
| Although regularly termed the obligation to extradite or “prosecute”, the obligation is to “submit the case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution”, meaning to submit the matter to police and prosecutorial authorities, who may or may not decide to prosecute in accordance with relevant procedures and policies. | 虽然经常被称为引渡或“起诉”义务，但所要求的义务是“将该案提交主管当局以便起诉”，这意味着将案件提交警察和检察机关，该机关可依据相关程序和政策，决定是否起诉。 |
| For example, if the competent authorities determine that there is insufficient evidence of guilt, or that the allegations have already been investigated elsewhere and found to be without basis, then the accused need not be indicted, nor stand trial or face punishment. | 例如，如果主管当局确定没有足够证据定罪，或确定其他地方已对指控进行了调查并认定没有依据，则不需要起诉被指控罪犯，也不需要对其进行审判或惩处。 |
| The travaux préparatoires of the 1970 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft indicate that the formula established “the obligation of apprehension of the alleged offender, a possibility of extradition, the obligation of reference to the competent authority and the possibility of prosecution”. | 1970年《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》的准备工作文件指出，该套语确立了“逮捕被指控罪犯的义务、引渡的可能性、移交给主管当局的义务以及进行起诉的可能性。 ” |
| (4) In the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), the International Court of Justice analysed the Hague formula in the context of article 7 of the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment: | (4) 在与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(比利时诉塞内加尔)中，国际法院分析了1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》第7条中的海牙套语： |
| 90. As is apparent from the travaux préparatoires of the Convention, Article 7, paragraph 1, is based on a similar provision contained in the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, signed at The Hague on 16 December 1970. | 90. 从《公约》的准备工作文件中可以明显看出，第7条第1款是基于1970年12月16日在海牙签署的《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》中载有的一个类似规定。 |
| The obligation to submit the case to the competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution (hereinafter the ‘obligation to prosecute’) was formulated in such a way as to leave it to those authorities to decide whether or not to initiate proceedings, thus respecting the independence of States parties’ judicial systems. | 有关将该案提交主管当局以便起诉的义务(以下称“起诉义务”)的规定是以交由主管当局决定是否要开始诉讼程序的方式作出的，从而显示对缔约国司法系统的独立性的尊重。 |
| These two conventions emphasize, moreover, that the authorities shall take their decision in the same manner as in the case of any ordinary offence of a serious nature under the law of the State concerned (Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Convention against Torture and Article 7 of the Hague Convention of 1970). | 此外，这两项公约都强调主管当局应根据该国法律，以对待情节严重的任何普通犯罪案件的同样方式作出决定(《禁止酷刑公约》第7条第2款和1970《海牙公约》第7条)。 |
| It follows that the competent authorities involved remain responsible for deciding on whether to initiate a prosecution, in the light of the evidence before them and the relevant rules of criminal procedure. | 因此，有关国家当局仍有责任决定是否根据已经掌握的证据和有关的刑事诉讼规则提起诉讼。 |
| 91. The obligation to prosecute provided for in Article 7, paragraph 1, is normally implemented in the context of the Convention against Torture after the State has performed the other obligations provided for in the preceding articles, which require it to adopt adequate legislation to enable it to criminalize torture, give its courts universal jurisdiction in the matter and make an inquiry into the facts. | 91. 第7条第1款中规定的起诉义务通常是在该国已履行《禁止酷刑公约》该款之前各项条款中规定的其他义务后履行的，其他条款要求该国通过适当立法，使其可以将酷刑定为刑事犯罪、赋予其法院对该问题的普遍管辖权，并对事实展开调查。 |
| These obligations, taken as a whole, may be regarded as elements of a single conventional mechanism aimed at preventing suspects from escaping the consequences of their criminal responsibility, if proven … | 这些义务作为一个整体可视为一个单一的公约机制的要素，旨在防止嫌疑人逃脱其经证实的刑事责任的后果… |
| 94. The Court considers that Article 7, paragraph 1, requires the State concerned to submit the case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution, irrespective of the existence of a prior request for the extradition of the suspect. | 94. 法院认为，第7条第1款要求有关国家将案件提交其主管当局以便起诉，无论此前有无引渡嫌疑人的请求。 |
| That is why Article 6, paragraph 2, obliges the State to make a preliminary inquiry immediately from the time that the suspect is present in its territory. | 这就是为何第6条第2款规定，自嫌疑人在境内出现时起，该国必须立即进行初步调查。 |
| The obligation to submit the case to the competent authorities, under Article 7, paragraph 1, may or may not result in the institution of proceedings, in the light of the evidence before them, relating to the charges against the suspect. | 第7条第1款规定的将案件提交主管当局的义务，可能会，也可能不会导致提起诉讼，这要看主管当局得到的关于嫌疑人所受指控的证据。 |
| 95. However, if the State in whose territory the suspect is present has received a request for extradition in any of the cases envisaged in the provisions of the Convention, it can relieve itself of its obligation to prosecute by acceding to that request. | 95. 然而，如果嫌疑人所在国已经在《公约》条款中设想的任一情况下收到了引渡请求，该国可以通过接受此请求免除起诉的义务。 |
| It follows that the choice between extradition or submission for prosecution, pursuant to the Convention, does not mean that the two alternatives are to be given the same weight. | 由此可见，《公约》虽然规定可以选择引渡或选择予以起诉，但不意味着两种选择分量相当。 |
| Extradition is an option offered to the State by the Convention, whereas prosecution is an international obligation under the Convention, the violation of which is a wrongful act engaging the responsibility of the State. | 引渡是《公约》提供给国家的一个备选办法，而起诉是《公约》规定的一项国际义务，违反这项义务属于不法行为，国家为此要承担责任。 |
| 114. While Article 7, paragraph 1, of the Convention does not contain any indication as to the time frame for performance of the obligation for which it provides, it is necessarily implicit in the text that it must be implemented within a reasonable time, in a manner compatible with the object and purpose of the Convention. | 114. 尽管《公约》第7条第1款没有关于履行其规定义务的时间框架的规定，在案文中必定暗示此种义务须在合理的时间内以符合《公约》的宗旨和目的的方式履行。 |
| 115. The Court considers that the obligation on a State to prosecute, provided for in Article 7, paragraph 1, of the Convention, is intended to allow the fulfilment of the Convention’s object and purpose, which is ‘to make more effective the struggle against torture’ (Preamble to the Convention). | 115. 法院认为，《公约》第7条第1款中规定国家有起诉义务，其意图是实现《公约》的宗旨和目的，即“在全世界更有效地开展反对酷刑的斗争”(《公约》序言)。 |
| It is for that reason that proceedings should be undertaken without delay. | 为此，应毫不拖延地开展程序。 |
| 120. The purpose of these treaty provisions is to prevent alleged perpetrators of acts of torture from going unpunished, by ensuring that they cannot find refuge in any State party. | 120. 这些条约规定的目的是防止被指控的酷刑行为犯罪人免受处罚，方法是确保他们无法在任何缔约国避难。 |
| The State in whose territory the suspect is present does indeed have the option of extraditing him to a country which has made such a request, but on the condition that it is to a State which has jurisdiction in some capacity, pursuant to Article 5 of the Convention, to prosecute and try him. | 嫌疑人所在国确实可选择将其引渡到提出此种要求的国家，但根据《公约》第5条，这样做的条件是引渡的目的地国具有起诉和审判嫌疑人方面的管辖权。 |
| (5) The Court also found that various factors could not justify a failure to comply with these obligations: the financial difficulties of a State; | (5) 法院还认定，下述多种因素不能成为不履行这些义务的理由：国家财政困难； |
| referral of the matter to a regional organization; | 将问题提交区域组织； |
| or difficulties with implementation under the State’s internal law. | 或根据国家的国内法难以履行此种义务。 |
| (6) The first sentence of draft article 10 recognizes that the State’s obligation can be satisfied by extraditing or surrendering the alleged offender to a State. | (6) 第10条草案第一句确认，履行国家义务可通过将被指控罪犯引渡或移交另一国家。 |
| As was noted with respect to draft article 7, it is possible that one or more other States will have established jurisdiction over the offence and will wish to exercise such jurisdiction, in which case they may seek extradition of the alleged offender from the State where he or she is present. | 正如就第7条草案所指出的，有可能其他一个或多个国家将确立对该罪行的管辖权，并希望行使这一管辖权，在这种情况下，它们可以试图将被指控的罪犯从其所在的国家引渡。 |
| If so, draft article 13, paragraph 12, requires that a State where the alleged offender is present “give due consideration to the request of the State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the alleged offence has occurred”. | 如果是这样，第13条草案第12款要求被指控罪犯所在的国家“应适当考虑被指控罪行发生在其管辖领土内的国家的请求”。 |
| (7) The first sentence of draft article 10 also recognizes that the State’s obligation can be satisfied by extraditing or surrendering the alleged offender to an international criminal court or tribunal that is competent to prosecute the offender. | (7) 第10条草案第一句还确认，履行国家义务可通过将被指控罪犯引渡或移交有权起诉罪犯的国际性刑事法院或法庭。 |
| This other option has arisen in conjunction with the establishment of the International Criminal Court and other international criminal courts and tribunals. | 随着国际刑事法院以及其他国际性刑事法院和法庭的设立，出现了这种选择。 |
| The term “competent” serves two purposes; | “有权起诉罪犯的”一词有两个目的； |
| it captures the notion that the international criminal court or tribunal must have jurisdiction over the offence and the offender, and the notion that the State concerned is in a legal relationship with the court or tribunal that would allow for such extradition or surrender. | 一是强调国际性刑事法院或法庭必须对罪行和罪犯拥有管辖权，二是强调有关国家与能够接收引渡或移交的法院或法庭存在法律关系。 |
| Thus, it encompasses the idea expressed in some treaties that the court or tribunal must be one whose jurisdiction the sending State has recognized. | 因此，它包含了一些条约中表达的观点，即法院或法庭必须是移交国承认其管辖权的法院或法庭。 |
| (8) While the term “extradition” is often associated with the sending of a person to a State and the term “surrender” is often used for the sending of a person to a competent international criminal court or tribunal, draft article 10 is written so as not to limit the use of the terms in that way. | (8) 虽然“引渡”一词通常涉及将某人送往一国，“移交”一词通常用于将某人送往有管辖权的国际性刑事法院或法庭，但第10条草案如此编写是为了不以这种方式限制术语的使用。 |
| The terminology used in national criminal systems and in international relations can vary and, for that reason, the Commission considered that a more general formulation is preferable. | 国内刑事系统和国际关系中使用的术语可能各不相同， 因此，委员会认为更笼统的措辞是可取的。 |
| (9) The second sentence of draft article 10 provides that, when a State submits the matter to prosecution, its “authorities shall take their decision in the same manner as in the case of any other offence of a grave nature under the law of that State”. | (9) 第10条草案第二句规定，当一国将案件提交起诉时，其“当局应以处理该国法律定为性质严重的任何其他罪行的相同方式作出决定”。 |
| Most treaties containing the Hague formula include such a clause, the objective of which is to ensure that the normal procedures and standards relating to serious offences are applied. | 载有海牙套语的大部分条约都包括这样一个条款，其目的是确保与严重罪行有关的正规程序和标准得到适用。 |
| Such authorities retain prosecutorial discretion as they may have under national law, in particular in determining whether there is a reasonable factual or legal basis to proceed with the case. | 这类当局保留根据国内法可能拥有的起诉裁量权，特别是在确定是否有合理的事实或法律依据继续审理案件时。 |
| In the context of the Rome Statute, such discretion is informed by whether the information available “provides a reasonable basis to believe that a crime … has been or is being committed” and by whether prosecution of the person is “in the interests of justice, taking into account all the circumstances, including the gravity of the crime, the interests of the victims and the age or infirmity of the alleged perpetrator, and his or her role in the alleged crime”. | 按照《罗马规约》，裁量权的依据是掌握的资料是否“提供了合理根据，可据以认为有人已经实施或正在实施…犯罪”，以及“考虑到所有情况，包括犯罪的严重程度、被害人的利益、被控告的行为人的年龄或疾患，及其在被控告的犯罪中的作用”，对该人的起诉是否有助于“实现公正”。 |
| While such discretion may exist, a State that refrains from pursuing prosecution or that conducts a “sham” proceeding solely to shield an alleged offender from accountability has not fulfilled the obligation set forth in draft article 10. | 虽然可能存在这种裁量权，但国家若完全出于使被指控罪犯逃脱责任的目的而不起诉或进行“虚假”诉讼，则没有履行第10条草案规定的义务。 |
| (10) The obligation upon a State to submit the case to the competent authorities may have implications for a State’s effort to implement an amnesty, meaning legal measures that have the effect of prospectively barring criminal prosecution of certain individuals (or categories of individuals) in respect of specified criminal conduct alleged to have been committed before the amnesty’s adoption, or legal measures that retroactively nullify legal liability previously established. | (10) 一国将案件提交主管当局的义务可能影响该国实施大赦的努力，大赦指的是有可能阻止就据称在大赦颁布前实施的特定犯罪行为对某些个人(或某类个人)提起刑事诉讼的法律措施，或追溯性地取消先前确立的法律责任的法律措施。 |
| An amnesty granted by a State in which crimes have occurred may arise pursuant to its constitutional, statutory, or other law, and might be the product of a peace agreement ending an armed conflict. | 犯罪发生地所在国可以根据其宪法、成文法或其他法律授予大赦，大赦也可能是结束武装冲突的和平协议的产物。 |
| Such an amnesty might be general in nature or might be conditioned by certain requirements, such as disarmament of a non-State armed group, a willingness of an alleged offender to testify in public to the crimes committed, or an expression of apology to the victims or their families by the alleged offender. | 这种大赦可能具有普遍性质，也可能以某些要求为条件，如解除非国家武装团体的武装，被指控罪犯愿意公开为所犯罪行作证，或者被指控罪犯向受害人或其家人道歉。 |
| (11) With respect to prosecution before international criminal courts or tribunals, the possibility of including a provision on amnesty was debated during the negotiation of the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, but no such provision was included. | (11) 关于在国际性刑事法院或法庭进行的起诉，在谈判1998年《国际刑事法院罗马规约》时讨论了列入一项大赦条款的问题，但最后没有列入这种条款。 |
| Nor was such a provision included in the statutes of the international criminal tribunals for the former Yugoslavia or Rwanda. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭和卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭的规约也不包含这样的规定。 |
| The former, however, held that an amnesty adopted in national law in relation to the offence of torture “would not be accorded international legal recognition”. | 不过，前者认为，国内法就酷刑罪通过的大赦“得不到国际法律承认”。 |
| The instrument establishing the Special Court for Sierra Leone provided that an amnesty adopted in national law is not a bar to its jurisdiction. | 设立塞拉利昂问题特别法庭的文书 规定，国内法通过的大赦不妨碍其管辖权。 |
| The instrument establishing the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia provided that the government shall not request an amnesty for persons investigated for or convicted of crimes against humanity, while leaving to the Extraordinary Chambers to determine the scope of any prior amnesty. | 设立柬埔寨法院特别法庭的文书规定，政府不得要求赦免因危害人类罪而被调查或被定罪的人，由特别法庭决定在颁布本法前授予的任何大赦的范围。 |
| Additionally, the Special Court for Sierra Leone and the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia recognized that there is, respectively, a “crystallising international norm” or “emerging consensus” prohibiting amnesties in relation to serious international crimes, particularly in relation to blanket or general amnesties, based on a duty to investigate and prosecute those crimes and punish their perpetrators. | 此外，塞拉利昂问题特别法庭和柬埔寨法院特别法庭认识到，有一种“正在具体化的国际准则” 或“新共识”，基于调查和起诉严重国际犯罪和惩罚犯罪者的义务，禁止与这些犯罪有关的大赦，特别是集体大赦或全面大赦。 |
| An International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber has found that “granting amnesties and pardons for serious acts such as murder constituting crimes against humanity is incompatible with internationally recognized human rights”. | 国际刑事法院的一个预审分庭认定，“对构成危害人类罪的谋杀等严重行为给予大赦和赦免有悖国际公认的人权。 ” |
| (12) With respect to prosecution before national courts, recently negotiated treaties addressing crimes in national law have not expressly precluded amnesties, including treaties addressing serious crimes. | (12) 关于在国内法院进行的起诉，最近谈判达成的涉及国内法中罪行的条约――包括涉及严重犯罪的条约――不明确排除大赦。 |
| For example, the possibility of including a provision on amnesty was raised during the negotiation of the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, but no such provision was included. | 例如，在2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》的谈判过程中，提出了列入一项大赦条款的可能性，但最终并未包括该条款。 |
| Regional human rights courts and bodies, including the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the European Court of Human Rights and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, however, have found amnesties to be impermissible or as not precluding accountability under regional human rights treaties. | 但区域人权法院和机构，包括美洲人权法院、欧洲人权法院及非洲人权和民族权委员会在内，都认为大赦是不被容许的，或不妨碍按照区域人权条约进行问责。 |
| Expert treaty bodies have interpreted their respective treaties as precluding a State party from passing, applying or not revoking amnesty laws. | 专家条约机构对其各自条约的解释是，缔约国不得通过、适用或不废除大赦法。 |
| Further, the position of the Secretary-General of the United Nations is not to recognize or condone amnesties for genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity or gross violations of human rights for United Nations-endorsed peace agreements. | 此外，联合国秘书长的立场是，联合国核可的和平协定不承认或宽恕对灭绝种族罪、战争罪、危害人类罪或严重侵犯人权行为的大赦。 |
| Since the entry into force of the Rome Statute, several States have adopted national laws that prohibit amnesties and similar measures with respect to crimes against humanity. | 自《罗马规约》生效以来，一些国家通过了禁止对危害人类罪实行大赦和类似措施的国内法。 |
| (13) With respect to the present draft articles, it is noted that an amnesty adopted by one State would not bar prosecution by another State with concurrent jurisdiction over the offence. | (13) 关于本条款草案，有人指出，一国实行的大赦不得妨碍对罪行拥有共同管辖权的另一国的起诉。 |
| Within the State that has adopted the amnesty, its permissibility would need to be evaluated, inter alia, in light of that State’s obligations under the present draft articles to criminalize crimes against humanity, to comply with its aut dedere aut judicare obligation, and to fulfil its obligations in relation to victims and others. | 在已实行大赦的国家，应特别结合该国根据本条款草案承担的将危害人类罪定为刑事犯罪的义务、遵守或引渡或起诉义务、以及履行对受害人和他人承担的义务等，对其可容许性进行评估。 |
| Article 11 Fair treatment of the alleged offender | 第11条 公平对待被指控罪犯 |
| 1. Any person against whom measures are being taken in connection with an offence covered by the present draft articles shall be guaranteed at all stages of the proceedings fair treatment, including a fair trial, and full protection of his or her rights under applicable national and international law, including human rights law and international humanitarian law. | 1. 对于任何因本条款草案所述罪行而被采取措施的人，在有关程序的所有阶段应保障其公平待遇，包括公平审判，并应充分保护该人按照适用的国内法和国际法，包括人权法和国际人道法所享有的各项权利。 |
| 2. Any such person who is in prison, custody or detention in a State that is not of his or her nationality shall be entitled: | 2. 在非本人国籍国被监禁、羁押或拘留的任何此类人员应有权： |
| (a) to communicate without delay with the nearest appropriate representative of the State or States of which such person is a national or which is otherwise entitled to protect that person’s rights or, if such person is a stateless person, of the State which, at that person’s request, is willing to protect that person’s rights; | (a) 立即联络与其距离最近的下述国家的适当代表：其国籍国或有权保护其权利的其他国家； 如此人为无国籍人员，则为经其请求而愿意保护其权利的国家； |
| (b) to be visited by a representative of that State or those States; | (b) 受到此类国家代表的探视； |
| and | 以及 |
| (c) to be informed without delay of his or her rights under this paragraph. | (c) 立即被告知其根据本款所享有的权利。 |
| 3. The rights referred to in paragraph 2 shall be exercised in conformity with the laws and regulations of the State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the person is present, subject to the proviso that the said laws and regulations must enable full effect to be given to the purpose for which the rights accorded under paragraph 2 are intended. | 3. 第2款所述各项权利的行使应符合该人所在领土管辖国的法律和规章，但所述法律和规章必须能使第2款所规定权利的预期目的得到充分实现。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 11 is focused on the obligation of the State to accord to any person, against whom measures are being taken in connection with an offence covered by the draft articles, fair treatment and full protection of his or her rights. | (1) 第11条草案侧重国家给予任何因本条款草案所述罪行而被采取措施的人公平待遇和充分保护其权利的义务。 |
| Moreover, draft article 11 acknowledges the right of such a person, who is not of the State’s nationality but who is in prison, custody or detention, to communicate with and have access to a representative of his or her State. | 此外，第11条草案承认在非本人国籍国被监禁、羁押或拘留的这类人员联络和接触其国籍国代表的权利。 |
| (2) The title of draft article 11 refers to fair treatment of an “alleged offender”, but the scope of the draft article is broader, covering any “person” against whom measures are being taken “at all stages of the proceedings”. | (2) 第11条草案的标题提到公平对待“被指控罪犯”，但该条草案的范围更广，涵盖“在有关程序的所有阶段”被采取措施的任何“人”。 |
| Thus, measures might be taken in connection with an offence covered by the present draft articles before the person is indicted (such as an investigation), while a person is being extradited or surrendered, or after the person has been convicted (such as imprisonment). | 因此，可以就本条款草案所述罪行，在起诉前(如调查阶段)、引渡或移交时、或定罪后(如监禁阶段)，对某人采取措施。 |
| In such circumstances, the person might not be regarded as an “alleged” offender. | 在这种情况下，此人可能不会被视为“被指控的”罪犯。 |
| Nevertheless, draft article 11 is intended to cover measures taken at all such stages against persons, recognizing that the rights to which the person is entitled may vary depending on the stage; | 然而，第11条草案旨在涵盖所有此类阶段对相关人员采取的措施，并承认该人可享有的权利可能因阶段而异； |
| for example, after conviction there would no longer be a presumption of innocence. | 例如，定罪后就不再享有无罪推定权。 |
| (3) Major human rights instruments seek to specify the standards to be applied, such as those set forth in article 14 of the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, while treaties addressing punishment of crimes within national law typically provide a broad standard of “fair treatment”. | (3) 主要人权文书力求规定具体的适用标准，例如1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第十四条所载标准，而涉及在国内法中惩治罪行的条约通常规定笼统的“公平待遇”标准。 |
| Treaties addressing national law do not define the term “fair treatment”, but the term is viewed as incorporating the specific rights possessed by an alleged offender under international law. | 涉及国内法的条约没有定义“公平待遇”一词，但该词被视为包含被指控罪犯根据国际法享有的具体权利。 |
| (4) Thus, when crafting article 8 of the draft articles on crimes against diplomatic agents, the Commission asserted that the formulation of “fair treatment at all stages of the proceedings” was “intended to incorporate all the guarantees generally recognized to a detained or accused person”, and that an “example of such guarantees is found in article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights”. | (4) 因此，委员会在起草《关于防止和惩治对外交代表犯罪的条款草案》第八条时指出，“在有关程序的所有阶段受到公平待遇”的表述“旨在涵盖公认被拘留者或被告应得到的一切保证”，并指出“这类保障的一个例子见《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第十四条”。 |
| Further, the Commission noted that the “expression ‘fair treatment’ was preferred, because of its generality, to more usual expressions such as ‘due process’, ‘fair hearing’ or ‘fair trial’ which might be interpreted in a narrow technical sense”. | 此外，委员会还指出“‘适当程序’、‘公平审理’或‘公平审判’等较常见的表述可能被人从狭义的技术意义上加以解释。 与之相比，‘公平待遇’的表述比较广义，因此更可取”。 |
| (5) While the term “fair treatment” includes the concept of a “fair trial”, in many treaties reference to a fair trial is expressly included to stress its particular importance. | (5) 虽然“公平待遇”一词包含“公平审判”概念，但许多条约明确提及公平审判，以强调其特别重要性。 |
| Indeed, the Human Rights Committee has found the right to a fair trial to be a “key element of human rights protection” and a “procedural means to safeguard the rule of law”. | 事实上，人权事务委员会认为，获得公平审判的权利是“人权保护的一项关键内容”，也是“保障法治的一项程序手段”。 |
| Consequently, draft article 11, paragraph 1, refers to fair treatment “including a fair trial”. | 因此，第11条草案第1款中称公平待遇“包括公平审判”。 |
| (6) In addition to fair treatment, paragraph 1 provides that the person is entitled to the full protection of his or her rights, whether arising under applicable national or international law. | (6) 除了公平待遇，第1款还规定有关人员有权得到对其权利的充分保护，无论这种权利产生于适用的国内法还是国际法。 |
| With respect to national law, generally all States provide within their law protections of one degree or another for persons whom they investigate, detain, try or punish for a criminal offence. | 就国内法而言，基本上所有国家的法律都对因刑事犯罪而受到调查、拘留、审判或惩处的人提供某种程度的保护。 |
| Such protections may be specified in a constitution, statute, administrative rule or judicial decision. | 这种保护可能在宪法、法规、行政规则或司法决定中有具体规定。 |
| Further, detailed rules may be codified or a broad standard may be set referring to “fair treatment”, “due process”, “judicial guarantees” or “equal protection”. | 此外，还可能会编纂详细规则，或确立大略标准，提及“公平待遇”、“正当程序”、“司法保障”、或“平等保护”。 |
| Such protections are extremely important in ensuring that the extraordinary power of the State’s criminal justice apparatus is not improperly brought to bear upon a suspect, among other things preserving for that individual the ability to contest fully the State’s allegations before an independent court (hence, allowing for an “equality of arms”). | 这种保护极为重要，因为它能避免国家刑事司法机构将其超常权力不当地施加于嫌疑人，其效果包括使该个人能够向独立法庭充分质疑该国的指控(因而保障“权利平等”)。 |
| (7) With respect to international law, both human rights law and international humanitarian law are of particular relevance. | (7) 就国际法而言，人权法和国际人道法都特别相关。 |
| At the most general level, human rights protections are acknowledged in articles 10 and 11 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, while more specific standards binding upon States are set forth in article 14 of the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, in regional human rights treaties or in other applicable instruments. | 在最普遍的层面上，1948年《世界人权宣言》第十和第十一条确认了对人权的保护， 而1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第十四条、区域人权条约 或其他适用文书 规定了对各国具有约束力的更具体的标准。 |
| With respect to international humanitarian law, the 1949 Geneva Conventions require minimum basic guarantees of fair treatment, fair trial, and full protection of rights for those who face criminal prosecution in the course of armed conflict, applicable in both international armed conflict and non-international armed conflict. | 在国际人道法方面，1949年日内瓦四公约规定对在武装冲突期间遭到刑事起诉的人提供公平待遇、公平审判和充分保护其权利等最基本保障，这一规定既适用于国际武装冲突，也适用于非国际武装冲突。 |
| While the scope and application of these guarantees may depend on the form of armed conflict at issue, many, if not all, of these guarantees are seen as customary international law in all forms of armed conflict. | 虽然这些保障的范围和适用可能取决于所涉武装冲突的形式，但其中许多保障，即使不是全部，被视为所有形式武装冲突中的习惯国际法。 |
| Relevant rights under international law include: the right of the accused to be informed of the charges against him or her; | 国际法规定的相关权利包括：被告有权被告知对他/她的指控； |
| the right not to be compelled to incriminate himself or herself; | 有权不被强迫证明自己有罪； |
| the right to face punishment only for an act that was criminalized by law at the time the act was performed (the principle of nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege); | 有权仅因实施时被法律定为有罪的行为而面临处罚(“法无明文，不罪不罚”原则)； |
| and the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty. | 以及在证明有罪之前有权被推定无罪。 |
| (8) Paragraph 2 of draft article 11 addresses the State’s obligations with respect to a person who is not of the State’s nationality and who is in “prison, custody or detention”. | (8) 第11条草案第2款阐述了国家对在非本人国籍国“被监禁、羁押或拘留”的人员的义务。 |
| That term is to be understood as embracing all situations where the State restricts the person’s ability to communicate freely with and be visited by a representative of: (a) his or her State of nationality; | 这一表述应被理解为包括国家限制人员与下述国家的代表自由联络和接受这些代表探视的所有情况：(a) 其国籍国； |
| (b) a State which is otherwise entitled to protect the person’s rights or (c) if such person is a stateless person, the State which, at that person’s request, is willing to protect that person’s rights. | (b) 有权保护其权利的其他国家； (c) 如此人为无国籍人员，则为经其请求而愿意保护其权利的国家。 |
| In such situations, the State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the alleged offender is present is required to allow the alleged offender to communicate, without delay, with the nearest appropriate representative of the State or States concerned. | 在这些情况下，要求被指控罪犯在其管辖领土内的国家允许被指控罪犯立即联络上述国家的距离最近的适当代表。 |
| Further, the alleged offender is entitled to be visited by a representative of that State or those States. | 再者，被指控罪犯有权受到此类国家代表的探视。 |
| Finally, the alleged offender is entitled to be informed without delay of these rights. | 最后，被指控罪犯有权立即被告知这些权利。 |
| (9) Such rights are spelled out in greater detail in article 36, paragraph 1, of the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, which accords rights to both the detained person and to the State of nationality, and in customary international law. | (9) 1963年《维也纳领事关系公约》第三十六条第一款 (将权利赋予被拘留者和国籍国)和习惯国际法更为详细地阐述了这些权利。 |
| Recent treaties addressing crimes typically do not seek to go into such detail but, like draft article 11, paragraph 2, instead simply reiterate that the alleged offender is entitled to communicate with, and be visited by, his or her State of nationality (or, if a stateless person, with the State where he or she usually resides or that is otherwise willing to protect that person’s rights). | 最近的针对罪行的条约通常不会如此详细，而是与第11条草案第2款一样，仅重申被指控罪犯有权联络其国籍国并接受其探视(或者，对无国籍人而言，则有权联络其通常居住的国家或其他愿意保护此人权利的国家)。 |
| As is the case for paragraph 1, such rights may operate differently in a context where international humanitarian law applies, such as through communications and visits undertaken by a Protecting Power or by the International Committee of the Red Cross. | 与第1款一样，在适用国际人道法的情况下，这些权利的实现方式可能有所不同，例如通过保护国或红十字国际委员会进行联络和探视。 |
| (10) Paragraph 3 of draft article 11 provides that the rights referred to in paragraph 2 shall be exercised in conformity with the laws and regulations of the State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the person is present, provided that such laws and regulations do not prevent such rights being given the full effect for which they are intended. | (10) 第11条草案第3款规定，第2款所述各项权利的行使应符合该人所在领土管辖国的法律和规章，但这些法律和规章不得妨碍这些权利的预期目的得到充分实现。 |
| Those national laws and regulations may relate, for example, to the ability of an investigating magistrate to impose restrictions on communication for the protection of victims or witnesses, as well as standard conditions with respect to visitation of a person being held at a detention facility. | 这些国内法律和规章可涉及调查官员为保护受害人和证人而对联络施加限制的能力以及探视被关押在拘留场所的人的标准条件等问题。 |
| A comparable provision exists in article 36, paragraph 2, of the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations and has been included as well in many treaties addressing crimes. | 1963年《维也纳领事关系公约》第三十六条第二款 中存在一个类似条款，该条款还被列入了许多关于犯罪的条约。 |
| The Commission explained this provision in its commentary to what became the 1963 Vienna Convention as follows: | 委员会在后来成为1963年《维也纳公约》的条款草案评注中对该条款作了如下解释： |
| “(5) All the above-mentioned rights are exercised in conformity with the laws and regulations of the receiving State. | “(5) 上述各项权利依照接收国的法律和规章行使。 |
| Thus, visits to persons in custody or imprisoned are permissible in conformity with the provisions of the code of criminal procedure and prison regulations. | 因此，依照刑事诉讼法和监狱规章的规定，探视被羁押和监禁者是可允许的。 |
| As a general rule, for the purpose of visits to a person in custody against whom a criminal investigation or a criminal trial is in process, codes of criminal procedure require the permission of the examining magistrate, who will decide in the light of the requirements of the investigation. | 作为一项一般规则，为了探视正在受到刑事调查或刑事审判的被羁押者，刑事诉讼法要求得到预审法官的许可，预审法官将根据调查要求作出决定。 |
| In such a case, the consular official must apply to the examining magistrate for permission. | 在这样的案件中，领事官员必须向预审法官申请许可。 |
| In the case of a person imprisoned in pursuance of a judgement, the prison regulations governing visits to inmates apply also to any visits which the consular official may wish to make to a prisoner who is a national of the sending State. | 在一人根据一项判决而被监禁的情况下，关于探视囚犯的监狱规章也适用于领事官员对身为派遣国国民的犯人的探视。 |
| (7) Although the rights provided for in this article must be exercised in conformity with the laws and regulations of the receiving State, this does not mean that these laws and regulations can nullify the rights in question.” | (7) 虽然本条规定的权利的行使必须符合接收国的法律和规章，但这不意味着这些法律和规章可以宣布有关权利无效。 ” |
| (11) In the LaGrand case, the International Court of Justice found that the reference to “rights” in article 36, paragraph 2, of the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations “must be read as applying not only to the rights of the sending State, but also to the rights of the detained individual”. | (11) 在LaGrand案中，国际法院认定，1963年《维也纳公约》第三十六条第二款中所述“权利”“必须被解读为不仅适用于派遣国的权利，而且也适用于被拘禁的个人的权利”。 |
| Article 12 Victims, witnesses and others | 第12条 受害人、证人及其他人 |
| 1. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that: | 1. 各国应采取必要措施，确保： |
| (a) any person who alleges that acts constituting crimes against humanity have been or are being committed has the right to complain to the competent authorities; | (a) 声称有人实施了或正在实施构成危害人类罪的行为的任何人有权向主管当局提出申诉； |
| and | 以及 |
| (b) complainants, victims, witnesses, and their relatives and representatives, as well as other persons participating in any investigation, prosecution, extradition or other proceeding within the scope of the present draft articles, shall be protected against ill-treatment or intimidation as a consequence of any complaint, information, testimony or other evidence given. | (b) 申诉人、受害人、证人及其家属和代表以及在本条款草案范围内参加任何调查、起诉、引渡或其他程序的其他人得到保护，不因提出任何申诉，以及提供任何信息、证词或其他证据而受到虐待或恐吓。 |
| Protective measures shall be without prejudice to the rights of the alleged offender referred to in draft article 11. | 这些措施应不妨害第11条草案所述被指控罪犯的权利。 |
| 2. Each State shall, in accordance with its national law, enable the views and concerns of victims of a crime against humanity to be presented and considered at appropriate stages of criminal proceedings against alleged offenders in a manner not prejudicial to the rights referred to in draft article 11. | 2. 各国应根据本国法律在对被指控罪犯提起刑事诉讼的适当阶段，以不妨害第11条草案所述权利的方式使危害人类罪受害人的意见和关切得到表达和考虑。 |
| 3. Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure in its legal system that the victims of a crime against humanity, committed through acts attributable to the State under international law or committed in any territory under its jurisdiction, have the right to obtain reparation for material and moral damages, on an individual or collective basis, consisting, as appropriate, of one or more of the following or other forms: restitution; | 3. 各国应采取必要措施，在其法律体系内确保危害人类罪受害人有权就受到的物质和精神损害以个人或集体方式获得赔偿，无论此种罪行是通过依国际法可归属于该国家的行为实施，还是在其所管辖的任何领土内实施。 这种赔偿酌情包括以下一种或多种形式或其他形式：恢复原状； |
| compensation; | 补偿； |
| satisfaction; | 抵偿； |
| rehabilitation; | 康复； |
| cessation and guarantees of non-repetition. | 停止和保证不再犯。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 12 addresses the rights of victims, witnesses and other persons affected by the commission of a crime against humanity. | (1) 第12条草案涉及受实施危害人类罪影响的受害人、证人及其他人的权利。 |
| (2) Many treaties addressing crimes under national law prior to the 1980s did not contain provisions with respect to victims or witnesses and, even after the 1980s, most global treaties concerned with terrorism have not addressed the rights of victims and witnesses. | (2) 1980年代以前许多涉及国内法规定的犯罪的条约都不包含关于受害人或证人的规定， 甚至在1980年代以后，大多数关于恐怖主义的全球性条约也不涉及受害人和证人的权利。 |
| Since the 1980s, however, many treaties concerning other crimes have included provisions similar to those appearing in draft article 12, including treaties addressing acts that may constitute crimes against humanity in certain circumstances, such as torture and enforced disappearance. | 不过，自1980年代以来，许多关于其他犯罪的条约都有与第12条草案所列相类似的规定， 包括处理在某些情况下可能构成危害人类罪(如酷刑和强迫失踪)的行为的条约。 |
| Some of the statutes of international courts and tribunals that have jurisdiction over crimes against humanity, notably the 1998 Rome Statute, have addressed the rights of victims and witnesses, and the General Assembly of the United Nations has provided guidance for States with respect to the rights of victims of crimes, including victims of crimes against humanity. | 对危害人类罪有管辖权的一些国际性法院和法庭的规约，特别是1998年《罗马规约》， 均涉及受害人和证人的权利，联合国大会也为各国提供了关于犯罪受害人的权利，包括危害人类罪受害人权利的指导。 |
| (3) Most treaties that address the rights of victims within national law do not define the term “victim”, allowing States instead to apply their existing law and practice, provided that it is consistent with their obligations under international law. | (3) 大多数涉及国内法规定的受害人权利的条约并没有界定“受害人”这一术语，而是允许各国适用本国的现行法律和惯例， 只要其与该国在国际法下的义务相一致。 |
| At the same time, practice associated with those treaties and under customary international law provides guidance as to how the term should be viewed. | 与此同时，与这些条约相关的以及依习惯国际法进行的实践提供了关于应当如何看待该术语的指导。 |
| For example, the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance defines “victim” for purposes of that Convention as “the disappeared person and any individual who has suffered harm as the direct result of an enforced disappearance”. | 例如，2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》为该公约的目的，将“受害人”定义为“失踪的人和任何因强迫失踪而受到直接伤害的个人”。 |
| The Convention on Cluster Munitions defines “cluster munition victims” for purposes of that Convention as “all persons who have been killed or suffered physical or psychological injury, economic loss, social marginalisation or substantial impairment of the realisation of their rights caused by the use of cluster munitions. They include those persons directly impacted by cluster munitions as well as their affected families and communities”. | 《集束弹药公约》为该公约的目的，将“集束弹药受害人”定义为“使用集束弹药而被炸死或遭受心身伤害、经济损失、社会边缘化或在实现其权利方面受到严重阻碍的所有人，包括受集束弹药直接影响的人及其家庭和社区”。 |
| (4) While the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment does not define what is meant in article 14 by “victim”, the Committee against Torture has provided detailed guidance as to its meaning. | (4) 1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》虽未界定第14条所述“受害者”的含义，但禁止酷刑委员会就其含义提供了详细指导。 |
| In general comment No. 3, the Committee stated: | 禁止酷刑委员会在第3号一般性意见中指出： |
| Victims are persons who have individually or collectively suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that constitute violations of the Convention. | 受害者系指由于构成违反《公约》的行为或不作为而遭受单独或集体伤害的人，这种伤害包括身体或精神伤害、感情痛苦、经济损失或对其基本权利的重大损害。 |
| A person should be considered a victim regardless of whether the perpetrator of the violation is identified, apprehended, prosecuted or convicted, and regardless of any familial or other relationship between the perpetrator and the victim. | 一个人应被视为受害者，无论侵权犯罪人是否被确定身份、逮捕、起诉或定罪，也无论犯罪人和受害者之间是否存在任何家庭或其他关系。 |
| The term ‘victim’ also includes affected immediate family or dependants of the victim as well as persons who have suffered harm in intervening to assist victims or to prevent victimization. | ‘受害者’还包括受害者的直系亲属或受扶养人以及出面干预以援助受害者或防止受害情况而蒙受损害的人。 |
| (5) At the regional level, the 1950 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms allows applications to be filed by “any person, non-governmental organisation or group of individuals” claiming to be a “victim” of a violation of the Convention. | (5) 在区域一级，1950年《保护人权与基本自由公约》允许声称是违反该公约行为“受害人”的“任何个人、非政府组织或个人团体”提出申诉。 |
| The European Court of Human Rights has found that such “victims” may be harmed either directly or indirectly, and that family members of a victim of a serious human rights violation may themselves be “victims”. | 欧洲人权法院认定，这些“受害人”可能直接或间接受到伤害， 而严重侵犯人权行为的受害人的家属本身也可能是“受害人”。 |
| While the guarantees contained in the 1969 American Convention on Human Rights are restricted to natural persons, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has also recognized both direct and indirect individual victims, including family members, as well as victim groups. | 虽然1969年《美洲人权公约》所载的保障仅限于自然人， 但美洲人权法院也承认直接和间接受害人，包括家庭成员， 以及受害人群体。 |
| The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Banjul Charter) does not use the term “victim”, but the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, in its general comment No. 4, stated that “[v]ictims are persons who individually or collectively suffer harm, including physical or psychological harm, through acts or omissions that constitute violations of the African Charter”. | 《非洲人权和民族权宪章》(《班珠尔宪章》)没有使用“受害人”一词，但非洲人权和民族权委员会在第4号一般性意见中指出，“受害人是指因违反《非洲宪章》的行为或不作为而单独或集体遭受伤害，包括身体或心理伤害的人”。 |
| Further, the Commission concluded that an “individual is a victim regardless of whether the perpetrator of the violation is identified, apprehended, prosecuted or convicted, and regardless of any familial or other relationship between the perpetrator and the victim”. | 此外，非洲人权和民族权委员会得出结论称，“无论侵权犯罪人是否被确定身份、逮捕、起诉或定罪，也无论犯罪人和受害者之间是否存在任何家庭或其他关系，上述人员均为受害人”。 |
| Under all such treaties, the term “victim” is not construed narrowly or in a discriminatory manner. | 根据这些条约，不能以狭隘或歧视性的方式解释“受害人”一词。 |
| (6) Likewise, while the statutes of international criminal courts and tribunals do not define the term “victim”, guidance may exist in the rules or jurisprudence of the tribunals. | (6) 同样，尽管国际性刑事法院和法庭的规约没有界定“受害人”一词，但在法庭的规则或判例中可能有一些指导。 |
| Thus, rule 85 (a) of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Criminal Court defines “victims” as “natural persons who have suffered harm as a result of the commission of any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court”, which is understood as including both direct and indirect victims, while rule 85 (b) extends the definition to legal persons provided such persons have suffered direct harm. | 因此，《国际刑事法院程序和证据规则》的规则85(a)将“受害人”定义为“任何本法院管辖权内的犯罪的受害自然人”， 可理解为包括直接和间接的受害人， 规则85(b)则将这一定义扩大到法人，条件是这些法人受到直接损害。 |
| (7) Draft article 12, paragraph 1, provides that each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure that any person who alleges that acts constituting crimes against humanity have been or are being committed has the right to complain to the competent authorities, and further obliges States to protect from ill-treatment or intimidation those who complain or otherwise participate in proceedings within the scope of the draft articles. | (7) 第12条草案第1款规定，各国应采取必要措施，确保声称有人实施了或正在实施构成危害人类罪行为的任何人有权向主管当局提出申诉，并要求各国保护申诉人或在本条款草案范围内参加有关程序的其他人不受虐待或恐吓。 |
| A similar provision is included in international treaties, including the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. | 国际条约也有类似的规定，包括1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》 和2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》。 |
| (8) Subparagraph (a) of paragraph 1 extends the right to complain to “any person” who alleges that acts constituting crimes against humanity have been or are being committed. | (8) 第1款(a)项将申诉权赋予声称有人实施了或正在实施构成危害人类罪的行为的“任何人”。 |
| The term “any person” includes but is not limited to a victim or witness of a crime against humanity, and may include legal persons such as religious bodies or non-governmental organizations. | “任何人”一语包括但不限于危害人类罪的受害人或证人，还可包括法人，如宗教团体或非政府组织。 |
| (9) Such persons have a right to complain to “competent authorities”, which, to be effective, in some circumstances may need to be judicial authorities. | (9) 这些人有权向“主管当局”提出申诉，为有效起见，主管当局在有些情况下可能需为司法机关。 |
| Following a complaint, State authorities have a duty to proceed to a prompt and impartial investigation whenever there are reasonable grounds to believe that acts constituting crimes against humanity have been or are being committed in any territory under the State’s jurisdiction, in accordance with draft article 8. | 提出申诉后，只要有合理依据认为在其管辖的任何领土内已经或正在发生构成危害人类罪的行为，国家主管当局即有义务根据第8条草案立即开展公正的调查。 |
| (10) Subparagraph (b) of paragraph 1 obliges States to protect “complainants” as well as the other categories of persons listed even if they did not file a complaint; | (10) 第1款(b)项要求各国保护“申诉人”以及所列其他类别人员(即使他们没有提出申诉)； |
| those other categories are “victims, witnesses, and their relatives and representatives, as well as other persons participating in any investigation, prosecution, extradition or other proceeding within the scope of the present draft articles”. | 这些人员为“受害人、证人及其家属和代表以及在本条款草案范围内参加任何调查、起诉、引渡或其他程序的其他人”。 |
| Recent international treaties have similarly expanded the category of persons to whom protection shall be granted, including the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, and the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. | 近来的国际条约也同样扩大了应予保护的人员类别，包括2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》、 2003年《联合国反腐败公约》 和2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》。 |
| Protective measures for these persons are required not just under treaties addressing crimes in national law, but also in the statutes of international criminal courts and tribunals. | 要求对这些人采取保护措施的不仅有涉及国内法规定的犯罪的条约，还有国际性刑事法院和法庭的规约。 |
| (11) Subparagraph (b) of paragraph 1 requires that the listed persons be protected from “ill-treatment and intimidation” as a consequence of any complaint, information, testimony or other evidence given. | (11) 第1款(b)项要求保护所列人员不因提出任何申诉，以及提供任何信息、证词或其他证据而受到“虐待或恐吓”。 |
| The term “ill-treatment” relates not just to the person’s physical well-being, but also includes the person’s psychological well-being, dignity or privacy. | “虐待”不仅涉及人的身体健康，还包括其心理健康、尊严或隐私。 |
| (12) Subparagraph (b) does not provide a list of protective measures to be taken by States, as the measures will inevitably vary according to the circumstances at issue, the capabilities of the relevant State, and the preferences of the persons concerned. | (12) (b)项没有列出各国应采取的保护措施，因为这些措施必然因具体情况、相关国家的能力和所涉个人的倾向而异。 |
| Such measures, however, might include: the presentation of evidence by electronic or other special means rather than in person; | 但这些措施可包括：允许以电子或其他特别方式提供而不是亲身提供证据； |
| measures designed to protect the privacy and identity of witnesses and victims; | 旨在保护证人和受害人隐私和身份的措施； |
| in camera proceedings; | 不公开审理； |
| withholding evidence or information if disclosure may lead to the grave endangerment of the security of a witness or his or her family; | 如果披露证据或信息可能使证人或其家属的安全受到严重威胁，则不予公开信息； |
| the relocation of victims and witnesses; | 将受害人和证人转移； |
| and protective measures with respect to children. | 关于儿童的保护措施。 |
| (13) At the same time, States must be mindful that some protective measures may have implications with respect to the rights of an alleged offender, such as the right to confront witnesses against him or her. | (13) 另一方面，各国必须铭记，一些保护措施可能会对被指控罪犯的权利产生影响，例如质询控方证人的权利。 |
| As a result, subparagraph (b) of paragraph 1 stipulates that protective measures shall be without prejudice to the rights of the alleged offender referred to in draft article 11. | 因此，第1款(b)项规定，保护措施应当不损害第11条草案所述被指控罪犯的权利。 |
| (14) Draft article 12, paragraph 2, provides that each State shall, in accordance with its national law, enable the views and concerns of victims of a crime against humanity to be presented and considered at appropriate stages of criminal proceedings. | (14) 第12条草案第2款规定，各国应根据本国法律，在刑事程序的适当阶段，使危害人类罪受害人的意见和关切得到表达和考虑。 |
| While expressing a firm obligation, the clauses “in accordance with its national law” and “appropriate stages” provide flexibility to the State as to implementation of the obligation, allowing States to tailor the requirement to the unique characteristics of their criminal law system. | 尽管该款表达了一种确定的义务，但“根据本国法律”和“适当阶段”这两个短语为国家提供了履行该义务的灵活性，允许各国根据其刑法制度的独特性来适应这一要求。 |
| For example, in some jurisdictions this obligation might be fulfilled by allowing the victim to deliver an impact statement at the time of sentencing. | 例如，在某些司法体系，可通过允许受害人在判刑时发表影响声明来履行这一义务。 |
| Although addressed only to “victims”, it may also be appropriate for States to permit others (such as family members or representatives) to present their views and concerns, especially in circumstances where a victim of a crime against humanity has died or disappeared. Paragraph 2 is without prejudice to other obligations of States that exist under international law. | 虽然这里只提到“受害人”，但各国也不妨允许其他人(如家庭成员或代理人)提出意见和关切，特别是在危害人类罪的受害人死亡或失踪的情况下。 |
| (15) Examples of a provision such as paragraph 2 may be found in various treaties, such as: the 1998 Rome Statute; | 第2款不妨碍各国依照国际法所承担的其他现有义务。 |
| the 2000 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography; the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime; the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime; | (15) 许多条约都有像第2款这样的规定，如1998年《罗马规约》、2000年《儿童权利公约关于买卖儿童、儿童卖淫和儿童色情制品问题的任择议定书》、2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》、2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于预防、禁止和惩治贩运人口特别是妇女和儿童行为的补充议定书》 和2003年《联合国反腐败公约》。 |
| and the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. (16) Draft article 12, paragraph 3, addresses the right of a victim of a crime against humanity to obtain reparation. | (16) 第12条草案第3款涉及危害人类罪受害人获得赔偿的权利。 |
| The opening clause – “Each State shall take the necessary measures to ensure in its legal system” – obliges States to have or enact necessary laws, regulations, procedures or mechanisms to enable victims to pursue claims against and secure redress for the harm they have suffered from those who are responsible for the harm, be it the State itself or some other actor. | 起首语――“各国应采取必要措施，在其法律体系内确保”――要求各国拥有或制定必要的法律、条例、程序或机制，使受害人能够就所受伤害提出索赔，并从造成伤害者，无论是国家本身还是其他行为体那里获得补救。 |
| At the same time, for any given situation of crimes against humanity, the State or States that must implement such measures will depend upon the context. | 与此同时，对于任何特定的危害人类罪情况，必须采取此类措施的国家(一个或多个)将取决于具体情况。 |
| The States concerned are those: (a) to which the acts constituting crimes against humanity are attributable under international law; | 这类国家包括：(a) 构成危害人类罪的行为根据国际法可归责于该国； |
| and (b) that exercise jurisdiction over the territory where the crimes were committed. | 或(b)该国对犯罪发生地行使管辖权。 |
| (17) Paragraph 3 refers to the victim’s “right to obtain reparation”. | (17) 第3款提到受害人“有权…获得赔偿”。 |
| Treaties and instruments addressing this issue have used different terminology, sometimes referring to the right to a “remedy” or “redress”, sometimes using the term “reparation”, and sometimes referring only to a specific form of reparation, such as “compensation”. | 涉及这一问题的条约和文书使用了不同术语，有时提到获得“救济”或“补救”的权利，有时使用“赔偿”一词，有时则只提及具体的赔偿形式，例如“补偿”。 |
| Thus, the right to an “effective remedy” may be found in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and in some regional human rights treaties. | 因此，1948年《世界人权宣言》、1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》 和一些区域人权条约 均提到获得“有效救济”的权利。 |
| The 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, in article 14, refers to the victim’s ability to obtain “redress” and to a right to “compensation” including “rehabilitation”. | 1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》第14条提到受害人应得到“补救”，并享有获得“补偿”，包括“康复”的权利。 |
| The 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, in article 24, refers to a “right to obtain reparation and prompt, fair and adequate compensation”. | 2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》第二十四条提到“有权取得赔偿和及时、公正和充分的补偿”。 |
| (18) The Commission decided to refer to a “right to obtain reparation” as a means of capturing redress in a comprehensive sense, an approach that appears to have taken root in various treaty regimes. | (18) 国际法委员会决定采用“有权…获得赔偿”的提法，以全面涵盖补救办法，这种做法似乎已在各种条约制度中得到确立。 |
| Thus, while the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment quoted above refers to the terms “redress”, “compensation” and “rehabilitation”, the Committee against Torture considers that the provision as a whole embodies a “comprehensive reparative concept”, according to which: | 因此，虽然上述1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍，不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》提到“补救”、“补偿”和“康复”等词，但禁止酷刑委员会认为，该条款作为一个整体，体现了“全面的赔偿概念”， 该委员会指出： |
| The obligations of States parties to provide redress under article 14 are two-fold: procedural and substantive. | 第14条规定的缔约国提供补救的义务有两个方面：程序性和实质性。 |
| To satisfy their procedural obligations, States parties shall enact legislation and establish complaints mechanisms, investigation bodies and institutions, including independent judicial bodies, capable of determining the right to and awarding redress for a victim of torture and ill-treatment, and ensure that such mechanisms and bodies are effective and accessible to all victims. | 为履行程序性义务，缔约国应颁布法律并设立申诉机制、调查机关和机构，包括独立司法机构，这些机构能够裁定酷刑和虐待受害者是否有权获得补救并向其判付补救； 缔约国还应确保这种机制和机构行之有效而且所有受害者都可加以利用。 |
| At the substantive level, States parties shall ensure that victims of torture or ill-treatment obtain full and effective redress and reparation, including compensation and the means for as full rehabilitation as possible. | 在实质性方面，缔约国应确保酷刑或虐待受害者获得充分、有效补救和赔偿，包括补偿和尽量使其完全康复。 |
| (19) This movement towards a more comprehensive concept of reparation has led to some treaty provisions that list various forms of reparation. | (19) 这种向更全面的赔偿概念的转变产生了一些列出各种赔偿形式的条约规定。 |
| For example, the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance indicates that the “right to obtain reparation”, which covers “material and moral damages”, may consist of not only compensation, but also, “where appropriate, other forms of reparation such as: (a) Restitution; | 例如，2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》指出，涵盖“物质和精神损害”的“获得赔偿的权利”不仅包括补偿，“视情况而定”还包括“其他形式的赔偿，如：(一) 恢复原状； |
| (b) Rehabilitation; | (二) 康复； |
| (c) Satisfaction, including restoration of dignity and reputation; | (三) 抵偿，包括恢复尊严和名誉； |
| (d) Guarantees of non-repetition”. | (四) 保证不再犯。 ” |
| (20) Draft article 12, paragraph 3, follows this approach by setting forth a list of forms of reparation, which include, but are not limited to, restitution, compensation, satisfaction, rehabilitation, cessation and guarantees of non-repetition. | (20) 第12条草案第3款遵循了这一做法，列出了一些形式的赔偿，其中包括但不限于恢复原状、补偿、抵偿、康复、停止和保证不再犯。 |
| In the context of crimes against humanity, all traditional forms of reparation are potentially relevant. | 在危害人类罪背景下，所有传统形式的赔偿都可能是相关的。 |
| Restitution, or the return to the status quo ex ante, may be an appropriate form of reparation and includes the ability for a victim to return to his or her home, the return of moveable property, or the reconstruction of public or private buildings, including schools, hospitals and places of religious worship. | 恢复原状可能是一种适当的赔偿形式，包括受害人能够返回家园，归还可移动财产或重建公共或私人建筑，包括学校、医院和宗教礼拜场所等。 |
| Compensation may be appropriate with respect to both material and moral damages. | 补偿可能适用于物质和精神损害。 |
| Rehabilitation programmes for large numbers of persons in certain circumstances may be required, such as programmes for medical treatment, provision of prosthetic limbs, or trauma-focused therapy. | 在某些情况下，可能需要针对大量人员的康复方案，例如医治、提供假肢或创伤治疗方案。 |
| Satisfaction, such as issuance of a statement of apology or regret, may also be a desirable form of reparation. | 抵偿，如发表道歉或遗憾声明，也可能是一种可行的赔偿形式。 |
| Likewise, reparation for a crime against humanity might consist of assurances or guarantees of non-repetition. | 同样，对危害人类罪的赔偿还可包含保证或保障不再发生。 |
| (21) The illustrative list of forms of reparation, however, is preceded by the words “as appropriate”. | (21) 不过，在赔偿形式的指示性清单之前，有“酌情”二字。 |
| Such wording acknowledges that States must have some flexibility and discretion to determine the appropriate form of reparation, recognizing that, in the aftermath of crimes against humanity, various scenarios may arise, including those of transitional justice, and reparations must be tailored to the specific context. | 这一措辞确认各国必须拥有一定灵活性和裁量权来确定适当的赔偿形式，承认在危害人类罪发生之后，可能会出现各种情况，包括实施过渡期正义的情况，赔偿必须适合具体情况。 |
| For example, in some situations, a State may be responsible for crimes against humanity while, in other situations, non-State actors may be responsible. | 例如，在一些情况下，对危害人类罪负责的可能是国家，而在另一些情况下，负责的可能是非国家行为体。 |
| The crimes may have involved mass atrocities in circumstances where, in their wake, a State may be struggling to rebuild itself, leaving it with limited resources or any capacity to provide material redress to victims. | 这些犯罪可能会涉及大规模暴行，在这种情形下，一国可能要努力重建自身，因此向受害人提供实质性补救的资源或能力有限。 |
| The ability of any given perpetrator to make reparation will also vary. | 任何特定犯罪人的赔偿能力也会有所不同。 |
| Even so, the State concerned must implement this obligation in good faith and not abuse its flexibility so as to avoid appropriate reparation. | 即便如此，有关国家必须善意履行这一义务，不得滥用灵活性以逃避恰当的赔偿。 |
| Paragraph 3 is without prejudice to other obligations of States that exist under international law. | 第3款不妨碍各国依照国际法所承担的其他现有义务。 |
| (22) Paragraph 3 provides that such reparation may be “on an individual or collective basis”. | (22) 第3款规定，这种赔偿可“以个人或集体方式”进行。 |
| Reparation specific to each of the victims may be warranted, such as through the use of regular civil claims processes in national courts or through a specially designed process of mass claims compensation. | 可能需要作出针对每个受害人的具体赔偿，例如通过利用国内法院的常规民事索赔程序，或通过特定的集体求偿程序进行赔偿。 |
| Measures to preclude any statute of limitations on civil claims should be considered in appropriate circumstances. | 在适当的情况下，应考虑采取措施，不适用民事求偿的诉讼时效。 |
| In some situations, however, only collective forms of reparation may be feasible or preferable, such as the building of monuments of remembrance or the reconstruction of schools, hospitals, clinics and places of worship. | 但在某些情况下，只有集体赔偿形式可行或更为可取，例如建造纪念馆或重建学校、医院、诊所和礼拜场所。 |
| This may be especially the case where a State is grappling with the aftermath of a period of large-scale human rights abuses, necessitating creative transitional justice mechanisms. | 当一国正努力为一段时期大规模的侵犯人权行为收拾残局，需要有创造性的过渡期正义机制时，尤其如此。 |
| In still other situations, a combination of individual and collective reparations may be appropriate. | 还有一些情况下，可能适于将个人和集体赔偿相结合。 |
| (23) Support for this approach may be seen in the approach to reparations taken by international criminal courts and tribunals. | (23) 从国际性刑事法院和法庭的赔偿做法中可以看出对这种办法的支持。 |
| The statutes of the international criminal tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and for Rwanda contained provisions exclusively addressing the possibility of restitution of property, not compensation or other forms of reparation. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭和卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭的规约载有专门述及归还财产的可能性而不是补偿或其他形式赔偿的规定。 |
| Yet, when establishing other international criminal courts and tribunals, States appear to have recognized that focusing solely on restitution is inadequate (instead the more general term “reparation” is used) and that establishing only an individual right to reparation for each victim may be problematic in the context of a mass atrocity. | 不过，在设立其他国际性刑事法院和法庭时，各国似乎已经认识到，只注重恢复原状是不够的(而是使用了更笼统的措辞“赔偿”)，而且，只确立每个受害人获得赔偿的个人权利，在大规模暴行背景下可能会成问题。 |
| Instead, allowance is made for the possibility of reparation for individual victims or for reparation on a collective basis. | 因此考虑了赔偿个别受害人或进行集体赔偿的可能性。 |
| For example, the Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Criminal Court provide that, in awarding reparation to victims pursuant to article 75, “the Court may award reparations on an individualized basis or, where it deems it appropriate, on a collective basis or both”, taking into account the scope and extent of any damage, loss or injury. | 例如，《国际刑事法院程序和证据规则》规定，在根据第七十五条对受害人进行赔偿时，考虑到任何损害、损失和损伤的范围和程度，“本法院可以裁定作出个别赔偿，或在本法院认为适当的情况下，裁定作出集体或个别与集体赔偿。 |
| In the context of the atrocities in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, only “collective and moral reparations” are envisaged under the Internal Rules of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. | ” 在红色高棉统治下的柬埔寨发生的暴行背景下，根据《柬埔寨法院特别法庭内部规则》，只考虑“集体性和道义性赔偿”。 |
| (24) Specification of the rights set forth in draft article 12 should not be read as excluding the existence of other rights for victims, witnesses or others under international or national law. | (24) 第12条草案中列出的具体权利不应被理解为排除受害人、证人或其他人根据国际法或国内法享有的其他权利。 |
| For example, while treaties addressing human rights do not explicitly contain an obligation of the State to provide information to victims of serious human rights abuses, nevertheless a “right to information” or “right to truth” for victims has been inferred from such treaties by some bodies. | 例如，虽然涉及人权的条约没有明确规定国家有义务向严重侵犯人权行为的受害人提供信息，但一些机构从这些条约中推断出受害人的“知情权”或“了解真相的权利”。 |
| For example, the Human Rights Committee has inferred such a right from the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights as a way to end or prevent the occurrence of psychological torture of families of victims of enforced disappearances or secret executions. | 例如，人权事务委员会从1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》中推断出这一权利，作为结束或防止强迫失踪或秘密处决受害人家属遭受心理折磨的一种方式。 |
| The Committee also has found that, to fulfil its obligation to provide an effective remedy, a State party should provide information about the violation or, in cases of death of a missing person, the location of the burial site. | 该委员会还认为，为了履行提供有效救济的义务，缔约国应提供关于侵权行为的信息，或在失踪人员死亡的情况下，提供埋葬地点的信息。 |
| Likewise, the European Court of Human Rights has inferred from the 1950 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, as part of the right to be free from torture or ill-treatment, the right to an effective remedy and the right to an effective investigation and to be informed of the results. | 同样，欧洲人权法院从1950年《保护人权与基本自由公约》中推断出这一权利是免受酷刑或虐待的权利、获得有效救济的权利以及获得有效调查和被告知结果的权利的一部分。 |
| The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights has followed a similar approach with respect to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. | 非洲人权和民族权委员会就《非洲人权和民族权宪章》采取了类似做法。 |
| The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has characterized such a right in the American Convention on Human Rights as not just for the benefit of the victims, but for society as a whole, since ensuring rights for the future requires a society to learn from the abuses of the past. | 美洲人权委员会在《美洲人权公约》中将这一权利描述为不仅是为了受害人的利益，也为了整个社会，因为确保未来的权利需要社会从过去的伤害中吸取教训。 |
| Article 13 Extradition | 第13条 引渡 |
| 1. This draft article shall apply to the offences covered by the present draft articles when a requesting State seeks the extradition of a person who is present in territory under the jurisdiction of a requested State. | 1. 当请求国寻求引渡处于被请求国管辖领土内的某人时，本条草案适用于本条款草案所述罪行。 |
| 2. Each of the offences covered by the present draft articles shall be deemed to be included as an extraditable offence in any extradition treaty existing between States. | 2. 本条款草案所述各种罪行应被视为属于国家间现有的任何引渡条约所列的可引渡罪行。 |
| States undertake to include such offences as extraditable offences in every extradition treaty to be concluded between them. | 各国保证将此种罪行作为可引渡罪行列入将来相互之间缔结的每项引渡条约。 |
| 3. For the purposes of extradition between States, an offence covered by the present draft articles shall not be regarded as a political offence or as an offence connected with a political offence or as an offence inspired by political motives. | 3. 为了国家间引渡的目的，本条款草案所述罪行不应视为政治犯罪、与政治犯罪有联系的犯罪或带有政治动机的犯罪。 |
| Accordingly, a request for extradition based on such an offence may not be refused on these grounds alone. | 因此，不得仅以这些理由拒绝对此种罪行提出的引渡请求。 |
| 4. If a State that makes extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty receives a request for extradition from another State with which it has no extradition treaty, it may consider the present draft articles as the legal basis for extradition in respect of any offence covered by the present draft articles. | 4. 以订有条约为引渡条件的国家如果收到另一个未与之签订引渡条约的国家提出的引渡请求，可将本条款草案视为对本条款草案所述任何罪行给予引渡的法律依据。 |
| 5. A State that makes extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty shall, for any offence covered by the present draft articles: | 5. 对于本条款草案所述的任何罪行，以订有条约为引渡条件的国家应： |
| (a) inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations whether it will use the present draft articles as the legal basis for cooperation on extradition with other States; | (a) 通知联合国秘书长它是否将利用本条款草案作为与其他国家进行引渡合作的法律依据； |
| and | 以及 |
| (b) if it does not use the present draft articles as the legal basis for cooperation on extradition, seek, where appropriate, to conclude treaties on extradition with other States in order to implement this draft article. | (b) 如果不以本条款草案作为引渡合作的法律依据，则应在适当情况下寻求与其他国家缔结引渡条约，以执行本条草案规定。 |
| 6. States that do not make extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty shall recognize the offences covered by the present draft articles as extraditable offences between themselves. | 6. 不以订有条约为引渡条件的国家，应承认本条款草案所述罪行为彼此之间可引渡的罪行。 |
| 7. Extradition shall be subject to the conditions provided for by the national law of the requested State or by applicable extradition treaties, including the grounds upon which the requested State may refuse extradition. | 7. 引渡应遵从被请求国国内法或适用的引渡条约所规定的条件，包括遵从被请求国可能拒绝引渡的理由。 |
| 8. The requesting and requested States shall, subject to their national law, endeavour to expedite extradition procedures and to simplify evidentiary requirements relating thereto. | 8. 请求国和被请求国应在符合本国法律的情况下，努力加快引渡程序并简化与之有关的证据要求。 |
| 9. If necessary, the offences covered by the present draft articles shall be treated, for the purposes of extradition between States, as if they had been committed not only in the place in which they occurred but also in the territory of the States that have established jurisdiction in accordance with draft article 7, paragraph 1. | 9. 为了国家间引渡的目的，必要时应将本条款草案所述罪行视为不仅在发生地实施，而且也在按照第7条草案第1款确立管辖权的国家领土内实施。 |
| 10. If extradition, sought for purposes of enforcing a sentence, is refused because the person sought is a national of the requested State, the requested State shall, if its national law so permits and in conformity with the requirements of such law, upon application of the requesting State, consider the enforcement of the sentence imposed under the national law of the requesting State or the remainder thereof. | 10. 如为执行判决而提出的引渡请求由于被请求引渡人为被请求国的国民而遭到拒绝，被请求国应在其本国法律允许并且符合该法律的要求的情况下，根据请求国的申请，考虑执行按请求国本国法律作出的判刑或剩余刑期。 |
| 11. Nothing in the present draft articles shall be interpreted as imposing an obligation to extradite if the requested State has substantial grounds for believing that the request has been made for the purpose of prosecuting or punishing a person on account of that person’s gender, race, religion, nationality, ethnic origin, culture, membership of a particular social group, political opinions, or other grounds that are universally recognized as impermissible under international law, or that compliance with the request would cause prejudice to that person’s position for any of these reasons. | 11. 如果被请求国有充分理由认为，提出引渡请求的目的，是因某人的性别、种族、宗教、国籍、族裔、文化、属于某一特定社会群体或政治见解或因公认为国际法所不容的其他理由而对之进行起诉或惩罚，或同意引渡将因上述任一理由而对该人地位造成损害，则本条款草案的任何内容不得解释为硬性规定了引渡义务。 |
| 12. A requested State shall give due consideration to the request of the State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the alleged offence has occurred. | 12. 被请求国应适当考虑被指控罪行发生在其管辖领土内的国家的请求。 |
| 13. Before refusing extradition, the requested State shall consult, as appropriate, with the requesting State to provide it with ample opportunity to present its opinions and to provide information relevant to its allegation. | 13. 被请求国在拒绝引渡前应酌情与请求国磋商，以使请求国有充分机会陈述自己的意见和介绍与其指控有关的信息。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 13 addresses the rights, obligations and procedures applicable to the extradition of an alleged offender under the present draft articles. | (1) 第13条草案涉及根据本条款草案引渡被指控罪犯所适用的权利、义务和程序。 |
| Extradition normally refers to the process whereby one State (the requesting State) asks another State (the requested State) to send to the requesting State someone present in the requested State in order that he or she may be brought to trial on criminal charges in the requesting State. | 引渡通常是指一国(请求国)请求另一国(被请求国)将被请求国境内的某人交给请求国，以便在请求国对其进行刑事审判的过程。 |
| The process also may arise where an offender has escaped from lawful custody following conviction in the requesting State and is found in the requested State. | 这一过程也可能发生在罪犯在请求国被定罪后逃脱合法监管，而在被请求国被发现的情况下。 |
| Often extradition between two States is regulated by a multilateral or bilateral treaty, although not all States require the existence of a treaty for an extradition to occur. | 两国之间的引渡通常由多边 或双边条约 规定，但不是所有国家都要求引渡需以订有条约为条件。 |
| (2) In 1973, the General Assembly of the United Nations in resolution 3074 (XXVIII) highlighted the importance of international cooperation in the extradition of persons who have allegedly committed crimes against humanity, where necessary to ensure their prosecution and punishment. | (2) 1973年，联合国大会第3074(XXVIII)号决议强调了国际合作对于引渡被指控犯有危害人类罪的人员的重要性，必要时可确保对其进行起诉和惩治。 |
| In 2001, the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights of the Commission on Human Rights reaffirmed the principles set forth in General Assembly resolution 3074 (XXVIII) and urged “all States to cooperate in order to search for, arrest, extradite, bring to trial and punish persons found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity”. | 2001年，人权委员会促进和保护人权小组委员会重申了联大第3074(XXVIII)号决议规定的各项原则， 并敦促“各国进行合作以便侦察、逮捕、引渡、审判和惩治犯有战争罪和危害人类罪的罪犯”。 |
| (3) Draft article 13 should be considered in the overall context of the present draft articles. | (3) 第13条草案应在本条款草案的整个范围内加以审视。 |
| Draft article 7, paragraph 2, provides that each State shall take the necessary measures to establish its jurisdiction over the offences covered by the present draft articles in cases where the alleged offender is present in any territory under its jurisdiction, and the State does not extradite or surrender the person. | 第7条草案第2款规定，各国应采取必要措施，在被指控罪犯处于其管辖的任何领土内而本国不按照本条款草案予以引渡或移交的情况下，确立对本条款草案所述罪行的管辖权。 |
| When an alleged offender is present and has been taken into custody, the State is obliged under draft article 9, paragraph 3, to notify other States that have jurisdiction to prosecute the alleged offender, which may result in those States seeking the alleged offender’s extradition. | 如果被指控罪犯在一国境内，并且已被羁押，则根据第9条草案第3款，该国有义务通知对起诉被指控罪犯拥有管辖权的其他国家，而这可能导致后者要求引渡该被指控罪犯。 |
| Further, draft article 10 obligates the State to submit the case to its competent authorities for prosecution, unless the State extradites or surrenders the person to another State or competent international criminal court or tribunal. | 此外，第10条草案要求该国将案件提交主管当局以便起诉，除非该国将该人引渡或是移交另一国家或有管辖权的国际性刑事法院或法庭。 |
| (4) Thus, under the present draft articles, a State may satisfy the aut dedere aut judicare obligation set forth in draft article 10 by extraditing (or surrendering) the alleged offender to another State for prosecution. | (4) 因此，根据本条款草案，一国可通过将被指控罪犯引渡至(或移交)另一国进行起诉，来履行第10条草案规定的或引渡或起诉义务。 |
| There is no obligation to extradite the alleged offender; | 国家并无引渡被指控罪犯的义务； |
| the obligation is for the State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the alleged offender is present to submit the case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution, unless the person is extradited or surrendered to another State (or competent international criminal court or tribunal). | 但被指控罪犯在其管辖领土之内的国家有义务将案件提交其主管当局以便起诉，除非该人员被引渡或移交至另一国家(或有管辖权的国际性法院或法庭)。 |
| Yet that obligation may be satisfied, in the alternative, by extraditing the alleged offender to another State. | 也可通过将被指控罪犯引渡到另一国来履行这一义务。 |
| To facilitate such extradition, it is useful to have in place clearly stated rights, obligations and procedures with respect to the extradition process, which is the purpose of draft article 13. | 为便利这种引渡，宜明确规定与引渡有关的权利、义务和程序，这正是第13条草案的目的。 |
| (5) The Commission decided to model draft article 13 on article 44 of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, which in turn was modelled on article 16 of the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. | (5) 委员会决定第13条草案应仿照2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十四条的措辞，而该条又仿照了2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》第16条。 |
| Although a crime against humanity by its nature is quite different from a crime of corruption, the issues arising in the context of extradition are largely the same regardless of the nature of the underlying crime, and the Commission was of the view that article 44 provides ample guidance as to all relevant rights, obligations and procedures for extradition in the context of crimes against humanity. | 尽管危害人类罪就其性质而言与腐败犯罪有很大区别，但无论所涉犯罪的性质如何，引渡问题是基本相同的，委员会认为第四十四条为危害人类罪的引渡方面的各项相关权利、义务和程序提供了充分指导。 |
| Moreover, the provisions of article 44 are well understood by the 186 States parties (as of mid-2019) to the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, especially through the detailed guides and other resources developed by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. | 再者，2003年《联合国反腐败公约》的186个缔约国(截至2019年年中)对于该公约的规定有着深刻的理解，特别是通过联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室编写的详细指南和其他资料。 |
| Application of the draft article when an extradition request is made | 在一国提出引渡请求时适用本条草案 |
| (6) Draft article 13, paragraph 1, provides that the draft article applies to the offences covered by the present draft articles whenever a requesting State seeks the extradition of a person who is present in territory under the jurisdiction of the requested State. | (6) 第13条草案第1款规定，每当请求国寻求引渡处于被请求国管辖领土内的某人时，本条草案适用于本条款草案所述罪行。 |
| The language is modelled on article 44, paragraph 1, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 这一表述仿照2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十四条第一款。 |
| (7) As noted above, the draft articles do not contain any obligation for a State to extradite a person to another State. | (7) 如上所述，本条款草案没有规定一国将某人引渡到另一国的任何义务。 |
| Rather, pursuant to draft article 10, whenever an alleged offender is present in a State, that State is obliged to submit the matter to prosecution, unless the person is extradited or surrendered to another State (or competent international criminal court or tribunal). | 相反，根据第10条草案，被指控罪犯在其管辖领土内的国家，有义务就相关事宜提起诉讼，除非该国将该人引渡至或移交另一国家(或有管辖权的国际性刑事法院或法庭)。 |
| Thus, extradition is an option that a State may choose to exercise if so requested by another State. | 因此，引渡是一国在另一国提出请求时可以选择采取的一种做法。 |
| When such a request occurs, then the provisions of this draft article become relevant. | 当一国提出引渡请求时，适用本条草案的规定。 |
| Inclusion as an extraditable offence in existing and future extradition treaties | 在现行和今后引渡条约中列为可引渡的犯罪 |
| (8) Draft article 13, paragraph 2, is modelled on article 44, paragraph 4, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. It obligates a requested State to regard the offences covered by the present draft articles (see draft article 6, paragraphs 1 to 3, above) as extraditable offences in any existing extradition treaty between it and the requesting State, as well as any such treaties concluded by those States in the future. | (8) 第13条草案第2款参照了2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十四条第四款，要求被请求国将本条款草案所涵盖各种罪行(见上文第6条草案，第1至第3款)视为它与请求国之间现有的任何引渡条约，以及这些国家今后缔结的任何此类条约所列的可引渡罪行。 |
| This provision is commonly included in other conventions. | 这一规定常见于其他公约。 |
| Exclusion of the “political offence” exception to extradition | “政治犯罪”免于引渡原则不适用 |
| (9) Paragraph 3 of draft article 13 excludes the “political offence” exception as a ground for refusing an extradition request. | (9) 第13条草案第3款规定不得将“政治犯罪”免于引渡原则作为拒绝引渡请求的理由。 |
| (10) Under some extradition treaties, the requested State may decline to extradite if it regards the offence for which extradition is requested as political in nature. | (10) 根据某些引渡条约，被请求国如果认为要求引渡的犯罪属于政治犯罪，则可以拒绝引渡。 |
| Yet there is support for the proposition that crimes such as genocide and war crimes should not be regarded as “political offences”. | 但有观点认为灭绝种族罪和战争罪等罪行不应被视为“政治犯罪”，这种观点得到了支持。 |
| For example, article VII of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide provides that genocide and other enumerated acts “shall not be considered as political crimes for the purpose of extradition”. | 例如，1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族公约》第七条规定，灭绝种族罪及所列其他行为“不得视为政治罪行，俾便引渡”。 |
| Similarly, article 1 of the Additional Protocol to the 1957 European Convention on Extradition provides that the list of war crimes contained in the 1949 Geneva Conventions cannot be considered to amount to political offences and be exempted from extradition on that basis. | 类似地，《1957年欧洲引渡公约附加议定书》第1条规定，1949年日内瓦四公约载列的战争罪不得视为构成政治罪，也不能基于此而免于引渡。 |
| There are similar reasons not to regard crimes against humanity as a “political offence” so as to preclude extradition. | 出于类似的原因，不得将危害人类罪视为“政治犯罪”以免于引渡。 |
| The United Nations Revised Manual on the Model Treaty on Extradition provides that “certain crimes, such as genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes, are regarded by the international community as so heinous that the perpetrators cannot rely on this restriction on extradition”. | 《联合国关于引渡示范条约和刑事事项互助示范条约的订正手册》指出，“国际社会认为，某些罪行，如灭绝种族罪、危害人类罪和战争罪极为恶劣，此项引渡限制不能适用于相关犯罪者”。 |
| The Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights of the Commission on Human Rights declared that persons “charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity shall not be allowed to claim that the actions fall within the ‘political offence’ exception to extradition”. | 人权委员会促进和保护人权小组委员会也声明：“被指控犯有战争罪和危害人类罪的个人不得以其行为属于‘政治犯罪’为借口而免受引渡。 ” |
| (11) Contemporary bilateral extradition treaties often specify particular offences that should not be regarded as “political offences” so as to preclude extradition. | (11) 当代双边引渡条约通常会明确说明哪些特定犯罪不应被视为“政治犯罪”而免于引渡。 |
| Although some treaties addressing specific crimes do not address the issue, many contemporary multilateral treaties addressing specific crimes contain a provision barring the political offence exception to extradition for that particular crime. | 尽管一些关于特定犯罪的公约没有涉及这一问题， 但许多关于特定罪行的当代多边条约都包含针对该特定罪行禁止适用“政治犯罪”免于引渡原则的规定。 |
| For example, article 13, paragraph 1, of the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance provides: | 例如，2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》第十三条第一款规定： |
| For the purposes of extradition between States Parties, the offence of enforced disappearance shall not be regarded as a political offence or as an offence connected with a political offence or as an offence inspired by political motives. | 就缔约国之间的引渡而言，不应将强迫失踪罪视为政治犯罪，与政治犯罪有联系的普通犯罪，或带有政治动机的犯罪。 |
| Accordingly, a request for extradition based on such an offence may not be refused on these grounds alone. | 因此，不得仅以这些理由拒绝对此种犯罪提出的引渡要求。 |
| (12) The Commission viewed the text of article 13, paragraph 1, of the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance as an appropriate model for draft article 13, paragraph 3. | (12) 委员会认为，第13条草案第3款宜仿照2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》第十三条第一款的案文。 |
| Paragraph 3 clarifies that the act of committing a crime against humanity cannot be regarded as a “political offence”. | 第3款明确指出，实施危害人类罪的行为不能被视为“政治犯罪”。 |
| This issue differs, however, from whether a requesting State is pursuing the extradition because of the individual’s political opinions; | 不过，这个问题不同于请求国因某人的政治观点而试图引渡的情况； |
| in other words, it differs from whether the State is alleging a crime against humanity and making its request for extradition as a means of persecuting an individual for his or her political views. | 换言之，它不同于一国因某人的政治观点而声称该人犯有危害人类罪并提出引渡请求以便实施迫害的情况。 |
| The latter issue of persecution is addressed separately in draft article 13, paragraph 11. | 关于迫害问题，将在第13条草案第11款中单独阐述。 |
| The final clause of paragraph 3 “on these grounds alone” signals that there may be other grounds that the State may invoke to refuse extradition (see paragraphs (18) to (20) and (27) to (30) below), provided such other grounds in fact exist. | 第3款中的“仅以这些理由”表明，国家可援引其他理由拒绝引渡(见下文第(18)至(20)段和第(27)至(30)段)，前提是这些其他理由实际存在。 |
| States requiring a treaty to extradite | 以订有条约为引渡条件的国家 |
| (13) Draft article 13, paragraphs 4 and 5, address the situation where a requested State requires the existence of a treaty before it can extradite an individual to the requesting State. | (13) 第13条草案第4款和第5款涉及被请求国要求以订有条约作为将个人引渡到请求国的条件的情况。 |
| (14) Paragraph 4 provides that, in such a situation, the requested State “may” use the present draft articles as the legal basis for the extradition in respect of crimes against humanity. | (14) 第4款规定，在这种情况下，被请求国“可”将本条款草案作为对危害人类罪给予引渡的法律依据。 |
| As such, a State is not obliged to use the present draft articles for such purpose, but may elect to do so. | 因此，一国没有义务为此目的使用本条款草案，但可以选择这么做。 |
| This paragraph is modelled on article 44, paragraph 5, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, which reads: “If a State Party that makes extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty receives a request for extradition from another State Party with which it has no extradition treaty, it may consider this Convention the legal basis for extradition in respect of any offence to which this article applies”. | 本款仿照了2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十四条第五款，其中规定：“以订有条约为引渡条件的缔约国如果接到未与之订有引渡条约的另一缔约国的引渡请求，可以将本公约视为对本条所适用的任何犯罪予以引渡的法律依据。 |
| The same or a similar provision may be found in numerous other treaties, and the Commission’s 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind also contains such a provision. | ” 许多其他条约都有相同或相似的规定， 委员会1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》也包含这种规定。 |
| (15) Paragraph 5 is modelled on article 44, paragraph 6, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | (15) 第5款仿照了2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十四条第六款。 |
| Paragraph 5 (a) obliges each State that makes extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty to inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations whether it will use the present draft articles as the legal basis for extradition in relation to crimes against humanity. | 第5款(a)项要求以订有条约为引渡条件的国家通知联合国秘书长它是否将利用本条款草案作为就危害人类罪进行引渡的法律依据。 |
| (16) Draft article 13, paragraph 5 (b), obliges a State party that does not use the draft articles as the legal basis for extradition to “seek, where appropriate, to conclude” extradition treaties with other States. | (16) 第13条草案第5款(b)项要求不以本条款草案作为引渡的法律依据的缔约国“在适当情况下寻求”与其他国家“缔结”引渡条约。 |
| As such, States are not obliged under the present draft articles to conclude extradition treaties with every other State with respect to crimes against humanity but, rather, are encouraged to pursue appropriate efforts in that regard. | 因此，本条款草案没有规定各国与每个其他缔约国就危害人类罪缔结引渡条约的义务，而是鼓励各国在这方面作出适当努力。 |
| States not requiring a treaty to extradite | 不以订有条约为引渡条件的国家 |
| (17) Draft article 13, paragraph 6, applies to States that do not make extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty. | (17) 第13条草案第6款适用于不以订有条约为引渡条件的国家。 |
| With respect to those States, paragraph 6 obliges them to “recognize the offences covered by the present draft articles as extraditable offences between themselves”. | 关于这些国家，第6款要求它们“承认本条款草案所述犯罪为彼此之间可引渡的犯罪”。 |
| This paragraph is modelled on article 44, paragraph 7, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款仿照的是2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十四条第七款。 |
| Similar provisions may be found in many other treaties addressing crimes. | 类似规定载于许多关于犯罪的其他条约。 |
| The Commission’s 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind also contains such a provision. | 1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》也包含这种规定。 |
| Requirements of the requested State’s national law or applicable treaties | 被请求国国内法或适用条约的要求 |
| (18) Draft article 13, paragraph 7, provides that extradition “shall be subject to the conditions provided for by the national law of the requested State or by applicable extradition treaties, including the grounds upon which the requested State may refuse extradition”. | (18) 第13条草案第7款规定，引渡“应遵从被请求国国内法或适用的引渡条约所规定的条件，包括遵从被请求国可能拒绝引渡的理由”。 |
| Similar provisions may be found in various global and regional treaties. | 各种全球 和区域 条约都有类似的规定。 |
| This paragraph is modelled on article 44, paragraph 8, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, but does not retain language after the word “including” that reads “inter alia, conditions in relation to the minimum penalty requirement for extradition and”. | 本款仿照了2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十四条第八款，但在“包括”一词后未保留“关于引渡的最低限度刑罚要求和…等条件”这一措辞。 |
| The Commission was of the view that reference to minimum penalty requirements was inappropriate in the context of allegations of crimes against humanity. | 委员会认为，对于危害人类罪的指控，不宜提到最低刑罚要求。 |
| (19) This paragraph states the general rule that, while the extradition is to proceed in accordance with the rights, obligations and procedures provided for in the present draft articles, it remains subject to conditions set forth in the requested State’s national law or in extradition treaties. | (19) 本款规定了一般规则，即引渡虽然应按本条款草案规定的权利、义务和程序进行，但仍需遵从被请求国国内法或引渡条约所规定的条件。 |
| Such conditions may relate to procedural steps, such as the need for a decision by a national court or a certification by a minister prior to the extradition, or may relate to situations where extradition is prohibited, such as: a prohibition on the extradition of the State’s nationals or permanent residents; | 这种条件可能涉及程序性步骤，例如国内法院的裁决或部长在引渡之前的证明，也可能涉及禁止引渡的情况，例如禁止引渡该国的国民或常住居民； |
| a prohibition on extradition where the offence at issue is punishable by the death penalty; | 在相关犯罪可判处死刑的情况下，禁止引渡； |
| a prohibition on extradition to serve a sentence that is based upon a trial in absentia; | 禁止为服缺席审判所判的刑期而进行引渡； |
| or a prohibition on extradition based on the rule of speciality. | 或者基于特定规则禁止引渡。 |
| At the same time, some grounds for refusal found in national law would be impermissible under the present draft articles, such as the invocation of a statute of limitations in contravention of draft article 6, paragraph 6, or may be impermissible under other rules of international law. | 同时，根据本条款草案或根据其他国际法规则，国内法中一些拒绝的理由是不允许的，例如违反第6条草案第6款而援引时效法。 |
| (20) Whatever the reason for refusing extradition, in the context of the present draft articles, the requested State in which the offender is present remains obliged to submit the case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution, pursuant to draft article 10. | (20) 在本条款草案中，无论出于何种原因拒绝引渡，根据第10条草案，罪犯所在的被请求国都有义务将案件提交本国主管当局以便起诉。 |
| Expedition of extradition procedures and simplication of evidentiary requirements | 加快引渡程序和简化证据要求 |
| (21) Draft article 13, paragraph 8, provides that the requesting and requested States shall, subject to their national law, endeavour to expedite extradition procedures and to simplify evidentiary requirements relating thereto. | (21) 第13条草案第8款规定，请求国和被请求国应在符合本国法律的情况下，努力加快引渡程序并简化与之有关的证据要求。 |
| This text is modelled on article 44, paragraph 9, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 这一表述仿照2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十四条第九款。 |
| The Working Group on International Cooperation of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime has evaluated and recommended methods for expediting such procedures and simplifying such requirements. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》缔约方会议国际合作工作组评估并建议了加快此类程序和简化此类要求的方法。 |
| Deeming the offence to have occurred in the requesting State | 将罪行视为发生在请求国 |
| (22) Draft article 13, paragraph 9, addresses the situation where a requested State, under its national law, may only extradite a person to a State where the crime occurred. | (22) 第13条草案第9款涉及被请求国根据国内法只能将某人引渡到罪行发生国的情况。 |
| To facilitate extradition to a broader range of States, paragraph 9 provides that, “[i]f necessary, the offences covered by the present draft articles shall be treated, for the purposes of extradition between States, as if they had been committed not only in the place in which they occurred but also in the territory of the States that have established jurisdiction in accordance with draft article 7, paragraph 1”. | 为便利向更多国家引渡，第9款规定，“为了国家间引渡的目的，必要时应将本条款草案所述罪行视为不仅在发生地实施，而且也在按照第7条草案第1款确立管辖权的国家领土内实施”。 |
| This text is modelled on article 11, paragraph 4, of the 1999 International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and has been used in many treaties addressing crimes. | 这一案文仿照了1999年《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》第11条第4款， 并被用于许多关于犯罪的条约。 |
| (23) Treaty provisions of this kind refer to “States that have established jurisdiction” under the treaty on the basis of connections such as the nationality of the alleged offender or of the victims of the crime (hence, the cross-reference in draft article 13, paragraph 9, to draft article 7, paragraph 1). | (23) 这类条约规定涉及根据条约基于被指控罪犯或犯罪受害人的国籍等关系“已确立管辖权的国家”(因此，第13条草案第9款与第7条草案第1款互相参照)。 |
| Such provisions do not refer to States that have established jurisdiction based on the presence of the offender (draft article 7, paragraph 2), because the State requesting extradition is never the State in which the alleged offender is already present. | 此种规定不涉及因罪犯在其境内而确立管辖权的国家(第7条草案第2款)，因为请求引渡的国家肯定不是被指控罪犯所在国。 |
| In this instance, there is also no cross-reference to draft article 7, paragraph 3, which does not require States to establish jurisdiction but, rather, preserves the right of States to establish national jurisdiction beyond the scope of the present draft articles. | 在这种情况下，也不参照第7条草案第3款，该款不要求国家确立管辖权，而是保留国家在本条款草案范围之外确立本国管辖权的权利。 |
| (24) In its commentary to the 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, which contains a similar provision in article 10, paragraph 4, the Commission stated that “[p]aragraph 4 secures the possibility for the custodial State to grant a request for extradition received from any State party … with respect to the crimes” established in the draft Code, and that “[t]his broader approach is consistent with the general obligation of every State party to establish its jurisdiction over [those] crimes”. | (24) 1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第10条第4款包含类似的规定， 委员会在评注中指出，“第4款保证了羁押国批准…任何缔约国就”本治罪法草案规定的“罪行提出的引渡请求的可能性”，“这种范围较宽的办法符合每一缔约国根据[这些]罪行确定其管辖权的一般性义务”。 |
| Enforcement of a sentence imposed upon a State’s own nationals | 执行对一国国民所作判决 |
| (25) Draft article 13, paragraph 10, concerns situations where the national of a requested State is convicted and sentenced in a foreign State, and then flees to the requested State, but the requested State is unable under its law to extradite its nationals. | (25) 第13条草案第10款涉及被请求国的国民在外国被定罪和判刑，然后逃到被请求国，但被请求国根据本国法律不能引渡其国民的情况。 |
| In such a situation, paragraph 10 provides that “the requested State shall, if its national law so permits and in conformity with the requirements of such law, upon application of the requesting State, consider the enforcement of the sentence imposed under the national law of the requesting State or the remainder thereof”. | 在这种情况下，第10款规定，“被请求国应在其本国法律允许并且符合该法律的要求的情况下，根据请求国的申请，考虑执行按请求国本国法律作出的判刑或剩余刑期”。 |
| Similar provisions are found in the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》 和2003年《联合国反腐败公约》中也有类似规定。 |
| (26) The Commission also considered inclusion of a paragraph in draft article 13 that would expressly address the situation where the requested State can extradite one of its nationals, but only if the alleged offender will be returned to the requested State to serve any sentence imposed by the requesting State. | (26) 委员会还考虑到是否在第13条草案中列入一款，明确述及这样一种情况：被请求国可以引渡本国国民，但条件是被指控罪犯将被送回被请求国，以按照请求国的任何判决服刑。 |
| Such a provision may be found in the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》 和2003年《联合国反腐败公约》中有这样的规定。 |
| The Commission deemed such a situation as falling within the scope of conditions that may be applied under draft article 13, paragraph 7, of the present draft articles and therefore decided that an express provision on this issue was not necessary. | 委员会认为这种情况属于可根据本条款草案第13条草案第7款适用的条件范围，因此决定无需就这个问题作出明确规定。 |
| Extradition requests based on impermissible grounds | 以不被允许的理由提出的引渡请求 |
| (27) Draft article 13, paragraph 11, makes clear that nothing in draft article 13 requires a State to extradite an individual to a State where there are substantial grounds for believing that the extradition request is being made on grounds that are universally recognized as impermissible under international law. | (27) 第13条草案第11款明确指出，如果有充分理由认为，提出引渡请求的理由公认为国际法所不容，则第13条草案任何内容均不得解释为要求一国向另一国进行引渡。 |
| Such a provision appears in various multilateral and bilateral treaties, and in national laws, that address extradition generally, and appears in treaties addressing extradition with respect to specific crimes. | 这种规定载于一般涉及引渡的各种多边 和双边条约 及国内法， 并载于涉及特定犯罪的引渡条约。 |
| (28) Paragraph 11 is modelled on article 16, paragraph 14, of the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, and article 44, paragraph 15, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, which both read as follows: | (28) 第11款参照2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》第16条第14款，以及2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十四条第十五款，这两款都规定： |
| Nothing in this Convention shall be interpreted as imposing an obligation to extradite if the requested State Party has substantial grounds for believing that the request has been made for the purpose of prosecuting or punishing a person on account of that person’s sex, race, religion, nationality, ethnic origin or political opinions or that compliance with the request would cause prejudice to that person’s position for any one of these reasons. | 如果被请求缔约国有充分理由认为提出引渡请求是为了以某人的性别、种族、宗教、国籍、族裔或者政治观点为理由对其进行起诉或者处罚，或者按请求执行将使该人的地位因上述任一原因而受到损害，则不得对本公约的任何条款作规定了被请求国引渡义务的解释。 |
| While modelled on this provision, the term “sex” in English was replaced by “gender”, and the term “culture” was added to the list of factors, in line with the language used in draft article 2, paragraph 1 (h). | 第11款虽然参照了上述规定，但在英文中将“sex”一词改为了“gender”，并按照第2条草案第1款(h)项的用语，在各项因素中增加了“文化”一词。 |
| Further, the term “membership of a particular social group” was added to the list, as in the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. | 此外，还仿照2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，在各项因素中增加了“属于某一特定社会群体”这一短语。 |
| Paragraph 11 may be considered as one aspect of guaranteeing to the alleged offender, at all stages, full protection of his or her rights under international law, as required by draft article 11, paragraph 1. | 第11款可被视为第11条草案第1款所要求的在所有阶段保障被指控罪犯按照国际法所具有的权利得到充分保护的一个方面。 |
| Indeed, there may be other reasons relating to full protection the alleged offender’s human rights that would preclude extradition. | 的确，可能还有其他与充分保护被指控罪犯的人权有关的原因，使被指控罪犯免于引渡。 |
| (29) Given that the present draft articles contain no obligation to extradite any individual, paragraph 11, strictly speaking, is not necessary for an extradition occurring solely pursuant to the present draft articles. | (29) 鉴于第11款未载有引渡任何人员的义务，因此严格来讲，第11款对于仅根据本条款草案进行的引渡而言，并不必要。 |
| Under the present draft articles, a State may decline to extradite for any reason, so long as it submits the case to its own competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution. | 根据本条款草案，一国可拒绝引渡任何人，前提是该国必须将案件提交本国的主管当局进行起诉。 |
| Nevertheless, the paragraph may be of relevance if an extradition is being requested pursuant to a State’s extradition treaties or national law and if such treaties or law require extradition in certain circumstances. | 但如果引渡请求是根据一国的引渡条约或国内法提出的，且引渡条约或国内法要求在某些情况下引渡，则本款可能适用。 |
| Paragraph 11 helps ensure that any provision in such treaties or law that precludes extradition in circumstances such as those described in paragraph 11 will remain unaffected by the present draft articles. | 第11款有助于确保引渡条约或国内法中任何允许在某些情况下(如第11款所述情况)免于引渡的条款不受本条款草案的影响。 |
| As such, the Commission considered it appropriate to include such a provision in the present draft articles. | 如此，委员会认为宜在本条款草案中加入这样一项规定。 |
| (30) Paragraph 11 is to be distinguished from draft article 5 on non-refoulement. | (30) 应区分第11款与关于不推回的第5条草案。 |
| The latter provision broadly addresses any transfer of a person from one State to another. | 后者广泛涉及人员从一国向另一国的任何转移。 |
| Such transfers may well occur in a context where the person is not alleged to have committed crimes against humanity or to have committed any crime at all. | 这种转移也可能发生在该人没有被指控犯有危害人类罪或根本没有犯任何罪的情况。 |
| The focus of draft article 5 is on ensuring that the person is not transferred to a State if by doing so he or she would be in danger of being subjected to a crime against humanity. | 第5条草案的重点是确保不会将人员转移至其有可能遭受危害人类罪的国家。 |
| To the extent that there is overlap between draft article 5 and draft article 13, paragraph 11, with respect to the extradition of a person, the difference between the two provisions may be explained as follows. | 就引渡而言，虽然第5条草案与第13条草案第11款有所重合，但可以对这两项规定的区别作如下解释。 |
| Draft article 5 is focused on preventing the extradition of any person for any alleged crime to a place where he or she would be in danger of being subjected to a crime against humanity. | 第5条草案的重点是防止任何人因任何被指控的罪行被引渡到其有可能遭受危害人类罪的地方。 |
| Draft article 13, paragraph 11, is focused on the extradition of a person alleged to have committed a crime against humanity, and makes clear that the draft articles impose no obligation on the requested State to extradite if it is believed that the request is being pursued on grounds that are impermissible under international law. | 第13条草案第11款侧重于引渡被指控犯有危害人类罪的人，并明确规定，如果认为引渡请求是基于国际法不允许的理由提出的，则本条款草案不要求被请求国履行引渡义务。 |
| Due consideration to the request of the State where the offence occurred | 适当考虑犯罪发生国的请求 |
| (31) Draft article 13, paragraph 12 requires that “due consideration” be given by the requested State to a request for extradition from the State in the territory under whose jurisdiction the alleged offence has occurred. | (31) 第13条草案第12款要求被请求国“适当考虑”被指控罪行发生在其管辖领土内的国家的引渡请求。 |
| (32) The State where the alleged offence has occurred may be best placed to proceed with a prosecution if it is the principal location of the victims, witnesses or other evidence relating to the offence. | (32) 如果发生被指控罪行的国家是受害人、证人或与犯罪有关的其他证据的主要所在地，则该国可能是最佳起诉地点。 |
| In that regard, it has been observed that the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide is focused on prosecution of alleged offenders “by a competent tribunal of the State in the territory of which the act was committed, or by such international penal tribunal as may have jurisdiction with respect to those Contracting Parties which shall have accepted its jurisdiction”. | 在这方面，有人指出，1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》强调“由行为发生地国家的主管法院，或缔约国接受其管辖权的国际性刑事法庭”起诉被指控的罪犯。 |
| Additional Protocol I to the 1949 Geneva Conventions contains a provision reading: | 《1949年日内瓦四公约第一附加议定书》载有如下规定： |
| Subject to the rights and obligations established in the Conventions and in Article 85, paragraph 1, of this Protocol, and when circumstances permit, the High Contracting Parties shall co-operate in the matter of extradition. | 除受各公约和本议定书第八十五条第一款所确定的权利和义务的拘束外，并在情况许可下，缔约各方应在引渡事项上合作。 |
| They shall give due consideration to the request of the State in whose territory the alleged offence has occurred. | 缔约各方应对被控罪行发生地国家的请求给予适当的考虑。 |
| Moreover, the complementarity system of the Rome Statute, in practice, often accords deference to the State where the crime occurred (or the State of nationality of the alleged offender, which is often the same) if that State is able and willing to exercise jurisdiction. | 此外，按照《罗马规约》的补充制度，在实践中，如果犯罪发生国有能力并且愿意行使管辖权，往往将案件交由犯罪发生国(或被指控罪犯的国籍国，通常为同一国)审理。 |
| Consultations prior to refusal to extradite | 拒绝引渡前应磋商 |
| (33) Draft article 13, paragraph 13, provides that, before the requested State refuses extradition, it “shall, where appropriate, consult with the requesting State to provide it with ample opportunity to present its opinions and to provide information relevant to its allegation”. | (33) 第13条草案第13款规定，被请求国在拒绝引渡前“应酌情与请求国磋商，以使请求国有充分机会陈述自己的意见和介绍与其指控有关的信息”。 |
| Such consultation may allow the requesting State to modify its request in a manner that addresses the concerns of the requested State. | 通过这种磋商，请求国也许能够修改请求，打消被请求国的疑虑。 |
| The phrase “where appropriate”, however, acknowledges that there may be times when the requested State is refusing extradition but consultation is not appropriate, for example when the requested State has decided to submit the case to its own competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution, or when consultations are not possible due to reasons of confidentiality. | 但“酌情”这一短语承认，可能有时候被请求国拒绝引渡，但不宜进行磋商，例如被请求国已决定将案件提交本国主管当局以起诉，或出于保密原因不可能进行磋商。 |
| Even so, it is stressed that, in the context of the present draft articles, draft article 10 requires the requested State, if it does not extradite, to submit the matter to its own prosecutorial authorities. | 尽管如此，委员会强调，在本条款草案的背景下，第10条草案要求被请求国在不引渡的情况下将有关事项提交本国的检察机关。 |
| (34) Paragraph 13 is modelled on the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, which both provide that, “[b]efore refusing extradition, the requested State Party shall, where appropriate, consult with the requesting State Party to provide it with ample opportunity to present its opinions and to provide information relevant to its allegation”. | (34) 第13款参照了2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》 和2003年《联合国反腐败公约》，这两项公约都规定，“被请求缔约国在拒绝引渡前应当在适当情况下与请求缔约国磋商，以使其有充分机会陈述自己的意见和提供与其陈述有关的资料”。 |
| Multiple requests for extradition | 多重引渡请求 |
| (35) Treaties addressing extradition generally or in the context of specific crimes typically do not seek to regulate which requesting State should have priority if there are multiple requests for extradition. | (35) 对于多国请求引渡的情况下哪一个请求国具有优先权的问题，各项述及一般引渡问题或涉及具体犯罪引渡问题的条约通常没有试图对此予以规范。 |
| At the most, such instruments might acknowledge the discretion of the requested State to determine whether to extradite and, if so, to which requesting State. | 此种文书至多可能承认被请求国可酌情决定是否引渡和引渡到哪一个请求国。 |
| For example, the 1990 United Nations Model Treaty on Extradition, in article 16, simply provides: “If a Party receives requests for extradition for the same person from both the other Party and a third State it shall, at its discretion, determine to which of those States the person is to be extradited”. | 例如，1990年联合国《引渡示范条约》第16条仅仅规定：“一缔约国如从另一缔约国和第三国收到引渡同一人的请求，应斟酌决定将其引渡给哪一个国家”。 |
| (36) Consequently, in line with existing treaties, the Commission decided not to include a provision in the present draft articles specifying a preferred outcome if there are multiple requests, other than the obligation of “due consideration” set forth in paragraph 12. | (36) 因此，委员会参照现有条约，决定不在本条款草案中加入一项规定，具体说明在出现多重请求时，除了第12段规定的“适当考虑”义务之外，宜如何行事。 |
| Even so, when such a situation occurs, a State may benefit from considering various factors in exercising its discretion. | 尽管如此，如果发生了这种情况，一国在酌情决定时宜考虑多种不同因素。 |
| For example, the Código Orgánico Integral Penal (2014) of Ecuador provides in section 405 that “la o el juzgador ecuatoriano podrá determinar la jurisdicción que garantice mejores condiciones para juzgar la infracción penal, la protección y reparación integral de la víctima” (“the judge may determine the jurisdiction which guarantees better conditions to prosecute the criminal offence, the protection and the integral reparation of the victim”). | 例如，厄瓜多尔《综合刑法》(2014年)第405条规定：“la o el juzgador ecuatoriano podrá determinar la jurisdicción que garantice mejores condiciones para juzgar la infracción penal, la protección y reparación integral de la víctima”(“法官可判定哪个司法体系将确保为起诉刑事犯罪、保护受害人并为受害人提供完整赔偿提供更好的条件”)。 |
| In the context of the European Union, relevant factors include “the relative seriousness and place of the offences, the respective dates of the European arrest warrants and whether the warrant has been issued for the purposes of prosecution or for execution of a custodial sentence or detention order”. | 对欧洲联盟而言，有关因素包括：“犯罪的相对严重性和犯罪地点、所涉欧洲国家各自签发逮捕令的日期，以及签发逮捕令是出于起诉目的，还是为了执行监禁刑罚或拘留令”。 |
| Dual criminality | 双重犯罪 |
| (37) Extradition treaties typically contain a “dual criminality” requirement, whereby obligations with respect to extradition only arise in circumstances where, for a specific request, the conduct at issue is criminal in both the requesting State and the requested State. | (37) 引渡条约通常包含一项“双重犯罪”要求，即对于具体引渡请求而言，有关行为在请求国和被请求国均属于刑事犯罪时，方存在引渡义务。 |
| Such a requirement is also sometimes included in treaties on a particular type of crime, if that treaty contains a combination of mandatory and non-mandatory offences, with the result that the offences existing in any two States parties may differ. | 关于特定类型犯罪的条约如果既包括强制规定为犯罪的行为，又包括非强制规定为犯罪的行为，导致任意两个缔约国内的罪名可能存在差异，则往往包含这种双重犯罪要求。 |
| For example, the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption establishes both mandatory and non-mandatory offences relating to corruption. | 例如，关于腐败，2003年《联合国反腐败公约》既列出了强制规定为犯罪的行为， 也列出了非强制规定为犯罪的行为。 |
| (38) By contrast, treaties focused on a particular type of crime that only establish mandatory offences typically do not contain a dual criminality requirement. | (38) 相反，关于特定类型犯罪并且只列出了强制规定为犯罪的行为的条约往往不包含双重犯罪要求。 |
| Thus, treaties such as the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment and the 2006 International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, which define specific offences and obligate States parties to take the necessary measures to ensure that they constitute offences under national criminal law, contain no dual criminality requirement in their respective extradition provisions. | 因此，1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》和2006年《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》这种定义了具体犯罪并要求缔约国采取必要措施以确保将这些罪行纳入国内刑法的条约，在各自的引渡规定中都没有列入双重犯罪要求。 |
| The rationale for not doing so is that when an extradition request arises under either convention, the offence should already be criminalized under the laws of both States parties, such that there is no need to impose a dual criminality requirement. | 未列入这一要求的理由是，在根据上述任一项公约提出引渡请求时，有关罪行应当已在缔约国双方法律中属于刑事犯罪，因此没有必要硬性规定双重犯罪要求。 |
| While there may be some marginal differences as between two States in the manner by which their national laws have incorporated the crime, imposing a dual criminality requirement is still unnecessary since that requirement allows for such differences, so long as the crime in substance exists in both jurisdictions. | 虽然两个国家将某项罪行纳入本国法律的方式或许有细微的差异，但仍然没有必要规定双重犯罪要求，因为只要某行为在本质上被这两个司法体系都定为犯罪，双重犯罪要求是允许这种差异的。 |
| A further rationale is that treaties focused on a particular type of crime typically do not contain an absolute obligation to extradite; rather, they contain an aut dedere aut judicare obligation, whereby the requested State may always choose not to extradite, so long as it submits the case to its competent authorities for prosecution. | 另一个理由是，关于特定类型犯罪的条约通常不包含引渡的绝对义务，而是载有或引渡或起诉义务，即被请求国只要将案件提交本国主管当局起诉，就可以选择不引渡。 |
| (39) The present draft articles on crimes against humanity define crimes against humanity in draft article 2 and, based on that definition, mandate in draft article 6, paragraphs 1 to 3, that the “offences” of “crimes against humanity” exist under the national criminal law of each State. | (39) 关于危害人类罪的本条款草案在第2条草案中对危害人类罪下了定义，并以这项定义为基础，在第6条草案第1至3款中要求将“危害人类罪”这一“犯罪”列入各国国内刑法。 |
| As such, when an extradition request from one State is sent to another State for an offence covered by the present draft articles, the offence should be criminal in both States, and therefore dual criminality is automatically satisfied. | 如此，一国就本条款草案所述犯罪向另一国发出引渡请求时，有关犯罪应在两国均属于刑事犯罪，因此自动满足双重犯罪要求。 |
| Moreover, the aut dedere aut judicare obligation set forth in draft article 10 does not obligate States to extradite; | 此外，第10条草案所述的或引渡或起诉义务并未要求各国必须引渡； |
| rather, the State can satisfy its obligation under draft article 10 by submitting the case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution. | 有关国家只要将案件提交本国主管当局起诉就能满足第10条草案所规定的义务。 |
| Consequently, the Commission decided that there was no need to include in draft article 13 a dual criminality requirement, such as appears in the first three paragraphs of article 44 of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 因此，委员会决定，没有必要如2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十四条前三款所载，在第13条草案中加入双重犯罪要求。 |
| Article 14 Mutual legal assistance | 第14条 司法协助 |
| 1. States shall afford one another the widest measure of mutual legal assistance in investigations, prosecutions and judicial proceedings in relation to the offences covered by the present draft articles in accordance with this draft article. | 1. 各国应按照本条草案，在对本条款草案所述的罪行进行的相关调查、起诉和司法程序中相互提供最广泛的司法协助。 |
| 2. In relation to the offences for which a legal person may be held liable in accordance with draft article 6, paragraph 8, in the requesting State, mutual legal assistance shall be afforded to the fullest extent possible under relevant laws, treaties, agreements and arrangements of the requested State with respect to investigations, prosecutions, judicial and other proceedings. | 2. 对于请求国依照第6条草案第8款可能追究法人责任的罪行所进行的调查、起诉、司法和其他程序，应根据被请求国的有关法律、条约、协定和安排，尽可能充分地提供司法协助。 |
| 3. Mutual legal assistance to be afforded in accordance with this draft article may be requested for any of the following purposes: | 3. 可为下列任何目的请求按照本条草案给予司法协助： |
| (a) identifying and locating alleged offenders and, as appropriate, victims, witnesses or others; | (a) 查明被指控罪犯的身份和所在地，适当时也可查明受害人、证人或其他人的身份和所在地； |
| (b) taking evidence or statements from persons, including by video conference; | (b) 向个人获取证据或陈述，包括以视频会议方式； |
| (c) effecting service of judicial documents; | (c) 送达司法文书； |
| (d) executing searches and seizures; | (d) 执行搜查和扣押； |
| (e) examining objects and sites, including obtaining forensic evidence; | (e) 检查实物和现场，包括获取法医学证据； |
| (f) providing information, evidentiary items and expert evaluations; | (f) 提供信息、物证以及专家评估； |
| (g) providing originals or certified copies of relevant documents and records; | (g) 提供有关文件和记录的原件或经核证的副本； |
| (h) identifying, tracing or freezing proceeds of crime, property, instrumentalities or other things for evidentiary or other purposes; | (h) 为取证目的或其他目的而查明、追查或冻结犯罪所得、财产、工具或其他物品； |
| (i) facilitating the voluntary appearance of persons in the requesting State; | (i) 为有关人员自愿在请求国出庭提供方便； |
| or | 或 |
| (j) any other type of assistance that is not contrary to the national law of the requested State. | (j) 不违反被请求国本国法律的任何其他形式的协助。 |
| 4. States shall not decline to render mutual legal assistance pursuant to this draft article on the ground of bank secrecy. | 4. 各国不得以银行保密为理由拒绝提供本条草案所规定的司法协助。 |
| 5. States shall consider, as may be necessary, the possibility of concluding bilateral or multilateral agreements or arrangements that would serve the purposes of, give practical effect to, or enhance the provisions of this draft article. | 5. 各国应视需要考虑缔结有助于实现本条草案目的、具体实施本条或者加强本条规定的双边或多边协定或安排的可能性。 |
| 6. Without prejudice to its national law, the competent authorities of a State may, without prior request, transmit information relating to crimes against humanity to a competent authority in another State where they believe that such information could assist the authority in undertaking or successfully concluding investigations, prosecutions and judicial proceedings or could result in a request formulated by the latter State pursuant to the present draft articles. | 6. 一国主管当局如果认为与危害人类罪有关的信息可能有助于另一国主管当局进行或顺利完成调查、起诉和司法程序，或者可以促成其根据本条款草案提出请求，则在不妨碍本国法律的情况下，可以在没有事先请求的情况下，向该另一国主管当局提供此类信息。 |
| 7. The provisions of this draft article shall not affect the obligations under any other treaty, bilateral or multilateral, that governs or will govern, in whole or in part, mutual legal assistance between the States in question. | 7. 本条草案各项规定概不影响规范或将要规范有关国家之间整个或部分司法协助问题的任何其他双边或多边条约所规定的义务。 |
| 8. The draft annex to the present draft articles shall apply to requests made pursuant to this draft article if the States in question are not bound by a treaty of mutual legal assistance. | 8. 如果有关国家无司法协助条约的约束，则本条款草案的附件草案应适用于根据本条草案提出的请求。 |
| If those States are bound by such a treaty, the corresponding provisions of that treaty shall apply, unless the States agree to apply the provisions of the draft annex in lieu thereof. | 如果有关国家受此类条约的约束，则适用条约的相应规定，除非这些国家同意代之以适用附件草案的规定。 |
| States are encouraged to apply the draft annex if it facilitates cooperation. | 鼓励各国在附件草案有助于合作时适用附件草案。 |
| 9. States shall consider, as appropriate, entering into agreements or arrangements with international mechanisms that are established by the United Nations or by other international organizations and that have a mandate to collect evidence with respect to crimes against humanity. | 9. 各国应酌情考虑与联合国或其他国际组织设立的、负责收集与危害人类罪相关的证据的国际机制缔结协定或安排。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) A State investigating or prosecuting an offence covered by the present draft articles may wish to seek assistance from another State in gathering information and evidence, including through documents, sworn declarations and oral testimony by victims, witnesses or others. | (1) 调查或起诉本条款草案所述犯罪的国家可能希望另一国能协助收集信息和证据，包括收集文件、宣誓声明以及受害人、证人或其他人的口头证词。 |
| Cooperation on such matters is referred to as “mutual legal assistance”. | 此种事项上的合作被称为“司法协助”。 |
| Having a legal framework regulating such assistance is useful for providing a predictable means for cooperation between the requesting and requested State. | 建立法律框架来规范这种协助，有助于为请求国与被请求国提供可预测的合作手段。 |
| For example, certain treaties have provisions relevant to mutual legal assistance with respect to the prosecution of war crimes. | 例如，某些条约载有关于起诉战争罪的司法协助的条款。 |
| (2) At present, there is no global or regional treaty addressing mutual legal assistance specifically in the context of crimes against humanity. | (2) 目前，没有专门针对危害人类罪背景下司法协助问题的全球或区域条约。 |
| Rather, to the extent that cooperation of this kind occurs, it does so through voluntary cooperation by States as a matter of comity or, where they exist, bilateral or multilateral treaties addressing mutual legal assistance with respect to crimes generally (referred to as mutual legal assistance treaties). | 更确切地说，各国之间开展此类合作，或是作为一种礼让自愿开展，或是在订有针对一般犯罪方面司法协助的双边或多边条约(被称为司法协助条约)的情况下，通过条约开展。 |
| While mutual legal assistance relating to crimes against humanity can occur through such treaties, in many instances there will be no mutual legal assistance treaty between the requesting and requested States. | 尽管与危害人类罪有关的司法协助可以通过这样的条约进行，但在许多情况下，请求国与被请求国之间并没有司法协助条约。 |
| As is the case for extradition, any given State often has no treaty relationship with a large number of other States on mutual legal assistance with respect to crimes generally, so that when cooperation is needed with respect to crimes against humanity, there is no legal framework in place to facilitate such cooperation. | 与引渡的情况一样，一国常常与其他很多国家没有关于一般罪行的司法协助条约关系，因此，在需要就危害人类罪开展合作时，没有现成的能方便此种合作的法律框架。 |
| (3) Draft article 14 seeks to provide that legal framework. | (3) 第14条草案试图提供这样一个法律框架。 |
| Paragraphs 1 to 8 are designed to address various important elements of mutual legal assistance that will apply between the requesting and requested States, bearing in mind that in some instances there may exist a mutual legal assistance treaty between those States, while in other instances there may not. | 第1至第8款旨在论述将在请求国与被请求国之间适用的司法协助的各种重要要素，同时铭记上述国家之间有的可能存在司法协助条约，有的可能没有。 |
| As discussed further below, draft article 14 and the draft annex both apply to the requesting and requested States if there exists no mutual legal assistance treaty between them. | 正如下文所进一步讨论的，如果请求国与被请求国之间没有司法协助条约，则第14条草案和附件草案均适用。 |
| If there does exist a mutual legal assistance treaty between them, then that treaty applies, except that: (a) if particular paragraphs of draft article 14 require the provision of a higher level of assistance than is provided for under the other mutual legal assistance treaty, then those paragraphs shall be applied as well; | 如果两国之间存在司法协助条约，则适用条约，除非：(a) 第14条草案的特定条款要求提供比司法协助条约规定的更高水平的协助，则这些条款也应适用； |
| and (b) the draft annex additionally applies if the requesting and requested States agree to use it to facilitate cooperation. | (b) 如果请求国和被请求国同意使用附件草案以方便合作，则附件草案也适用。 |
| (4) The detailed provisions on mutual legal assistance appearing in draft article 14 and in the draft annex also appear in several recent conventions addressing specific crimes. | (4) 第14条和附件草案所载有关司法协助的详细规定也见于若干针对具体犯罪的近期的公约。 |
| While there is also precedent for less detailed provisions, States appear attracted to the more detailed provisions, as may be seen in the drafting history of the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. | 虽然之前也有较不详细的规定， 但各国似乎更青睐较为详细的规定，从2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》的起草过程就可看出这一点。 |
| During the initial drafting, the article on mutual legal assistance was a two-paragraph provision. | 在最初的草案中，司法协助条款的篇幅为两段。 |
| The negotiating States decided early on, however, that this less detailed approach should be replaced with a more detailed article based on article 7 of the 1988 United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. | 但参与谈判的国家很早就决定， 应当放弃这种较不详细的起草方法，以1988年《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》第7条为基础，起草更为详细的条款来取而代之。 |
| The result was the detailed provisions of article 18 of the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, which were reproduced almost in their entirety in article 46 the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》第18条的详细规定因此产生。 2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条几乎原文照搬了这一条的内容。 |
| Comparable provisions may also be seen in the 1999 International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism. | 1999年《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》中也载有类似规定。 |
| (5) The Commission decided that the more detailed provisions were best suited for draft articles on crimes against humanity. | (5) 委员会决定，对于有关危害人类罪的条款草案，较为详细的规定最为适合。 |
| Such provisions provide extensive guidance to States, which is especially useful when there exists no mutual legal assistance treaty between the requesting and requested States. | 此种规定能向各国提供广泛的指导，在请求国与被请求国之间没有司法协助条约时尤为有用。 |
| Moreover, as was the case for the detailed provisions on extradition contained in draft article 13, such provisions on mutual legal assistance have proven acceptable to States. | 再者，与第13条草案所载有关引渡的详细规定一样，此种有关司法协助的规定已证明为各国所接受。 |
| For example, as of mid-2019, the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime has 190 States parties and the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption has 186 States parties. | 例如，截至2019年年中，已有190个国家加入2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》、186个国家加入2003年《联合国反腐败公约》。 |
| No State party has made a reservation to the language or content of the mutual legal assistance article in either convention. | 这两项公约的缔约国中，没有任何国家对司法协助条款的用语或内容提出保留。 |
| Additionally, such provisions are applied on a regular basis by national law enforcement authorities, and have been explained in numerous guides and other resources, such as those issued by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. | 另外，此种规定还时常得到各国国内执法部门的适用，并已在诸多指南和其他资源中，例如在联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室发布的指南和其他资源中得到阐释。 |
| (6) Draft article 14 and the draft annex are modelled on article 46 of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, but with some modifications. | (6) 第14条草案和附件草案参照了2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条，但有一些改动。 |
| As a structural matter, the Commission viewed it as useful to include in the body of the draft articles provisions relevant whether or not the two States concerned had in place a mutual legal assistance treaty, while placing in the draft annex provisions that only apply when there is no such treaty (although, even if there is, application of the draft annex might be deemed useful to facilitate cooperation). | 就结构而言，委员会认为宜在条款草案的正文中加入不论两国之间是否有司法协助条约都适用的规定，而在附件草案中加入仅在没有这类条约时适用的规定(虽然即便有这类条约，使用附件草案也可能被认为有助于方便合作)。 |
| Doing so helps to preserve a sense of balance in the draft articles, while grouping together in a single place (the draft annex) provisions automatically applicable only in certain situations. | 这样做有助于保持条款草案的平衡感，同时将只在特定情况下自动适用的规定集中在一处(附件草案)。 |
| In addition, as explained below, some of the provisions of article 46 have been revised, relocated, or deleted. | 此外，如下文所解释的，修改、移动或删除了第四十六条的一些规定。 |
| (7) Draft article 14, paragraph 1, establishes a general obligation for States parties to “afford one another the widest measure of mutual legal assistance” with respect to offences arising under the present draft articles. | (7) 第14条草案第1款规定了缔约国就本条款草案所述犯罪“相互提供最广泛的司法协助”的一般义务。 |
| The text is verbatim from article 46, paragraph 1, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, except for the reference to “offences covered by the present draft articles”. | 本案文除了“本条款草案所述的犯罪”这一提法外，逐字照搬2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第一款。 |
| Importantly, States are obliged to afford each other such assistance not just in “investigations” but also in “prosecutions” and “judicial proceedings”. | 重要的是，各国互助的义务不仅适用于“调查”，还适用于“起诉”和“司法程序”。 |
| As such, the obligation is intended to ensure that the broad goals of the present draft articles are furthered by comprehensive cooperation among States at all stages of the law enforcement process. | 这样，这项义务旨在确保各国在执法过程的所有阶段都开展全面合作，以推进实现本条款草案的广泛目标。 |
| (8) Draft article 14, paragraph 2, addresses such cooperation in the specific context of the liability of legal persons, using a different standard than exists in paragraph 1. | (8) 第14条草案第2款述及在追究法人责任的具体情况下开展此种合作的问题，使用的标准与第1款不同。 |
| Such cooperation is to occur only “to the fullest extent possible under relevant laws, treaties, agreements and arrangements of the requested State”. | 这种合作只“应根据被请求国有关的法律、条约、协定和安排，尽可能充分地提供”。 |
| This standard is a recognition that national legal systems differ considerably in their treatment of legal persons in relation to crimes, differences that also led to the language set forth in draft article 6, paragraph 8. | 这一标准承认了各国法律制度对待涉嫌犯罪的法人的方式存在显著差异，这种差异还催生了第6条草案第8款的用语。 |
| Given those differences, mutual legal assistance in this context must be contingent on the extent to which such cooperation is possible. | 考虑到这些差异，此种情况下的司法协助只能在条件允许的前提下开展。 |
| (9) The text of draft article 14, paragraph 2, is almost verbatim from article 46, paragraph 2, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, but for three changes. | (9) 第14条草案第2款的案文几乎原文照搬2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第二款， 但有三处修改。 |
| First, the final clause of article 46, paragraph 2, is moved up to the beginning of draft article 14, paragraph 2, so as to make clear at the outset that this paragraph concerns mutual legal assistance in relation to legal persons. | 第一，第14条草案第2款英文将第四十六条第二款的最后一个分句移到开头[中文无改动]，以便在开头就明确表示该款涉及与法人有关的司法协助。 |
| Second, the cross-reference in that clause has been adjusted as needed for these draft articles. | 第二，该分句中提到的依照的条款，根据本条款草案做了相应修改。 |
| Third, the words “and other” have been added in “investigations, prosecutions, judicial and other proceedings”. | 第三，在“调查、起诉、司法和其他程序”中增加了“和其他”三个字。 |
| This third change was regarded as useful given that, under some national legal systems, other types of proceedings might be relevant with respect to legal persons, such as administrative proceedings. | 委员会之所以认为宜作第三个改动，是因为在某些国家的法律制度中，可能会有其他类别的程序与法人有关，例如行政程序。 |
| (10) Draft article 14, paragraph 3, lists types of assistance that may be requested. | (10) 第14条草案第3款列出了可以提供的协助的类别。 |
| The phrase “any of the following purposes” means one or more of such purposes. | “下列任何目的”这一短语表示一个或多个目的。 |
| These types of assistance are drafted in broad terms and, in most respects, replicate the types of assistance listed in many multilateral and bilateral mutual legal assistance treaties. | 这些协助类别是泛泛划定的，大多照搬了许多多边 和双边 司法协助条约所列的协助类别。 |
| Indeed, such terms are broad enough to encompass the range of assistance that might be relevant for the investigation and prosecution of a crime against humanity, including the seeking of: police and security agency records; | 事实上，此种措辞非常宽泛，足以包含可能与调查和起诉危害人类罪有关的各种协助，包括要求：警方和安全机构的记录； |
| court files; | 法院卷宗； |
| citizenship, immigration, birth, marriage, and death records; | 国籍、移民、出生、婚姻和死亡记录； |
| health records; | 健康记录； |
| forensic material; | 司法鉴定材料； |
| and biometric data. | 以及生物特质资料。 |
| The list is not exhaustive, as it provides in subparagraph (j) a catch-all provision relating to “any other type of assistance that is not contrary to the national law of the requested State”. | 所列内容并非详尽无遗，该款(j)项载有一项宽泛的规定，涉及“不违反被请求国本国法律的任何其他形式的协助”。 |
| (11) Paragraph 3 is modelled on article 46, paragraph 3, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | (11) 第3款参照了2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第三款。 |
| Under that Convention, any existing bilateral mutual legal assistance treaty between States parties that lack the forms of cooperation listed in paragraph 3 are generally considered “as being automatically supplemented by those forms of cooperation”. | 该公约规定，对于缔约国之间任何现有的、不具备第三款所列合作形式的双边司法协助条约，一般应将之视为“由这些合作形式自动加以补充”。 |
| The Commission made some modifications to the text of article 46, paragraph 3, for the purposes of draft article 14, paragraph 3, given that the focus of the present draft articles is on crimes against humanity, rather than on corruption. | 委员会考虑到本条款草案的重点是危害人类罪而非腐败，为了第14条草案第3款的目的，在《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第三款案文的基础上作了一些改动。 |
| (12) In that regard, a new subparagraph (a) was added to highlight mutual legal assistance for the purpose of “identifying and locating alleged offenders and, as appropriate, victims, witnesses or others”. | (12) 为此，增加了新的(a)项，以强调为“查明被指控罪犯以及适当时受害人、证人或其他人的身份和所在地”而提供的司法协助。 |
| The phrase “as appropriate” recognizes that privacy concerns should be considered with respect to such persons, while the phrase “others” should be understood as including experts or other individuals helpful to the investigation or prosecution of an alleged offender. | “适当时”这一短语确认，对于这些人员应考虑隐私方面的关切。 同时“其他人”这一短语应理解为包括专家或其他有助于调查或起诉被指控罪犯的人员。 |
| Subparagraph (b) was also modified to include the possibility of a State providing mutual legal assistance through video conferencing for purposes of obtaining testimony or other evidence from persons. | (b)项也有改动，以涵盖缔约国通过视频会议提供司法协助以便从有关人员处取得证词或其他证据的可能性。 |
| This modification was considered appropriate given the growing use of such testimony and its particular advantages for transnational law enforcement, as is also recognized in paragraph 16 of the draft annex. | 之所以认为宜作如此改动，是考虑到这类证词的使用越来越多并且在跨国执法方面具有特别的优势，附件草案第16款也认可了这一点。 |
| Subparagraph (e), which allows a State to request mutual legal assistance in “examining objects and sites”, was modified to emphasize the ability to collect forensic evidence relating to crimes against humanity, given the importance of such evidence (such as exhumation and examination of grave sites) in investigating fully such crimes. | (e)项允许一国在“检查实物和现场”方面请求司法协助，该项有所改动，以强调收集危害人类罪法医学证据的能力，因为这种证据(例如墓穴发掘和检查)对于彻底调查此类犯罪具有重要作用。 |
| (13) Subparagraph (g), which allows a State to request assistance in obtaining “originals or certified copies of relevant documents and records”, was modified to delete the illustrative list contained in the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption; | (13) (g)项允许一国请求协助以获取“有关文件和记录的原件或者经核证的副本”，该项有所改动，删去了2003年《联合国反腐败公约》所载的示例； |
| that list was viewed as unduly focused on financial records. | 委员会认为示例过于强调财务记录。 |
| While such records may be relevant with respect to crimes against humanity, other types of records (such as death certificates and police reports) are likely to be just as, if not more, relevant. | 虽然此种记录可能与危害人类罪相关，但其他类别的记录(例如死亡证明和警方报告)很可能同样相关，甚至更为相关。 |
| Similarly, two types of assistance listed in the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption – at subparagraphs (j) and (k) – were not included, as they refer to that Convention’s detailed provisions on asset recovery, which are not included in the present draft articles. | 同样，2003年《联合国反腐败公约》在(j)项和(k)项所列的两类协助 未被包括在内，因为这两类协助专门涉及该公约关于资产追回的具体规定，而本条款草案并不包含这方面的内容。 |
| (14) Although the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption lists together “[e]xecuting searches and seizures, and freezing”, the Commission deemed it appropriate to move the word “freezing” to subparagraph (h), which deals with proceeds of the crime, so as to read “identifying, tracing or freezing proceeds of crime, property, instrumentalities or other things for evidentiary or other purposes”. | (14) 尽管2003年《联合国反腐败公约》将“执行搜查和扣押并实行冻结” 列在一起，但委员会认为宜将“冻结”移至关于犯罪所得的(h)项，使该项变为“为取证目的或其他目的而查明、追查或冻结犯罪所得、财产、工具或其他物品”。 |
| The words “or other purposes” were added so as to capture purposes that are not evidentiary in nature, such as restitution of property to victims. | 增加了“或其他目的”几个字，以涵盖性质上不属于取证的目的，例如将财产归还给受害人。 |
| (15) Draft article 14, paragraph 4, provides that States “shall not decline to render mutual legal assistance pursuant to this draft article on the ground of bank secrecy”. | (15) 第14条草案第4款规定，各国“不得以银行保密为理由拒绝提供本条草案所规定的司法协助”。 |
| This same language is used in article 46, paragraph 8, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption and similar language appears in other multilateral and bilateral treaties on mutual legal assistance. | 2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第八款 使用了相同的用语，而类似用语也见于其他多边和双边司法协助条约。 |
| While such a provision may not be commonly needed for the present draft articles, given that the offences at issue are not likely to be financial in nature, a crime against humanity can entail a situation where assets are stolen, and where mutual legal assistance regarding those assets might be valuable, not just for proving the crime but also for the recovery and return of those assets to the victims. | 本条款草案所涉及的犯罪本质上很可能不是财务犯罪，通常可能并不需要这一条款，但是危害人类罪可导致资产被盗的情况，而关于这些资产的司法协助可能不仅对证明犯罪事实，而且对追回资产并将之归还受害人，都有宝贵作用。 |
| While the reference is to “bank” secrecy, the provision is intended to cover all financial institutions whether or not technically regarded as a bank. | 这项规定虽然提到的是“银行”保密，但旨在涵盖所有金融机构，不论这些机构在严格意义上是否被视为银行。 |
| (16) Draft article 14, paragraph 5, provides that “States shall consider, as may be necessary, the possibility of concluding bilateral or multilateral agreements or arrangements that would serve the purposes of, give practical effect to, or enhance the provisions of this draft article”. | (16) 第14条草案第5款规定，“各国应视需要考虑缔结有助于实现本条草案目的、具体实施或者加强本条规定的双边或多边协定或者安排的可能性”。 |
| While this provision, which is based on article 46, paragraph 30, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, does not obligate States to take any particular action in this regard, it encourages States to consider concluding additional multilateral or bilateral treaties to improve the implementation of article 14. | 这项规定基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第三十款， 并未规定各国有义务在这方面采取任何具体措施，而是鼓励各国考虑缔结额外的多边或双边条约，以促进第14条的实施。 |
| (17) Draft article 14, paragraph 6, acknowledges that a State may transmit information to another State, even in the absence of a formal request, if it is believed that doing so could assist the latter in undertaking or successfully concluding investigations, prosecutions and judicial proceedings, or might lead to a formal request by the latter State. | (17) 第14条草案第6款承认，一国如果认为向另一国提供信息可协助该国进行或顺利完成调查、起诉和司法程序，或者可以促成该国提出正式请求，则即便在没有正式请求的情况下也可以向该国提供信息。 |
| Though innovative when first used in the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, this provision was replicated in article 46, paragraph 4, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》 首次创新地使用了这项规定，2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第四款又照搬了这项规定。 |
| The provision is stated in discretionary terms, providing that a State “may” transmit information, and is further conditioned by the clause “without prejudice to national law”. | 规定的措辞保留了裁量的余地，指出一国“可以”提供信息，并用“在不妨碍本国法律的情况下”这一分句作了进一步限定。 |
| In practice, States frequently engage in such informal exchanges of information. | 在实践中，各国经常进行此种非正式的信息交换。 |
| (18) In both the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, there is a further provision providing more detail as to the treatment of transmitted information. | (18) 2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》和2003年《联合国反腐败公约》中，都另有一项规定更加具体地说明了应如何对待提供的信息。 |
| While such details may be useful in some circumstances, for the purposes of the present draft articles the Commission deemed draft article 14, paragraph 6, to be sufficient in providing a basis for such cooperation. | 虽然这些具体内容可能在有些情况下具有作用，但委员会为了本条款草案的目的，认为第14条草案第6款足以为此种合作提供依据。 |
| (19) Draft article 14, paragraph 7, addresses the relationship of draft article 14 to any mutual legal assistance treaty existing between the requesting and requested States. | (19) 第14条草案第7款述及第14条草案与请求国和被请求国之间缔结的任何司法协助条约的关系。 |
| Paragraph 7 makes clear that the “provisions of this draft article shall not affect the obligations under any other treaty, bilateral or multilateral, that governs or will govern, in whole or in part, mutual legal assistance between the States in question”. | 第7款明确指出，“本条草案各项规定概不影响规范或将要规范有关国家之间整个或部分司法协助问题的任何其他双边或多边条约所规定的义务”。 |
| In other words, the obligations contained in any other mutual legal assistance treaty in place between the two States continue to apply, notwithstanding the existence of draft article 14. | 换言之，尽管存在第14条草案，但请求国与被请求国之间缔结的任何其他司法协助条约所载义务仍然适用。 |
| At the same time, if particular paragraphs of draft article 14 require the provision of a higher level of assistance than is provided for under the other mutual legal assistance treaty, then the obligations set forth in those paragraphs shall be applied as well. | 但如果第14条草案的特定条款要求提供比司法协助条约规定的更高水平的协助，则这些条款中规定的义务也应适用。 |
| This provision draws upon the language of earlier treaties addressing crimes. | 这项规定借鉴了之前关于犯罪的条约的内容。 |
| (20) Draft article 14, paragraph 8, addresses the application of the draft annex, which is an integral part of the present draft articles. | (20) 第14条草案第8款述及附件草案的适用问题。 附件草案是本条款草案不可或缺的组成部分。 |
| Paragraph 8, which is based on article 46, paragraph 7, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, provides that the draft annex applies when there exists no mutual legal assistance treaty between the requesting and requested State. | 第8款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第七款， 规定如果请求国与被请求国之间没有司法协助条约，则附件草案适用。 |
| As such, the draft annex does not apply when there exists a mutual legal assistance treaty between the requesting and requested State. | 同理，如果请求国与被请求国之间订有司法协助条约，则附件草案不适用。 |
| Even so, paragraph 8 notes that the two States could agree to apply the provisions of the draft annex if they wish to do so, and are so encouraged if doing so facilitates cooperation. | 但第8款还指出，两国如果有意愿，可以商定适用附件草案的规定，并且鼓励各国在附件草案有助于合作时适用附件草案。 |
| (21) Draft article 14, paragraph 9, provides that “States shall consider, as appropriate, entering into agreements or arrangements with international mechanisms that are established by the United Nations or by other international organizations and that have a mandate to collect evidence with respect to crimes against humanity”. | (21) 第14条草案第9款规定，“各国应酌情考虑与联合国或其他国际组织设立的、负责收集与危害人类罪相关的证据的国际机制缔结协定或安排”。 |
| A precedent for addressing cooperation between States and the United Nations in situations where serious crimes are being committed can be found in Additional Protocol I to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. | 1949年《日内瓦四公约第一附加议定书》最先规定了在发生严重罪行的情况下国家与联合国之间的合作。 |
| While paragraph 9 is not concerned with the “horizontal” mutual legal assistance between States that is the primary focus of draft article 14, such cooperation regarding punishment is important and would complement the cooperation between States and international organizations addressed in draft article 4 in the context of prevention. | 虽然第9款不涉及第14条草案的重点――国家间的“横向”司法协助，但惩处方面的这种合作很重要，并将作为第4条草案涉及的防止方面的国家与国际组织之间的合作的补充。 |
| It has been noted that some States require statutory authority or a formal framework in order to cooperate with such international mechanisms. | 有人指出，一些国家需要法定机构或正式框架来与上述国际机制合作。 |
| Paragraph 9 encourages States to consider concluding agreements or arrangements in order to allow for such cooperation. | 第9款鼓励各国考虑缔结协定或安排，以便开展这种合作。 |
| Like paragraph 5 of this draft article, however, paragraph 9 does not obligate States to take any particular action in this regard. | 然而，与本条草案第5款一样，第9款没有规定各国在这方面采取任何具体行动的义务。 |
| (22) Paragraph 9 is not directed at the cooperation of States with international criminal courts or tribunals, which have a mandate to prosecute alleged offenders. | (22) 第9段不涉及国家与负责起诉被指控罪犯的国际性刑事法院或法庭的合作。 |
| Such cooperation remains governed by the constituent instruments of, and the legal relationship of any given State to, those courts or tribunals. | 此种合作仍然受这些法院或法庭的章程以及任何具体国家与这些法院或法庭的法律关系的约束。 |
| (23) As was the case with respect to draft article 13 on extradition, the Commission decided that there was no need to include in draft article 14 a dual criminality requirement, such as appears in article 46, paragraph 9, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | (23) 与关于引渡的第13条草案一样，委员会决定没有必要在第14条草案中列入双重犯罪要求，例如2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第九款 所载的双重犯罪要求。 |
| As previously noted, the present draft articles on crimes against humanity define crimes against humanity in draft article 2 and, based on that definition, mandate in draft article 6, paragraphs 1 to 3, that the “offences” of “crimes against humanity” exist under national criminal laws of each State. | 如前文所述，关于危害人类罪的本条款草案在第2条草案中对危害人类罪下了定义，并以这项定义为基础，在第6条草案第1至3款中要求将“危害人类罪”的“犯罪”列入各国国内刑法。 |
| As such, dual criminality should automatically be satisfied in the case of a request for mutual legal assistance under the present draft articles. | 如此，根据本条款草案提出司法协助请求时，双重犯罪要求应自动得到满足。 |
| Article 15 Settlement of disputes | 第15条 争端的解决 |
| 1. States shall endeavour to settle disputes concerning the interpretation or application of the present draft articles through negotiations. | 1. 各国应努力通过谈判解决与本条款草案的解释或适用有关的争端。 |
| 2. Any dispute between two or more States concerning the interpretation or application of the present draft articles that is not settled through negotiation shall, at the request of one of those States, be submitted to the International Court of Justice, unless those States agree to submit the dispute to arbitration. | 2. 两个或两个以上国家对于本条款草案的解释或适用发生的任何争端不能通过谈判解决的，应按其中一方请求提交国际法院，除非这些国家同意将争端交付仲裁。 |
| 3. Each State may declare that it does not consider itself bound by paragraph 2 of this draft article. | 3. 各国可声明不受本条草案第2款的约束。 |
| The other States shall not be bound by paragraph 2 of this draft article with respect to any State that has made such a declaration. | 在与作此声明的任何国家的关系上，其他国家也不受本条草案第2款的约束。 |
| 4. Any State that has made a declaration in accordance with paragraph 3 of this draft article may at any time withdraw that declaration. | 4. 凡根据本条草案第3款作出声明的国家，均可随时撤销该项声明。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft article 15 addresses the settlement of disputes concerning the interpretation or application of the present draft articles. | (1) 第15条草案述及与本条款草案的解释或适用有关的争端的解决问题。 |
| There is currently no obligation upon States to resolve disputes arising between them specifically in relation to the prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity. | 目前，各国没有义务解决具体与防止和惩罚危害人类罪有关的国家间争端。 |
| To the extent that such disputes are addressed, it occurs in the context of an obligation relating to dispute settlement that is not specific to such crimes. | 如果这种争端可以得到处理，则是因为存在解决纠纷的义务，但这种义务并不专门针对危害人类罪。 |
| Crimes against humanity also have been mentioned in the European Court of Human Rights and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights when evaluating issues such as fair trial rights, ne bis in idem, nullum crimen, nulla poena sine praevia lege poenali and the legality of amnesty provisions. | 欧洲人权法院和美洲人权法院在评估公正审判权、 一罪不二审、 法无明文者不罚 和大赦规定合法性等问题时也提到了危害人类罪。 |
| (2) Draft article 15, paragraph 1, provides that “States shall endeavour to settle disputes concerning the interpretation or application of the present draft articles through negotiations”. | (2) 第15条草案第1款规定“各国应努力通过谈判解决与本条款草案的解释或适用有关的争端”。 |
| This text is modelled on article 66, paragraph 1, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 这一案文参照了2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第六十六条第一款。 |
| The travaux préparatoires relating to the comparable provision of the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime indicate that such a provision “is to be understood in a broad sense to indicate an encouragement to States to exhaust all avenues of peaceful settlement of disputes, including conciliation, mediation and recourse to regional bodies”. | 2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》类似规定的准备工作文件表明，此种规定“宜…作广义的理解，以表示鼓励各国尽可能使用各种和平解决争端的途径，包括和解、调解和诉诸区域机构”。 |
| (3) Draft article 15, paragraph 2, provides that a dispute concerning the interpretation or application of the present draft articles that “is not settled through negotiation” shall be submitted to compulsory dispute settlement. | (3) 第15条草案第2款规定，对于与本条款草案的解释或适用有关的争端“不能通过谈判解决的”，应诉诸强制争端解决。 |
| Although there is no prescribed means or period of time for pursuing such negotiation, a State should make a genuine attempt at negotiation and not simply protest the conduct of the other State. | 虽然没有规定寻求这种谈判的方式或时间，但一国应真正试图进行谈判， 而不是仅仅抗议另一国的行为。 |
| If negotiation fails, most treaties addressing crimes within national law oblige an applicant State to pursue arbitration prior to submission of the dispute to the International Court of Justice. | 如果谈判失败，大部分述及国内法中犯罪的条约规定，申诉国有义务在将争端提交国际法院之前先尝试仲裁。 |
| The Commission, however, deemed it appropriate in the context of the present draft articles, which address crimes against humanity, to provide for immediate resort to the International Court of Justice, unless the two States agree to submit the matter to arbitration. | 但委员会认为，对于针对危害人类罪的本条款草案，宜规定有关国家可以立即诉诸国际法院，除非两国同意将有关事项交付仲裁。 |
| The 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide likewise provides for immediate resort to the International Court of Justice for dispute settlement. | 1948年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》也规定，应立即诉诸国际法院解决争端。 |
| (4) Draft article 15, paragraph 3, provides that a “State may declare that it does not consider itself bound by paragraph 2”, in which case “other States shall not be bound by paragraph 2” with respect to that State. | (4) 第15条草案第3款规定，“各国可声明不受…第2款的约束”，在这种情况下，在与这个国家的关系上，“其他国家也不受本条草案第2款的约束”。 |
| Most treaties that address crimes under national law and that provide for inter-State dispute settlement allow a State party to opt out of compulsory dispute settlement. | 大部分针对国内法中犯罪并规定了国家间争端解决的条约都允许缔约国选择不接受强制争端解决。 |
| For example, article 66, paragraph 3, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption provides that “[e]ach State Party may, at the time of signature, ratification, acceptance or approval of or accession to this Convention, declare that it does not consider itself bound by paragraph 2 of this article. | 例如，2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第六十六条第三款规定，“各缔约国在签署、批准、接受、核准或者加入本公约时，均可以声明不受本条第二款的约束。 |
| The other States Parties shall not be bound by paragraph 2 of this article with respect to any State Party that has made such a reservation”. | 对于作出此种保留的任何缔约国，其他缔约国也不受本条第二款的约束”。 |
| As previously noted, as of mid-2019 there are 186 States parties to the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption; | 如前文所述，截至2019年年中，2003年《联合国反腐败公约》有186个缔约国； |
| of those, more than 40 States parties have communicated that they do not consider themselves bound by paragraph 2 of article 66. | 其中超过40个国家声明不受第六十六条第二款的约束。 |
| (5) Treaties containing such a provision typically specify that the declaration may be made no later than at the time of the expression by the State of consent to be bound by the treaty. | (5) 载有这种条款的条约通常规定，声明不得迟于国家表示同意受条约约束时作出。 |
| In accordance with the Commission’s practice, and in advance of a decision by States as to whether to use these draft articles as the basis for a convention, the Commission has not included in the present draft articles language characteristic of treaties (for example, that such a declaration shall be made by a State party no later than at the time of the State’s ratification, acceptance, approval, or accession to the convention). | 根据委员会的惯例，在各国尚未决定是否将这些条款草案作为公约的基础之前，委员会没有在本条款草案中使用条约特有的语言(例如，缔约国应至迟在批准、接受、核准或加入公约时作出这种声明)。 |
| (6) Draft article 15, paragraph 4, provides that “[a]ny State that has made a declaration in accordance with paragraph 3 of this draft article may at any time withdraw that declaration”. | (6) 第15条第4款规定，“凡根据本条草案第3款作出声明的国家，均可随时撤销该项声明”。 |
| Recent treaties that address crimes under national law and that provide for inter-State dispute settlement also contain such a provision. | 近年来制定的针对国内法中犯罪和规定了国家间争端解决的多项条约也包含这一规定。 |
| For example, article 66, paragraph 4, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption provides: “Any State Party that has made a reservation in accordance with paragraph 3 of this article may at any time withdraw that reservation by notification to the Secretary-General of the United Nations”. | 例如，2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第六十六条第四款规定：“凡根据本条第三款作出保留的缔约国，均可以随时通知联合国秘书长撤销该项保留”。 |
| Annex | 附件 |
| 1. This draft annex applies in accordance with draft article 14, paragraph 8. | 1. 本附件草案按照第14条草案第8款适用。 |
| Designation of a central authority | 中央机关的指定 |
| 2. Each State shall designate a central authority that shall have the responsibility and power to receive requests for mutual legal assistance and either to execute them or to transmit them to the competent authorities for execution. | 2. 各国应指定一个中央机关，使其负责和有权接收司法协助请求并执行请求或将请求转交主管当局执行。 |
| Where a State has a special region or territory with a separate system of mutual legal assistance, it may designate a distinct central authority that shall have the same function for that region or territory. | 一国如有实行单独司法协助制度的特区或领土，可另指定一个对该特区或领土具有同样职能的中央机关。 |
| Central authorities shall ensure the speedy and proper execution or transmission of the requests received. | 中央机关应确保所收到的请求迅速而妥善地执行或者转交。 |
| Where the central authority transmits the request to a competent authority for execution, it shall encourage the speedy and proper execution of the request by the competent authority. | 中央机关在将请求转交某一主管当局执行时，应鼓励该主管当局迅速而妥善地执行请求。 |
| The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall be notified by each State of the central authority designated for this purpose. | 各国应将为此目的指定的中央机关通知联合国秘书长。 |
| Requests for mutual legal assistance and any communication related thereto shall be transmitted to the central authorities designated by the States. | 司法协助请求以及与之有关的任何来文均应送交各国指定的中央机关。 |
| This requirement shall be without prejudice to the right of a State to require that such requests and communications be addressed to it through diplomatic channels and, in urgent circumstances, where the States agree, through the International Criminal Police Organization, if possible. | 此项要求不得妨害一国要求通过外交渠道以及在紧急和可能的情况下经有关国家同意通过国际刑事警察组织向其传递这种请求和来文的权利。 |
| Procedures for making a request | 提出请求的程序 |
| 3. Requests shall be made in writing or, where possible, by any means capable of producing a written record, in a language acceptable to the requested State, under conditions allowing that State to establish authenticity. | 3. 请求应以被请求国能够接受的语言以书面形式提出，或在可能的情况下以能够生成书面记录的任何形式提出，但须能够使该国鉴定其真伪。 |
| The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall be notified by each State of the language or languages acceptable to that State. | 各国应将其所能够接受的语言通知联合国秘书长。 |
| In urgent circumstances and where agreed by the States, requests may be made orally, but shall be confirmed in writing forthwith. | 在紧急情况下，如果经有关国家同意，请求可以口头方式提出，但应立即加以书面确认。 |
| 4. A request for mutual legal assistance shall contain: | 4. 司法协助请求应包括： |
| (a) the identity of the authority making the request; | (a) 提出请求的机关； |
| (b) the subject matter and nature of the investigation, prosecution or judicial proceeding to which the request relates and the name and functions of the authority conducting the investigation, prosecution or judicial proceeding; | (b) 请求所涉及的调查、起诉或司法程序的事由和性质，以及进行该项调查、起诉或司法程序的机关的名称和职能； |
| (c) a summary of the relevant facts, except in relation to requests for the purpose of service of judicial documents; | (c) 有关事实的概述，但为送达司法文书提出的请求除外； |
| (d) a description of the assistance sought and details of any particular procedure that the requesting State wishes to be followed; | (d) 对请求协助的事项和请求国希望得到遵循的特定程序细节的说明； |
| (e) where possible, the identity, location and nationality of any person concerned; | (e) 可能的话，任何有关人员的身份、所在地和国籍； |
| and | 以及 |
| (f) the purpose for which the evidence, information or action is sought. | (f) 索取证据、信息或要求采取行动的目的。 |
| 5. The requested State may request additional information when it appears necessary for the execution of the request in accordance with its national law or when it can facilitate such execution. | 5. 被请求国可要求提供按照其本国法律执行该请求所必需或者有助于执行该请求的补充信息。 |
| Response to the request by the requested State | 被请求国对请求的答复 |
| 6. A request shall be executed in accordance with the national law of the requested State and, to the extent not contrary to the national law of the requested State and where possible, in accordance with the procedures specified in the request. | 6. 请求应按照被请求国的本国法律执行。 在不违反被请求国本国法律的情况下，如有可能，应按照请求书中列明的程序执行。 |
| 7. The requested State shall execute the request for mutual legal assistance as soon as possible and shall take as full account as possible of any deadlines suggested by the requesting State and for which reasons are given, preferably in the request. | 7. 被请求国应尽快执行司法协助请求，并应尽可能充分地考虑到请求国提出的、最好在请求中说明了理由的任何最后期限。 |
| The requested State shall respond to reasonable requests by the requesting State on progress of its handling of the request. | 被请求国应依请求国的合理要求，就其处理请求的进展情况作出答复。 |
| The requesting State shall promptly inform the requested State when the assistance sought is no longer required. | 请求国应在其不再需要被请求国提供所寻求的协助时迅速通知被请求国。 |
| 8. Mutual legal assistance may be refused: | 8. 在下列情况下可拒绝提供司法协助： |
| (a) if the request is not made in conformity with the provisions of this draft annex; | (a) 请求未按本附件草案的规定提出； |
| (b) if the requested State considers that execution of the request is likely to prejudice its sovereignty, security, ordre public or other essential interests; | (b) 被请求国认为执行请求可能损害其主权、安全、公共秩序或其他基本利益； |
| (c) if the authorities of the requested State would be prohibited by its national law from carrying out the action requested with regard to any similar offence, had it been subject to investigation, prosecution or judicial proceedings under their own jurisdiction; | (c) 被请求国的机关依其管辖权对任何类似罪行进行调查、起诉或司法程序时，其本国法律已经规定禁止对此类罪行采取被请求的行动； |
| (d) if it would be contrary to the legal system of the requested State relating to mutual legal assistance for the request to be granted. | (d) 同意这项请求将违反被请求国关于司法协助的法律制度。 |
| 9. Reasons shall be given for any refusal of mutual legal assistance. | 9. 拒绝司法协助时应说明理由。 |
| 10. Mutual legal assistance may be postponed by the requested State on the ground that it interferes with an ongoing investigation, prosecution or judicial proceeding. | 10. 被请求国可以司法协助妨碍正在进行的调查、起诉或司法程序为理由而暂缓提供司法协助。 |
| 11. Before refusing a request pursuant to paragraph 8 of this draft annex or postponing its execution pursuant to paragraph 10 of this draft annex, the requested State shall consult with the requesting State to consider whether assistance may be granted subject to such terms and conditions as it deems necessary. | 11. 被请求国在根据本附件草案第8款拒绝某项请求或者根据本附件草案第10款暂缓执行请求事项之前，应与请求国协商，以考虑是否可以在其认为必要的条款和条件下给予协助。 |
| If the requesting State accepts assistance subject to those conditions, it shall comply with the conditions. | 请求国如果接受附有条件限制的协助，则应遵守有关的条件。 |
| 12. The requested State: | 12. 被请求国： |
| (a) shall provide to the requesting State copies of government records, documents or information in its possession that under its national law are available to the general public; | (a) 应向请求国提供其所拥有的根据其本国法律可向公众提供的政府记录、文件或信息的副本； |
| and | 并且 |
| (b) may, at its discretion, provide to the requesting State in whole, in part or subject to such conditions as it deems appropriate, copies of any government records, documents or information in its possession that under its national law are not available to the general public. | (b) 可自行斟酌决定全部或部分地或者按其认为适当的条件向请求国提供其所拥有的根据其本国法律不向公众提供的任何政府记录、文件或信息的副本。 |
| Use of information by the requesting State | 请求国对信息的使用 |
| 13. The requesting State shall not transmit or use information or evidence furnished by the requested State for investigations, prosecutions or judicial proceedings other than those stated in the request without the prior consent of the requested State. | 13. 未经被请求国事先同意，请求国不得为了请求书所述以外的调查、起诉或司法程序而发送或使用被请求国提供的信息或证据。 |
| Nothing in this paragraph shall prevent the requesting State from disclosing in its proceedings information or evidence that is exculpatory to an accused person. | 本款规定不得妨碍请求国在其程序中披露可证明被告人无罪的信息或证据。 |
| In the latter case, the requesting State shall notify the requested State prior to the disclosure and, if so requested, consult with the requested State. | 就后一种情形而言，请求国应在披露之前通知被请求国，若被请求国提出磋商要求，则应与被请求国磋商。 |
| If, in an exceptional case, advance notice is not possible, the requesting State shall inform the requested State of the disclosure without delay. | 如果在特殊情况下不可能事先通知，请求国应毫不迟延地将披露一事告知被请求国。 |
| 14. The requesting State may require that the requested State keep confidential the fact and substance of the request, except to the extent necessary to execute the request. | 14. 请求国可要求被请求国对其提出请求一事及请求内容保密，但为执行请求所必需的除外。 |
| If the requested State cannot comply with the requirement of confidentiality, it shall promptly inform the requesting State. | 如果被请求国不能遵守保密要求，应立即告知请求国。 |
| Testimony of person from the requested State | 被请求国人员作证 |
| 15. Without prejudice to the application of paragraph 19 of this draft annex, a witness, expert or other person who, at the request of the requesting State, consents to give evidence in a proceeding or to assist in an investigation, prosecution or judicial proceeding in territory under the jurisdiction of the requesting State shall not be prosecuted, detained, punished or subjected to any other restriction of his or her personal liberty in that territory in respect of acts, omissions or convictions prior to his or her departure from territory under the jurisdiction of the requested State. | 15. 在不妨碍本附件草案第19款的适用的情况下，对于依请求国请求而同意到请求国所管辖领土就某项诉讼作证或者为某项调查、起诉或司法程序提供协助的证人、专家或其他人员，不应因其离开被请求国所管辖领土之前的作为、不作为或定罪而在请求国领土内对其起诉、拘留、处罚，或者使其人身自由受到任何其他限制。 |
| Such safe conduct shall cease when the witness, expert or other person having had, for a period of fifteen consecutive days or for any period agreed upon by the States from the date on which he or she has been officially informed that his or her presence is no longer required by the judicial authorities, an opportunity of leaving, has nevertheless remained voluntarily in territory under the jurisdiction of the requesting State or, having left it, has returned of his or her own free will. | 如该证人、专家或其他人员已经得到司法机关不再需要其到场的正式通知，在自通知之日起连续十五天内或在有关国家所商定的任何期限内，有机会离开但仍自愿留在请求国所管辖领土内，或者在离境后又自愿返回，这种安全保障即不再有效。 |
| 16. Wherever possible and consistent with fundamental principles of national law, when an individual is in territory under the jurisdiction of a State and has to be heard as a witness or expert by the judicial authorities of another State, the first State may, at the request of the other, permit the hearing to take place by video conference if it is not possible or desirable for the individual in question to appear in person in territory under the jurisdiction of the requesting State. | 16. 当在某一国所管辖领土内的某人须作为证人或专家接受另一国司法机关询问，而且该人不可能或不宜到请求国领土出庭时，被请求国可依该另一国的请求，在可能而且符合国内法基本原则的情况下，允许以视频会议方式进行询问。 |
| States may agree that the hearing shall be conducted by a judicial authority of the requesting State and attended by a judicial authority of the requested State. | 有关国家可商定由请求国司法机关进行询问，询问时应有被请求国司法机关人员在场。 |
| Transfer for testimony of person detained in the requested State | 在被请求国拘留的人员为作证予以移送 |
| 17. A person who is being detained or is serving a sentence in the territory under the jurisdiction of one State whose presence in another State is requested for purposes of identification, testimony or otherwise providing assistance in obtaining evidence for investigations, prosecutions or judicial proceedings in relation to offences covered by the present draft articles, may be transferred if the following conditions are met: | 17. 在一国领土内被拘留或服刑的人，如果被要求到另一国进行辨认、作证或提供其他协助，以便为就与本条款草案所述的罪行有关的调查、起诉或司法程序取得证据，在满足下列条件的情况下，可予以移送： |
| (a) the person freely gives his or her informed consent; | (a) 该人在知情后自由表示同意； |
| and | 并且 |
| (b) the competent authorities of both States agree, subject to such conditions as those States may deem appropriate. | (b) 在遵守两国认为适当的条件前提下，两国主管当局同意。 |
| 18. For the purposes of paragraph 17 of this draft annex: | 18. 为本附件草案第17款的目的： |
| (a) the State to which the person is transferred shall have the authority and obligation to keep the person transferred in custody, unless otherwise requested or authorized by the State from which the person was transferred; | (a) 该人被移送前往的国家应有权力和义务羁押被移送人，除非移送国另有要求或授权； |
| (b) the State to which the person is transferred shall without delay implement its obligation to return the person to the custody of the State from which the person was transferred as agreed beforehand, or as otherwise agreed, by the competent authorities of both States; | (b) 该人被移送前往的国家应毫不迟延地履行义务，按照两国主管当局事先达成的协议或其他协议，将该人交还移送国羁押； |
| (c) the State to which the person is transferred shall not require the State from which the person was transferred to initiate extradition proceedings for the return of the person; and | (c) 该人被移送前往的国家不得要求移送国为该人的交还而启动引渡程序； |
| (d) the person transferred shall receive credit for service of the sentence being served from the State from which he or she was transferred for time spent in the custody of the State to which he or she was transferred. | (d) 该人在被移送前往的国家的羁押时间应当折抵在移送国执行的刑期。 |
| 19. Unless the State from which a person is to be transferred in accordance with paragraphs 17 and 18 of this draft annex so agrees, that person, whatever his or her nationality, shall not be prosecuted, detained, punished or subjected to any other restriction of his or her personal liberty in territory under the jurisdiction of the State to which that person is transferred in respect of acts, omissions or convictions prior to his or her departure from territory under the jurisdiction of the State from which he or she was transferred. | 19. 除非依照本附件草案第17款和第18款的规定移送某人的国家同意，否则，不论该人国籍为何，均不得因其在离开移送国所管辖领土前的作为、不作为或定罪而在被移送前往的国家所管辖领土内使其受到起诉、拘留、处罚或对其人身自由进行任何其他限制。 |
| Costs | 费用 |
| 20. The ordinary costs of executing a request shall be borne by the requested State, unless otherwise agreed by the States concerned. | 20. 除非有关国家另有协议，执行请求的一般费用应由被请求国承担。 |
| If expenses of a substantial or extraordinary nature are or will be required to fulfil the request, the States shall consult to determine the terms and conditions under which the request will be executed, as well as the manner in which the costs shall be borne. | 如果执行请求需要或将需要支付巨额或异常费用，则应由有关国家进行协商，以确定执行该请求的条款和条件以及承担费用的办法。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) As indicated in draft article 14, paragraph 8, both draft article 14 and the draft annex apply to the requesting and requested States if there exists no mutual legal assistance treaty between them. | (1) 如第14条草案第8款所述，如果请求国与被请求国之间没有司法协助条约，则第14条草案和附件草案均适用。 |
| If there does exist a mutual legal assistance treaty between them, then the draft annex additionally applies only if the requesting and requested States choose to apply it so as to facilitate cooperation. | 如果两国之间存在司法协助条约，则只有在请求国和被请求国选择适用附件草案以方便合作时，才附加地适用附件草案。 |
| (2) The draft annex is an integral part of the draft articles. | (2) 附件草案是本条款草案不可或缺的组成部分。 |
| Consequently, paragraph 1 of the draft annex provides that the draft annex “applies in accordance with draft article 14, paragraph 8”. | 因此，附件草案第1款规定，附件草案“按照第14条草案第8款适用”。 |
| Designation of a central authority | 中央机关的指定 |
| (3) Paragraph 2 of the draft annex requires the State to designate a central authority responsible for handling incoming and outgoing requests for assistance and to notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the chosen central authority. | (3) 附件草案第2款要求各国指定一个中央机关，负责处理来往协助请求，并将所选定的中央机关通知联合国秘书长。 |
| In designating a “central authority”, the focus is not on the geographical location of the authority, but rather its centralized institutional role with respect to the State or a region thereof. | 在指定“中央机关”时，重点不在于机关的地理地点，而是在于其对国家或区域具有中央化机构作用。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 13, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第十三款。 |
| As of 2017, all but eight States parties to that convention had designated a central authority. | 截至2017年，该公约所有缔约国中只有八个国家尚未指定中央机关。 |
| Procedures for making a request | 提出请求的程序 |
| (4) Paragraphs 3 to 5 of the draft annex address the procedures by which a State makes a request to another State for mutual legal assistance. | (4) 附件草案第3至第5款述及一国向另一国请求司法协助的程序。 |
| (5) Paragraph 3 of the draft annex stipulates that requests must be written and made in a language acceptable to the requested State. | (5) 附件草案第3款规定，请求必须以被请求国能够接受的语言以书面形式提出。 |
| Further, it obligates each State to notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations about the language or languages acceptable to that State. | 此外，该款还规定各国有义务将其所能接受的一种或多种语言通知联合国秘书长。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 14, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第十四款。 |
| (6) Paragraph 4 of the draft annex indicates what must be included in any request for mutual legal assistance, such as the identity of the authority making the request, the purpose for which the evidence, information or action is sought, and a statement of the relevant facts. | (6) 附件草案第4款说明了司法协助请求书中必须包含的信息，例如提出请求的机关、索取证据、信息或要求采取行动的目的，以及对有关事实的陈述。 |
| While this provision lays out the minimum requirements for a request for mutual legal assistance, it should not be read to preclude the inclusion of further information if it will expedite or clarify the request. | 这项规定载列的是对司法协助请求书的最低要求，不应将该项规定解读为不得在请求书内加入可加快或澄清请求的进一步信息。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 15, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第十五款。 |
| (7) Paragraph 5 of the draft annex allows the requested State to request supplemental information when it is either necessary to carry out the request under its national law, or when additional information would prove helpful in doing so. | (7) 附件草案第5款允许被请求国要求提供按照其本国法律执行该请求所必需或者有助于执行该请求的补充信息。 |
| This paragraph is intended to encompass a broad array of situations, such as where the national law of the requested State requires more information for the request to be approved and executed or where the requested State requires new information or guidance from the requesting State on how to proceed with a specific investigation. | 本款旨在涵盖多种不同的情形，例如被请求国的国内法律要求取得更多信息，方能批准和执行请求，或者被请求国要求请求国提供新的信息或指导，说明如何着手开展某项具体的调查。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 16, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第十六款。 |
| Response to the request by the requested State | 被请求国对请求的答复 |
| (8) Paragraphs 6 to 12 of the draft annex address the response by the requested State to the request for mutual legal assistance. | (8) 附件草案第6至第12款述及被请求国对司法协助请求的答复。 |
| (9) Paragraph 6 of the draft annex provides that the request “shall be executed in accordance with the national law of the requested State” and, to the extent not contrary to such law and where possible, “in accordance with the procedures specified in the request”. | (9) 附件草案第6款规定，请求“应按照被请求国的本国法律执行”，并且在不违反此种法律的情况下，如有可能，“应按照请求书中列明的程序执行”。 |
| This provision is narrowly tailored to address only the process by which the State executes the request; it does not provide grounds for refusing to respond to a request, which are addressed in paragraph 8 of the draft annex. | 这项规定措辞严密，仅述及各国执行请求的程序，而没有提供拒绝答复请求的依据，拒绝答复请求是附件草案第8款的内容。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 17, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第十七款。 |
| (10) Paragraph 7 of the draft annex provides that the request shall be addressed as soon as possible, taking into account any deadlines suggested by the requesting State, and that the requested State shall keep the requesting State reasonably informed of its progress in handling the request. | (10) 附件草案第7款规定，应考虑到请求国提出的任何最后期限，尽快处理请求，并且被请求国应将请求的处理进展情况合理告知请求国。 |
| Read in conjunction with paragraph 6, paragraph 7 obligates the requested State to execute a request for mutual legal assistance in an efficient and timely manner. | 与第6款一并解读的第7款规定被请求国有义务高效、及时地执行司法协助请求。 |
| At the same time, paragraph 7 is to be read in light of the permissibility of a postponement for the reason set forth in paragraph 10. | 与此同时，解读第7款时也应考虑到被请求国可以第10款所载理由暂缓执行请求。 |
| Paragraph 7 is based on article 46, paragraph 24, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第二十四款。 |
| (11) Paragraph 8 of the draft annex indicates four circumstances under which a request for mutual legal assistance may be refused, and is based on article 46, paragraph 21, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | (11) 附件草案第8款列出了可拒绝提供司法协助请求的四种情况，该款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第二十一款。 |
| Subparagraph (a) allows a requested State to refuse mutual legal assistance when the request does not conform to the requirements of the draft annex. | (a)项规定，如果请求不符合附件草案的要求，被请求国可拒绝提供司法协助。 |
| Subparagraph (b) allows a requested State to refuse to provide mutual legal assistance “if the requested State considers that execution of the request is likely to prejudice its sovereignty, security, ordre public or other essential interests”. | (b)项规定，“如果被请求国认为执行请求可能损害其主权、安全、公共秩序或其他基本利益”，可拒绝提供司法协助。 |
| Subparagraph (c) allows mutual legal assistance to be refused “if the authorities of the requested State would be prohibited by its national law from carrying out the action requested with regard to any similar offence” if it were being prosecuted in the requested State. | (c)项规定，“如果被请求国的机关…对任何类似犯罪”在被请求国进行起诉时，“其本国法律已经规定禁止对此类犯罪采取被请求的行动”，则被请求国可拒绝提供司法协助。 |
| Subparagraph (d) allows a requested State to refuse mutual legal assistance when granting the request would be contrary to the requested State’s legal system. | (d)项规定，如果同意请求将违反被请求国的法律制度，被请求国可拒绝提供司法协助。 |
| The Commission considered whether to add an additional ground for refusal based on a principle of non-discrimination, but decided that the existing grounds (especially (b) and (d)) were sufficiently broad to embrace such a ground. | 委员会曾考虑过是否应增加一项基于不歧视原则的拒绝理由，但最后决定现有理由(特别是(b)项和(d)项)已足够宽泛，涵盖了这种理由。 |
| Among other things, it was noted that a proposal to add such an additional ground was contemplated during the drafting of the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, but was not included because it was viewed as already encompassed in subparagraph (b). | 除其他外，有人指出在2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》的起草过程中就曾考虑过增加这种理由的提案，但最终未予采纳，因为认为(b)项已经涵盖了这种理由。 |
| (12) Paragraph 9 of the draft annex provides that “[r]easons shall be given for any refusal of mutual legal assistance”. | (12) 附件草案第9款规定，“拒绝司法协助时应说明理由”。 |
| Such a requirement ensures the requesting State understands why the request was rejected, thereby allowing better understanding as to constraints that exist not just for that particular request but also for future requests. | 这一要求确保请求国了解请求被拒的原因，从而使请求国能够更好地了解不仅制约此次特定请求、而且制约今后其他请求的因素。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 23, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第二十三款。 |
| (13) Paragraph 10 of the draft annex provides that mutual legal assistance “may be postponed by the requested State on the ground that it interferes with an ongoing investigation, prosecution or judicial proceeding”. | (13) 附件草案第10款规定，“被请求国可以司法协助妨碍正在进行的调查、起诉或司法程序为理由而暂缓提供”司法协助。 |
| This provision allows the requested State some flexibility to delay the provision of information if necessary to avoid prejudicing an ongoing investigation or proceeding of its own. | 这项规定使被请求国能够享有一定的灵活性，在必要时暂缓提供信息，以免影响该国本身正在进行的调查或程序。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 25, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第二十五款。 |
| (14) Paragraph 11 of the draft annex obliges the requested State, before refusing a request, to “consult with the requesting State to consider whether assistance may be granted subject to such terms and conditions as it deems necessary. | (14) 附件草案第11款规定，被请求国在拒绝请求之前，有义务“与请求国协商，以考虑是否可以在其认为必要的条款和条件下给予协助。 |
| If the requesting State accepts assistance subject to those conditions, it shall comply with the conditions”. | 请求国如果接受附有条件限制的协助，则应遵守有关的条件”。 |
| In some cases, the reason for refusal may be a purely technical matter which can be easily remedied by the requesting State, in which case consultations will help clarify the matter and allow the request to proceed. | 某些情况下，拒绝请求可能完全是技术问题造成的，请求国可以很容易地予以弥补，在这种情况下，协商有助于澄清有关问题，使请求能够继续推进。 |
| A formulation of this paragraph in the 1988 United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances indicated only that consultations should take place regarding possible postponement of requests for mutual legal assistance. | 1988年《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》对该款的表述只提到，对于司法协助请求可能暂缓进行的情况，应进行协商。 |
| The 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, however, expanded the application of this provision to cover refusals of assistance as well. | 而2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》则扩大了这项规定的适用范围，使其也适用于拒绝协助的情况。 |
| This approach was replicated in article 46, paragraph 26, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, upon which paragraph 11 is based. | 2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第二十六款 沿用了这一方法，该款也是第11款的基础。 |
| (15) Paragraph 12 of the draft annex addresses the provision of government records, documents and information from the requested State to the requesting State, indicating that such information that is publicly available “shall” be provided, while information that is not publicly available “may” be provided. | (15) 附件草案第12款述及被请求国向请求国提供政府记录、文件和信息的问题，指出“应”提供可向公众公开的此种信息，而“可”提供不向公众公开的信息。 |
| Such an approach encourages but does not require a requested State to release confidential information. | 这种表述鼓励但不要求被请求国披露保密信息。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 29, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第二十九款。 |
| Use of information by the requesting State | 请求国对信息的使用 |
| (16) Paragraphs 13 and 14 of the draft annex address the use of information received by the requesting State from the requested State. | (16) 附件草案第13和第14款述及请求国使用被请求国提供的信息的问题。 |
| (17) Paragraph 13 of the draft annex precludes the requesting State from transmitting the information to a third party, such as another State, and precludes it from using the information “for investigations, prosecutions or judicial proceedings other than those stated in the request without the prior consent of the requested State”. | (17) 附件草案13款规定，请求国不得将信息转交给第三方，例如另一国，并且“未经被请求国事先同意”，也不得将信息用于“请求书所述以外的调查、起诉或司法程序”。 |
| As noted with respect to paragraph 4 of the draft annex, the requesting State must indicate in its request “the purpose for which the evidence, information or action is sought”. | 如附件草案第4款所述，请求国必须在请求书中说明“索取证据、信息或要求采取行动的目的”。 |
| At the same time, when the information received by the requesting State is exculpatory to an accused person, the requesting State may disclose the information to that person (as it may be obliged to do under its national law), after providing advance notice to the requested State when possible. | 与此同时，如果请求国收到的信息能够证明某被告人无罪，则请求国在尽可能事先通知被请求国后，可将信息披露给此人(该国法律可能规定了这样做的义务)。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 19, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第十九款。 |
| (18) Paragraph 14 of the draft annex allows the requesting State to require the requested State to keep the fact and substance of the request confidential, except to the extent necessary to execute the request. | (18) 附件草案第14款允许请求国要求被请求国对其提出请求一事及请求内容保密，但为执行请求所必需的除外。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 20, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第二十款。 |
| Testimony of person from the requested State | 被请求国人员作证 |
| (19) Paragraphs 15 and 16 of the draft annex address the procedures for a requesting State to secure testimony from a person present in the requested State. | (19) 附件草案第15和第16款述及请求国要求被请求国境内人员作证的程序。 |
| (20) Paragraph 15 of the draft annex is essentially a “safe conduct” provision, which gives a person traveling from the requested State to the requesting State protection from prosecution, detention, punishment or other restriction of liberty by the requesting State during the person’s testimony, with respect to acts that occurred prior to the person’s departure from the requested State. | (20) 附件草案第15款本质上是一项“安全行为”规定，保护从被请求国前往请求国作证的人员在作证期间免于因其离开被请求国之前的行为而遭到请求国的起诉、拘留、处罚或其他人身自由限制。 |
| As set forth in paragraph 15, such protection does not extend to acts committed after the person’s departure nor does it continue indefinitely after the testimony is given. | 如第15款所述，此种保护不涵盖该人离开被请求国之后的行为，也并非在该人作证之后无限期有效。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 27, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第二十七款。 |
| (21) Paragraph 16 of the draft annex addresses testimony by witnesses through video conferencing, a cost-effective technology that is becoming increasingly common. | (21) 附件草案第16款述及证人通过视频会议这种具有成本效益并且越来越常见的技术作证的情况。 |
| While testimony by video conference is not mandatory, if it is “not possible or desirable for the individual in question to appear in person in territory under the jurisdiction of the requesting State”, then the requested State may permit the hearing to take place by video conference. | 通过视频会议作证并非强制，如果“该人不可能或不宜到请求国所管辖领土出庭”，则被请求国可允许以视频会议方式进行询问。 |
| This will only occur, however, when “possible and consistent with fundamental principles of national law”, a clause which refers to the laws of both the requesting and the requested States. | 但前提是这种作证方式“可能而且符合国内法基本原则”，这一分句既指被请求国的国内法，也指请求国的国内法。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 18, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第十八款。 |
| The 2017 implementation report for the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption indicates that the use of this provision is widespread: | 2003年《联合国反腐败公约》2017年执行报告指出，这项规定已得到广泛使用： |
| [T]he hearing of witnesses and experts by videoconference is generally recognized as a useful tool in saving time and costs in the context of mutual legal assistance in criminal matters, as well as in overcoming practical difficulties, such as when the person whose evidence is sought is unable or unwilling to travel to the foreign country to give evidence. | 普遍认为，在刑事司法协助方面，通过视频会议听取证人和专家的陈述是一个省时省钱的办法，还可以帮助克服实际困难，比如，当被寻求提供证据的人不能或不愿前往外国作证时。 |
| Videoconferencing is permissible under the domestic law of the majority of States parties … | 视频会议在大多数缔约国的国内法中都得到了认可。 |
| . Transfer for testimony of person detained in the requested State | 在被请求国拘留的人员为作证予以移送 |
| (22) Paragraphs 17 to 19 of the draft annex address the situation where a requesting State seeks the transfer from the requested State of a person who is being detained or serving a sentence in the latter. | (22) 附件草案第17至第19款述及请求国要求被请求国移送正在该国被拘留或服刑的人员的情况。 |
| (23) Paragraph 17 of the draft annex allows for the transfer of a person who is in the custody of the requested State to the requesting State where the person to be transferred “freely gives his or her informed consent” and the “competent authorities” of the requesting State and requested State agree to the transfer. | (23) 附件草案第17款允许将被请求国羁押人员移送至请求国，前提是所要移送的人员“在知情后自由表示同意”并且两国“主管当局”同意移送。 |
| The provision should be understood as covering persons who are in custody for criminal proceedings or serving a sentence, who are performing mandatory community service, or who are confined to particular areas under a probationary system. | 对于这项规定，应理解为涵盖因刑事程序而被羁押或服刑的人员，进行强制社区服务的人员，或根据某缓刑制度而不得离开特定区域的人员。 |
| Although testimony may be the principal reason for such transfers, the provision also broadly covers transfer for any type of assistance sought from such a person for “investigations, prosecutions or judicial proceedings”. | 尽管作证可能为此种移送的主要目的，但这项规定也广泛地涵盖了因为“调查、起诉或司法程序”而需要上述人员任何其他类别协助的移送。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 10, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第十款。 |
| (24) Paragraph 18 of the draft annex describes the obligation of the requesting State to keep the person transferred in custody, unless otherwise agreed, and to return the transferee to the requested State in accordance with the transfer agreement, without the requested State needing to initiate extradition proceedings. | (24) 附件草案第18款描述了请求国的以下义务：除非另有协议，应继续羁押被移送人员； 应按照移送协议将被移送人员交还被请求国，而不需要被请求国启动引渡程序。 |
| This paragraph also addresses the obligation of the requested State to give credit to the transferee for the time which he or she spends in custody in the requesting State. | 本款还述及被请求国有义务将被移送人员在请求国的羁押时间折抵刑期。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 11, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第十一款。 |
| (25) Paragraph 19 of the draft annex is similar to the “safe conduct” provision contained in paragraph 15, whereby the transferred person is protected from prosecution, detention, punishment or other restriction to liberty by the requesting State during the course of the person’s presence in the requesting State, with respect to acts that occurred prior to the person’s departure from the requested State. | (25) 附件草案第19款与第15款所载的“安全行为”规定类似，保护被移送人员在请求国期间免于因其离开被请求国之前的行为而遭到请求国的起诉、拘留、处罚或其他人身自由限制。 |
| Paragraph 19, however, allows the requested State to agree that the requesting State may undertake such actions. | 但第19款也规定，被请求国可以同意请求国采取此类行动。 |
| Further, this provision must be read in conjunction with paragraph 18, which obliges the requesting State to keep the transferee in custody, unless otherwise agreed, based upon his or her detention or sentence in the requested State. | 此外，这项规定必须与第18款一并解读，该款规定，除非另有协议，请求国有义务根据被移送人员在被请求国的拘留和服刑规定，继续予以羁押。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 12, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第十二款。 |
| Costs | 费用 |
| (26) Paragraph 20 of the draft annex addresses the issue of costs, stating, inter alia, that “[t]he ordinary costs of executing a request shall be borne by the requested State, unless otherwise agreed by the States concerned”. | (26) 附件草案第20款述及费用问题，除其他外，该款写道：“除非有关国家另有协议，执行请求的一般费用应由被请求国承担”。 |
| The second sentence of the provision allows for States to consult with each other where the expenses to fulfil the request will be “of a substantial or extraordinary nature”. | 该款第二句规定，在执行请求将需要“支付巨额或者异常费用”时，有关国家可相互协商。 |
| This paragraph is based on article 46, paragraph 28, of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 本款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第二十八款。 |
| (27) Various interpretive notes or commentary with respect to comparable provisions in other treaties provide guidance as to the meaning of this provision. | (27) 对其他条约中类似规定的各种解释性说明或评注为这项规定的含义提供了指导。 |
| For example, the commentary to the 1988 United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances provides: | 例如，1988年《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》评注写道： |
| This rule makes for simplicity, avoiding the keeping of complex accounts, and rests on the notion that over a period of time there will be a rough balance between States that are sometimes the requesting and sometimes the requested party. | 这条规则很简单，避免记复杂的账目，它基于这样一种观念，即在一段时间内缔约国之间大体上能保持平衡，因为它有时是请求国，有时是被请求国。 |
| In practice, however, that balance is not always maintained, as the flow of requests between particular pairs of parties may prove to be largely in one direction. | 然而实际上，这种平衡并不是总能保持的，因为事实可能证明，某一对缔约国之间请求的流量多半是朝一个方向的。 |
| For this reason, the concluding words of the first sentence enable the parties to agree to a departure from the general rule even in respect of ordinary costs. | 为此，第1句话开头的短语使得缔约国能够同意即使在一般费用问题上也不受一般规则的束缚。 |
| (28) A footnote to the United Nations Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters indicates that: | (28) 《联合国刑事事项互助示范条约》的一条脚注写道： |
| For example, the requested State would meet the ordinary costs of fulfilling the request for assistance except that the requested State would bear (a) the exceptional or extraordinary expenses required to fulfil the request, where required by the requested State and subject to previous consultations; | 例如被请求国将负担执行该协助请求的一般费用，但请求国负担：(a) 为执行该请求所需的特别或特殊开支，如被请求国提出要求，并经事先协商； |
| (b) the expenses associated with conveying any person to or from the territory of the requested State, and any fees, allowances or expenses payable to that person while in the requesting State … ; | (b) 派出任何人来往被请求国领土所涉的开支，以及应付给该人员…在请求国期间的任何费用、津贴或支出； |
| (c) the expenses associated with conveying custodial or escorting officers; | (c) 派出押送或护送人员所涉的开支； |
| and (d) the expenses involved in obtaining reports of experts. | (d) 取得专家报告所涉开支。 |
| (29) An interpretative note to the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime states: | (29) 2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》的一份解释性说明写道： |
| The travaux préparatoires should indicate that many of the costs arising in connection with compliance with requests [regarding the transfer of persons or video conferencing] would generally be considered extraordinary in nature. | 准备工作文件应表明，为满足[关于移送人员或举行视频会议的]请求所涉的许多费用一般应视为特殊性质的费用。 |
| Further, the travaux préparatoires should indicate the understanding that developing countries may encounter difficulties in meeting even some ordinary costs and should be provided with appropriate assistance to enable them to meet the requirements of this article. | 另外，准备工作文件应表明这样一项谅解：即使是应付一般费用，发展中国家也会有困难，因此应当提供适当援助，使其能够满足本条的要求。 |
| (30) Finally, according to the travaux préparatoires of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption: | (30) 最后，2003年《联合国反腐败公约》的准备工作文件指出： |
| Further, the travaux préparatoires will also indicate the understanding that developing countries might encounter difficulties in meeting even some ordinary costs and should be provided with appropriate assistance to enable them to meet the requirements of this article. | 此外，准备工作文件还将表明对此的理解是，发展中国家甚至在满足一般费用方面也可能遇到困难，因此应当向其提供适当的援助，以使其能够达到本条的要求。 |
| Chapter V Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 第五章 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法) |
| A. Introduction | A. 导言 |
| 46. At its sixty-seventh session (2015), the Commission decided to include the topic “Jus cogens” in its programme of work and appointed Mr. Dire Tladi as Special Rapporteur for the topic. | 46. 委员会第六十七届会议(2015年)决定将“强行法”专题列入工作方案，并任命迪雷·特拉迪先生为专题特别报告员。 |
| The General Assembly subsequently, in its resolution 70/236 of 23 December 2015, took note of the decision of the Commission to include the topic in its programme of work. | 联大随后在2015年12月23日第70/236号决议中注意到委员会决定将此专题列入工作方案。 |
| 47. The Special Rapporteur submitted three reports from 2016 to 2018, which the Commission considered at its sixty-eighth to seventieth sessions (2016–2018), respectively. | 47. 特别报告员自2016年至2018年提交了三次报告，委员会分别在第六十八届至第七十届会议(2016至2018年)上审议了这些报告。 |
| Following the debates on those reports, the Commission decided to refer the draft conclusions contained in those reports to the Drafting Committee. | 对报告进行讨论后，委员会决定将其中所载的结论草案转交草委员会。 |
| The Commission heard interim reports from the Chairpersons of the Drafting Committee on peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) containing the draft conclusions provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee at the sixty-eighth to seventieth sessions, respectively. | 委员会分别在第六十八届至第七十届会议上听取了起草委员会主席关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的临时报告，其中载有起草委员会暂时通过的结论草案。 |
| 48. At its sixty-ninth session (2017), following a proposal by the Special Rapporteur in his second report, the Commission decided to change the title of the topic from “Jus cogens” to “Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens)”. | 48. 委员会第六十九届会议(2017年)按照特别报告员第二次报告的建议， 决定将专题的标题从“强行法”改为“一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)”。 |
| B. Consideration of the topic at the present session | B. 本届会议审议此专题的情况 |
| 49. At the present session, the Commission had before it the fourth report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/727). | 49. 委员会本届会议收到了特别报告员的第四次报告(A/CN.4/727)。 |
| The fourth report discussed the previous consideration of the topic in the Commission and the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly. | 第四次报告讨论了委员会和联大第六委员会以往审议这一专题的情况。 |
| It also addressed the questions of regional jus cogens and the inclusion of an illustrative list of peremptory norms of general international (jus cogens) in the draft conclusions. | 报告还讨论了区域强行法和在结论草案中列入一份一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)说明性清单的问题。 |
| On the basis of his analysis, the Special Rapporteur proposed one draft conclusion containing a non-exhaustive list of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 特别报告员在其所作分析的基础上，提出了一项包含一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)非详尽无遗清单的结论草案。 |
| 50. The Commission considered the fourth report at its 3459th to 3463rd, and 3465th meetings, from 8 to 10 May, and from 14 to 16 May 2019. | 50. 委员会在2019年5月8日至10日和5月14日至16日举行的第3459次至第3463次和第3465次会议上审议了第四次报告。 |
| 51. At its 3465th meeting, on 16 May 2019, the Commission referred draft conclusion 24, as contained in the Special Rapporteur’s fourth report, to the Drafting Committee on the understanding that the list contained in the draft conclusion would be moved to an annex and that it would be limited to those peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) that the Commission had previously referred to. | 51. 在2019年5月16日第3465次会议上，委员会将特别报告员第四次报告所载的结论草案24转交起草委员会，但有一项谅解，即该条结论草案所载清单将移至附件，且仅限于委员会以前提到的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| 52. The Commission considered the report of the Drafting Committee (A/CN.4/L.936) at its 3472nd meeting, held on 31 May 2019, and adopted the draft conclusions on peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) on first reading (see section C.1 below). | 52. 委员会在2019年5月31日举行的第3472次会议上审议了起草委员会的报告(A/CN.4/L.936)，并一读通过了关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的结论草案(见下文C.1节)。 |
| 53. At its 3499th to 3504th meetings, from 5 to 7 August 2019, the Commission adopted the commentaries to the aforementioned draft conclusions (see section C.2 below). | 53. 在2019年8月5日至7日举行的第3499至第3504次会议上，委员会通过了上述结论草案的评注(见下文C.2节)。 |
| 54. At its 3504th meeting, on 7 August 2019, the Commission decided, in accordance with articles 16 to 21 of its statute, to transmit the draft conclusions (see section C below), through the Secretary-General, to Governments for comments and observations, with the request that such comments and observations be submitted to the Secretary-General by 1 December 2020. | 54. 委员会在2019年8月7日第3504次会议上，根据其《章程》第16至第21条，决定通过秘书长将结论草案(见下文C节)转交各国政府征求评论和意见，并请各国政府在2020年12月1日之前向秘书长提交此类评论和意见。 |
| 55. At its 3504th meeting, on 7 August 2019, the Commission further expressed its deep appreciation for the outstanding contribution of the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Dire Tladi, which had enabled the Commission to bring to a successful conclusion its first reading of the draft conclusions on peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 55. 在2019年8月7日第3504次会议上，委员会还向特别报告员迪雷·特拉迪先生深表感谢，由于他的杰出贡献，委员会得以圆满结束对关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的结论草案的一读。 |
| C. Text of the draft conclusions on peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), adopted by the Commission on first reading | C. 委员会一读通过的关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的结论草案案文 |
| 1. Text of the draft conclusions | 1. 结论草案案文 |
| 56. The text of the draft conclusions adopted by the Commission on first reading is reproduced below. | 56. 委员会一读通过的结论草案案文载录如下。 |
| Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法) |
| Part One Introduction | 第一部分 导言 |
| Conclusion 1 Scope | 结论1 范围 |
| The present draft conclusions concern the identification and legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 本结论草案涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的识别和法律后果。 |
| Conclusion 2 Definition of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论2 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的定义 |
| A peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)是指被国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认为不容克减的规范，此类规范只能由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范加以变更。 |
| Conclusion 3 General nature of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论3 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的一般性质 |
| Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) reflect and protect fundamental values of the international community, are hierarchically superior to other rules of international law and are universally applicable. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)反映并保护国际社会的基本价值观，其等级高于国际法其他规则且普遍适用。 |
| Part Two Identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 第二部分 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的识别 |
| Conclusion 4 Criteria for the identification of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论4 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的识别标准 |
| To identify a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), it is necessary to establish that the norm in question meets the following criteria: | 要识别一项规范为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，必须确定该规范符合以下标准： |
| (a) it is a norm of general international law; | (a) 它是一般国际法规范； |
| and | 并且 |
| (b) it is accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. | (b) 被国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认为不容克减的规范，此类规范只能由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范加以变更。 |
| Conclusion 5 Bases for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论5 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的基础 |
| 1. Customary international law is the most common basis for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 1. 习惯国际法是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的最常见的基础。 |
| 2. Treaty provisions and general principles of law may also serve as bases for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 2. 条约规定和一般法律原则也可作为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的基础。 |
| Conclusion 6 Acceptance and recognition | 结论6 接受和承认 |
| 1. The requirement of “acceptance and recognition” as a criterion for identifying a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is distinct from acceptance and recognition as a norm of general international law. | 1. 作为识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)标准的“接受和承认”要求不同于接受和承认为一般国际法规范的要求。 |
| 2. To identify a norm as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), there must be evidence that such a norm is accepted and recognized as one from which no derogation is permitted and which can only be modified by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. | 2. 要识别一项规范为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，必须有证据表明该规范被接受和承认为不容克减的规范，且只能由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范加以变更。 |
| Conclusion 7 International community of States as a whole | 结论7 国家组成之国际社会全体 |
| 1. It is the acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole that is relevant for the identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 1. 在识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)时，具有相关意义的是国家组成之国际社会全体的接受和承认。 |
| 2. Acceptance and recognition by a very large majority of States is required for the identification of a norm as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens); | 2. 识别一项规范为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)需要绝大多数国家接受和承认； |
| acceptance and recognition by all States is not required. | 不要求所有国家都接受和承认。 |
| 3. While the positions of other actors may be relevant in providing context and for assessing acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole, these positions cannot, in and of themselves, form part of such acceptance and recognition. | 3. 其他行为体的立场虽可有助于提供背景和评估国家组成之国际社会全体的接受和承认，但这些立场本身不能构成此种接受和承认的一部分。 |
| Conclusion 8 Evidence of acceptance and recognition | 结论8 接受和承认的证据 |
| 1. Evidence of acceptance and recognition that a norm of general international law is a peremptory norm (jus cogens) may take a wide range of forms. | 1. 表明一项一般国际法规范被接受和承认为强制性规范(强行法)的证据可具有广泛多样的形式。 |
| 2. Such forms of evidence include, but are not limited to: public statements made on behalf of States; | 2. 此种证据形式包括但不限于：以国家名义发表的公开声明； |
| official publications; | 官方出版物； |
| government legal opinions; | 政府的法律意见； |
| diplomatic correspondence; | 外交信函； |
| legislative and administrative acts; | 立法和行政行为； |
| decisions of national courts; | 各国法院的判决； |
| treaty provisions; | 条约规定； |
| and resolutions adopted by an international organization or at an intergovernmental conference. | 国际组织通过的或在政府间会议上通过的决议。 |
| Conclusion 9 Subsidiary means for the determination of the peremptory character of norms of general international law | 结论9 确定一般国际法规范强制性的辅助手段 |
| 1. Decisions of international courts and tribunals, in particular of the International Court of Justice, are a subsidiary means for determining the peremptory character of norms of general international law. | 1. 国际性法院和法庭的决定，特别是国际法院的决定，是确定一般国际法规范强制性的辅助手段。 |
| 2. The works of expert bodies established by States or international organizations and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations may also serve as subsidiary means for determining the peremptory character of norms of general international law. | 2. 各国或国际组织设立的专家机构的工作成果和各国权威最高的公法学家学说也可作为确定一般国际法规范强制性的辅助手段。 |
| Part Three Legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 第三部分 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的法律后果 |
| Conclusion 10 Treaties conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论10 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的条约 |
| 1. A treaty is void if, at the time of its conclusion, it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 1. 条约在缔结时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触者无效。 |
| The provisions of such a treaty have no legal force. | 此种条约的规定无法律效力。 |
| 2. If a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) emerges, any existing treaty which is in conflict with that norm becomes void and terminates. | 2. 新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)产生时，与该项规范相抵触的任何现行条约即为无效并终止。 |
| The parties to such a treaty are released from any obligation further to perform the treaty. | 条约缔约方继续履行条约之义务解除。 |
| Conclusion 11 Separability of treaty provisions conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论11 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的条约规定的可分离性 |
| 1. A treaty which, at the time of its conclusion, conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is void in whole, and no separation of the provisions of the treaty is permitted. | 1. 条约如在缔结时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触则整体无效，条约任何规定均不可分离。 |
| 2. A treaty which becomes void because of the emergence of a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) terminates in whole, unless: | 2. 因出现新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)而无效的条约整体终止，除非： |
| (a) the provisions that are in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) are separable from the remainder of the treaty with regard to their application; | (a) 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的规定就其适用而言，可与条约的其余部分分离； |
| (b) it appears from the treaty or is otherwise established that acceptance of the said provisions was not an essential basis of the consent of any party to be bound by the treaty as a whole; | (b) 条约本身规定或通过其他方式确定，接受有关规定并非任何缔约方同意受整个条约约束之必要基础； |
| and | 并且 |
| (c) continued performance of the remainder of the treaty would not be unjust. | (c) 该条约其余部分继续实施不致有失公正。 |
| Conclusion 12 Consequences of the invalidity and termination of treaties conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论12 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的条约无效和终止的后果 |
| 1. Parties to a treaty which is void as a result of being in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) at the time of the treaty’s conclusion have a legal obligation to: | 1. 因在缔结时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触而无效的条约的缔约方有以下法律义务： |
| (a) eliminate as far as possible the consequences of any act performed in reliance on any provision of the treaty which conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens); | (a) 尽量消除依据与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的条约之任何规定所实施的任何行为之后果； |
| and | 以及 |
| (b) bring their mutual relations into conformity with the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (b) 使彼此关系符合一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| 2. The termination of a treaty on account of the emergence of a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) does not affect any right, obligation or legal situation created through the execution of the treaty prior to the termination of the treaty, provided that those rights, obligations or situations may thereafter be maintained only to the extent that their maintenance is not in itself in conflict with the new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 2. 一项条约因出现新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)而终止，不影响在该条约终止前因实施该条约而产生的任何权利、义务或法律情势，条件是此后这些权利、义务或情势的保持仅以与新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)不相抵触为限。 |
| Conclusion 13 Absence of effect of reservations to treaties on peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论13 对条约的保留对一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)不具效果 |
| 1. A reservation to a treaty provision that reflects a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) does not affect the binding nature of that norm, which shall continue to apply as such. | 1. 对反映一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的条约规定的保留不影响该强制性规范的约束性，该规范应继续作为强制性规范适用。 |
| 2. A reservation cannot exclude or modify the legal effect of a treaty in a manner contrary to a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 2. 保留不得以违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的方式排除或更改条约的法律效力。 |
| Conclusion 14 Rules of customary international law conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论14 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的习惯国际法规则 |
| 1. A rule of customary international law does not come into existence if it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 1. 习惯国际法规则如与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触，则不会形成。 |
| This is without prejudice to the possible modification of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. | 这不妨碍一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范加以变更的可能性。 |
| 2. A rule of customary international law not of a peremptory character ceases to exist if and to the extent that it conflicts with a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 2. 不具有强制性的习惯国际法规则如与新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触，则在抵触范围内停止存在。 |
| 3. The persistent objector rule does not apply to peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 3. 一贯反对者规则不适用于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| Conclusion 15 Obligations created by unilateral acts of States conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论15 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的国家单方面行为所创设的义务 |
| 1. A unilateral act of a State manifesting the intention to be bound by an obligation under international law that would be in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) does not create such an obligation. | 1. 表明有意接受与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的国际法义务约束的国家单方面行为，不创设此种义务。 |
| 2. An obligation under international law created by a unilateral act of a State ceases to exist if and to the extent that it conflicts with a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 2. 国家单方面行为所创设的国际法义务如与新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触，则在抵触范围内停止存在。 |
| Conclusion 16 Obligations created by resolutions, decisions or other acts of international organizations conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论16 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的国际组织决议、决定或其他行为所创设的义务 |
| A resolution, decision or other act of an international organization that would otherwise have binding effect does not create obligations under international law if and to the extent that they conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 国际组织本应具有约束力的决议、决定或其他行为如与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触，则在抵触范围内不创设国际法义务。 |
| Conclusion 17 Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) as obligations owed to the international community as a whole (obligations erga omnes) | 结论17 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)作为对整个国际社会承担的义务(普遍义务) |
| 1. Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) give rise to obligations owed to the international community as a whole (obligations erga omnes), in which all States have a legal interest. | 1. 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)产生对整个国际社会承担的义务(普遍义务)，关乎所有国家的合法利益。 |
| 2. Any State is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State for a breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), in accordance with the rules on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 2. 根据关于国家对国际不法行为的责任的规则，任何国家均有权援引另一国对违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的责任。 |
| Conclusion 18 Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and circumstances precluding wrongfulness | 结论18 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)和解除不法性的情况 |
| No circumstance precluding wrongfulness under the rules on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts may be invoked with regard to any act of a State that is not in conformity with an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 对于违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生的义务的任何国家行为，不得援引关于国家对国际不法行为的责任的规则所规定的任何解除不法性的情况。 |
| Conclusion 19 Particular consequences of serious breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论19 严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的特定后果 |
| 1. States shall cooperate to bring to an end through lawful means any serious breach by a State of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 1. 各国应进行合作，通过合法手段制止一国严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生的义务的任何行为。 |
| 2. No State shall recognize as lawful a situation created by a serious breach by a State of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), nor render aid or assistance in maintaining that situation. | 2. 任何国家均不得承认因一国严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生的义务而造成的状况为合法，也不得为维持这种状况提供援助或协助。 |
| 3. A breach of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is serious if it involves a gross or systematic failure by the responsible State to fulfil that obligation. | 3. 违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生的义务如涉及责任国严重或系统性地不履行该义务，则为严重违反。 |
| 4. This draft conclusion is without prejudice to the other consequences that a serious breach by a State of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) may entail under international law. | 4. 本条结论草案不妨碍一国严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生的义务可能依国际法引起的其他后果。 |
| Conclusion 20 Interpretation and application consistent with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论20 解释和适用与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相一致 |
| Where it appears that there may be a conflict between a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) and another rule of international law, the latter is, as far as possible, to be interpreted and applied so as to be consistent with the former. | 在一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)似与另一国际法规则抵触的情况下，后者的解释和适用应尽可能与前者相一致。 |
| Conclusion 21 Procedural requirements | 结论21 程序性要求 |
| 1. A State which invokes a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) as a ground for the invalidity or termination of a rule of international law is to notify other States concerned of its claim. | 1. 一国如援引一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)作为一项国际法规则无效或终止之理由，应将其主张通知其他有关国家。 |
| The notification is to be in writing and is to indicate the measure proposed to be taken with respect to the rule of international law in question. | 通知应以书面形式发出，并说明拟就有关国际法规则采取的措施。 |
| 2. If none of the other States concerned raises an objection within a period which, except in cases of special urgency, shall not be less than three months, the invoking State may carry out the measure which it has proposed. | 2. 如其他有关国家在除特别紧急情况外不短于三个月的期间内无一表示反对，则援引国可采取其所提议的措施。 |
| 3. If any State concerned raises an objection, then the States concerned are to seek a solution through the means indicated in Article 33 of the Charter of the United Nations. | 3. 如任何有关国家表示反对，则有关国家应通过《联合国宪章》第三十三条所述方法寻求解决。 |
| 4. If no solution is reached within a period of twelve months, and the objecting State or States concerned offer to submit the matter to the International Court of Justice, the invoking State may not carry out the measure which it has proposed until the dispute is resolved. | 4. 如在十二个月内未能达成解决办法，而表示反对的一个或多个有关国家提出将该事项提交国际法院，则在争端解决之前，援引国不得采取其所提议的措施。 |
| 5. This draft conclusion is without prejudice to the procedural requirements set forth in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, the relevant rules concerning the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice, or other applicable dispute settlement provisions agreed by the States concerned. | 5. 本条结论草案不妨碍《维也纳条约法公约》、关于国际法院管辖权的有关规则或有关国家商定的其他适用的争端解决规定所载的程序性要求。 |
| Part Four General provisions | 第四部分 一般规定 |
| Conclusion 22 Without prejudice to consequences that specific peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) may otherwise entail | 结论22 不妨碍特定的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)可能引起的其他后果 |
| The present draft conclusions are without prejudice to consequences that specific peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) may otherwise entail under international law. | 本结论草案不妨碍特定的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)可能依国际法引起的其他后果。 |
| Conclusion 23 Non-exhaustive list | 结论23 非详尽无遗的清单 |
| Without prejudice to the existence or subsequent emergence of other peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), a non-exhaustive list of norms that the International Law Commission has previously referred to as having that status is to be found in the annex to the present draft conclusions. | 在不妨碍其他一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的存在或嗣后出现的情况下，本结论草案附件载有国际法委员会以前提到的具有这种地位的规范的非详尽无遗清单。 |
| Annex | 附件 |
| (a) The prohibition of aggression; | (a) 禁止侵略； |
| (b) The prohibition of genocide; | (b) 禁止灭绝种族； |
| (c) The prohibition of crimes against humanity; | (c) 禁止危害人类罪； |
| (d) The basic rules of international humanitarian law; | (d) 国际人道法的基本规则； |
| (e) The prohibition of racial discrimination and apartheid; | (e) 禁止种族歧视和种族隔离； |
| (f) The prohibition of slavery; | (f) 禁止奴役； |
| (g) The prohibition of torture; | (g) 禁止酷刑； |
| (h) The right of self-determination. | (h) 自决权。 |
| 2. Text of the draft conclusions on peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and commentaries thereto | 2. 关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的结论草案案文及其评注 |
| 57. The text of the draft conclusions on peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) adopted by the Commission, on first reading, together with commentaries thereto, is reproduced below. | 57. 委员会一读通过的关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的结论草案案文及其评注载录如下。 |
| Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法) |
| Part One Introduction | 第一部分 导言 |
| Conclusion 1 Scope | 结论1 范围 |
| The present draft conclusions concern the identification and legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 本结论草案涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的识别和法律后果。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) As is always the case with the Commission’s outputs, the draft conclusions are to be read together with the commentaries. | (1) 与委员会以往工作成果一样，本结论草案应结合评注来解读。 |
| (2) These draft conclusions concern peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), which have increasingly been referred to by international and regional courts, national courts, States and other actors. | (2) 本结论草案涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，这些规范已越来越多地被国际和区域性法院、国家法院、各国和其他行为体提及。 |
| These draft conclusions are aimed at providing guidance to all those who may be called upon to determine the existence of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and their legal consequences. | 本结论草案旨在为所有可能需要确定一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的存在及其法律后果的人提供指导。 |
| Given the importance and potentially far-reaching implications of peremptory norms, it is essential that the identification of such norms and their legal consequences be done systematically and in accordance with a generally accepted methodology. | 鉴于强制性规范的重要性和可能具有的深远影响，必须根据一个普遍接受的方法，系统地识别这些规范及其法律后果。 |
| (3) Draft conclusion 1 is introductory in nature and sets out the scope of the present draft conclusions. | (3) 结论草案1具有导言性，说明了本结论草案的范围。 |
| It provides in simple terms that the present draft conclusions concern the identification and legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 它简单地规定，本结论草案涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的识别和法律后果。 |
| The draft conclusions, dealing with identification and legal consequences, are primarily concerned with methodology. They do not attempt to address the content of individual peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 本结论草案处理的是识别和法律后果，主要涉及方法，而不是要讨论一般国际法个别强制性规范(强行法)的内容。 |
| It should also be noted that the commentaries will refer to different materials to illustrate methodological approaches in practice. | 还应指出的是，评注将援引不同材料来说明实践中采用的方法。 |
| The materials referred to, as examples of practice, including views of States, serve to illustrate the methodology for the identification and consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). They do not imply the agreement with, or endorsement of, the views expressed therein by the Commission. | 作为实例提及的材料，包括各国的意见，目的在于说明一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的识别方法及其后果，并不表明委员会同意或认可其中表达的看法。 |
| (4) The draft conclusions are concerned primarily with the method for establishing whether a norm of general international law has the added quality of having a peremptory character (that is, being accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law (jus cogens) having the same character). | (4) 本结论草案主要涉及识别一般国际法的一项规范是否具有强制性这一附加特征的方法(即被国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认为不容克减的规范，只能由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范(强行法)加以变更)。 |
| The draft conclusions are thus not concerned with the determination of the content of the peremptory norms themselves. | 因此，本结论草案不涉及确定强制性规范本身的内容。 |
| The process of identifying whether a norm of international law is peremptory or not requires the application of the criteria developed in these draft conclusions. | 识别一项国际法规范是否是强制性规范的进程，需要适用本结论草案中制定的标准。 |
| (5) In addition to the identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), the draft conclusions also concern the legal consequences of such norms. | (5) 除了识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)外，本结论草案还涉及这些规范的法律后果。 |
| The term “legal consequences” is used because it is broad. | 使用“法律后果”一词是因为它含义广泛。 |
| While there may be non-legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), it is only the legal consequences that are the subject of the present draft conclusions. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)虽然可能有非法律后果，但只有法律后果才是本结论草案的主题。 |
| Moreover, individual peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) may have specific consequences that are distinct from the general consequences flowing from all peremptory norms. | 此外，个别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)可能会有不同于所有强制性规范一般后果的具体后果。 |
| The present draft conclusions, however, are not concerned with such specific consequences, nor do they seek to determine whether individual peremptory norms have specific consequences. | 不过，本结论草案不涉及这种具体后果，也不试图确定个别强制性规范是否有具体后果。 |
| The draft conclusions only address general legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law. | 本结论草案仅涉及一般国际法强制性规范的一般法律后果。 |
| (6) The terms “jus cogens”, “peremptory norms” and “peremptory norms of general international law” are sometimes used interchangeably in State practice, international jurisprudence and scholarly writings. | (6) 在国家实践、国际判例和学术著作中，“强行法”、“强制性规范”和“一般国际法强制性规范”等词语有时交替使用。 |
| The Commission settled on the phrase “peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens)” because it is clearer and is the phrase used in the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (“1969 Vienna Convention”). | 委员会决定采用“一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)”一语，因为它更清楚，而且也是1969年《维也纳条约法公约》(“1969年《维也纳公约》”)中的用语。 |
| (7) The phrase “peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens)” also serves to indicate that the topic is concerned only with norms of general international law. | (7) “一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)”一语还有助于表明，本专题仅涉及一般国际法规范。 |
| Jus cogens norms in domestic legal systems, for example, do not form part of the topic. | 例如，国内法律体系中的强行法规范不构成本专题的一部分。 |
| Similarly, norms of a purely bilateral or regional character are also excluded from the scope of the topic. | 同样，纯双边性质和区域性质的规范也被排除在本专题范围之外。 |
| (8) The word “norm” is sometimes understood to have a broader meaning than other related words such as “rules” and “principles” and to encompass both. | (8) “规范”一词有时被认为具有比“规则”和“原则”等其他相关词语更加广泛的含义，涵盖了后二者的意思。 |
| It is, however, to be noted that in some cases, the words “rules”, “principles” and “norms” can be used interchangeably. | 但是，应当指出，在有些情况下，“规则”、“原则”和“规范”等词语可以交替使用。 |
| The Commission, in its 1966 draft articles on the law of treaties, used the word “norm” in draft article 50 which became article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention. However, in the commentaries, the Commission used the word “rules”. | 委员会在1966年《条约法条款草案》中，在后来成为1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条的第50条草案中使用了“规范”一词，在评注中则用了“规则”一词。 |
| To be consistent with that Convention, which uses the word “norm” in both its articles 53 and 64, the word “norm” is retained. | 为与在第五十三和第六十四条中使用“规范”一词的该公约相一致，保留了“规范”一词。 |
| Conclusion 2 Definition of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论2 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的定义 |
| A peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law (jus cogens) having the same character. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)是指被国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认为不容克减的规范，此类规范只能由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范加以变更。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 2 provides a definition of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (1) 结论草案2给出了一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的定义。 |
| It is based upon article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention with modifications to fit the context of the draft conclusions. | 它以1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条为基础，为适合本结论草案的背景作了修改。 |
| First, only the second sentence of article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention is reproduced. | 首先，只照搬了1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条第二句。 |
| The first sentence, which concerns the invalidity of treaties, does not form part of the definition. It is rather a legal consequence of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), which is addressed in draft conclusion 10. | 第一句涉及条约的无效，不是定义的一部分，而是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的法律后果，法律后果问题在结论草案10中述及。 |
| Second, the phrase “[f]or the purposes of the present Convention” is omitted from the definition. | 其次，定义中省略了“就适用本公约而言”一语。 |
| As will be demonstrated below, the definition in article 53, though initially used for the purposes of the 1969 Vienna Convention, has come to be accepted as a general definition which applies beyond the law of treaties. | 如下文所示，第五十三条中的定义虽然最初是为了适用1969年《维也纳公约》，但已被接受为一般性定义，其适用范围超出了条约法。 |
| Finally, in keeping with the general approach in this topic, the Commission has decided to insert the phrase “jus cogens” in parentheses after “peremptory norm of general international law”. | 最后，为与本专题的做法保持一致，委员会决定在“一般国际法强制性规范”之后添加“强行法”一词，并放在括号内。 |
| (2) This formulation was chosen because it is the most widely accepted definition in the practice of States and in the decisions of international courts and tribunals. | (2) 之所以选择这一措辞，是因为它是国家实践及国际性法院和法庭裁决中最广为接受的定义。 |
| It is also commonly used in scholarly writings. | 学术著作也常用这一定义。 |
| States have generally supported the idea of proceeding on the basis of 1969 Vienna Convention. | 各国普遍支持以1969年《维也纳公约》为基础的想法。 |
| Decisions of national courts have generally also referred to article 53 when defining peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 各国法院的裁决在界定一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)时，通常也提到第五十三条。 |
| Similarly, international courts and tribunals have used article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention as a basis when addressing peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 同样，国际性法院和法庭也以1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条作为处理一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的基础。 |
| Article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention is also accepted as the general definition of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) in scholarly writings. | 在学术著作中，1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条也被接受为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的一般性定义。 |
| While the formulation in article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention is for “the purposes of the Convention”, it also applies in other contexts including in relation to State responsibility. | 虽然1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条的措辞是为了“适用本公约”，但它也适用于其他情况，包括与国家责任有关的情况。 |
| The Commission has, when addressing peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) in the context of other topics, also used the definition in article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 委员会在其他专题中述及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)时，也使用了1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条中的定义。 |
| It is therefore appropriate for these draft conclusions to rely on article 53 for the definition of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 因此，本结论草案依据第五十三条来定义一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)是适当的。 |
| (3) The definition of peremptory norms in article 53 contains two main elements. | (3) 第五十三条中强制性规范的定义包含两个主要要素。 |
| First, the norm in question must be a norm of general international law. | 第一，有关规范必须是一般国际法规范。 |
| Second, it must be accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as one from which no derogation is permitted, and which can only be modified by a norm having the same character. | 第二，它必须被国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认为不容克减的规范，只能由具有相同性质的规范加以变更。 |
| These elements constitute the criteria for the identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and are elaborated upon further in draft conclusions 4 to 9. | 这两个要素构成了识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的标准，在结论草案4至9中有进一步的阐述。 |
| Conclusion 3 General nature of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论3 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的一般性质 |
| Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) reflect and protect fundamental values of the international community, are hierarchically superior to other rules of international law and are universally applicable. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)反映并保护国际社会的基本价值观，其等级高于国际法其他规则且普遍适用。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 3 describes the general nature of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (1) 结论草案3说明了一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的一般性质。 |
| The general nature is described in terms of essential characteristics associated with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 该一般性质是通过一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的基本特点来描述的。 |
| The draft conclusion is placed at the end of Part One in order to indicate that it provides a general orientation for the provisions that follow. | 本条结论草案放在第一部分结尾，是为了表明它为后面的规定提供了一个总的方向。 |
| A view was expressed, however, that such “characteristics” have an insufficient basis in international law, unnecessarily conflate the identification and effects of these norms, and risk being viewed as additional criteria for determining whether a specific peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) exists. | 然而，有一种观点认为，这类“特点”在国际法中的依据不足，对这些规范的识别及其效果可能产生不必要的混淆，可能导致它们被视为确定是否存在一项特定的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的额外标准。 |
| (2) The first characteristic referred to in draft conclusion 3 is that peremptory norms of general international law “reflect and protect fundamental values of the international community”. | (2) 结论草案3提到的第一个特点是，一般国际法强制性规范“反映并保护国际社会的基本价值观”。 |
| The Commission chose the words “reflect and protect” to underline the dual function that fundamental values play in relation to peremptory norms of general international law. | 委员会选择使用“反映并保护”一语来强调基本价值观对一般国际法强制性规范的双重作用。 |
| The word “reflect” is meant to indicate that the fundamental value(s) in question provide, in part, a rationale for the peremptory status of the norm of general international law at issue. | “反映”一词是为了表明，相关基本价值观提供了相关一般国际法规范的强制性地位的部分理由。 |
| Further, the word “reflect” seeks to establish the idea that the norm in question gives effect to particular values. | 此外，“反映”一词旨在确立一种观念，即相关规范可以落实特定的价值观。 |
| The word “protect” is meant to convey the effect of the peremptory norm on the value – that a specific peremptory norm serves to protect the value(s) in question. | “保护”一词意在传达强制性规范对价值观产生的效果――特定的强制性规范可以保护相关价值观。 |
| In some ways these are mutually reinforcing concepts. | 在某些方面，这是相辅相成的两个概念。 |
| A value reflected by a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) will be protected by compliance with that norm. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所反映的价值观将通过对该规范的遵守而得到保护。 |
| (3) The characteristic that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) reflect and protect fundamental values of the international community relates to the content of the norm in question. | (3) 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)反映并保护国际社会基本价值观的特点与相关规范的内容有关。 |
| Already in 1951, before the adoption of the 1969 Vienna Convention or the 1966 draft articles on the law of treaties, the International Court of Justice had linked the prohibition of genocide, a prohibition today widely accepted and recognized as a peremptory norm, to fundamental values, noting that the prohibition was inspired by the commitment “to condemn and punish genocide as ‘a crime under international law’ involving a denial of the right of existence of entire human groups, a denial which shocks the conscience of mankind and results in great losses to humanity, and which is contrary to moral law and to the spirit and aims of the United Nations”. | 早在1951年，即通过1969年《维也纳公约》或1966年《条约法条款草案》之前，国际法院就已将如今被广泛接受和承认为强制性规范的禁止种族灭绝与基本价值观联系起来，指出这种禁止源于如下承诺：“谴责和惩治灭绝种族行为，视之为‘国际法上的一种罪行’，因为此等行为否认整个人类的生存权，此种否认震撼人类良知，致使人类蒙受重大损失，与道德法以及联合国的精神和宗旨大相悖谬。 |
| (4) The references in the Court’s Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide to “the conscience of mankind” and “moral law” evoke fundamental values shared by the international community. | ” (4) 国际法院在关于“对《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的保留”的咨询意见中提到的“人类良知”和“道德法”让人想到国际社会共同的基本价值观。 |
| In subsequent decisions, the International Court of Justice has reaffirmed this description of the underlying basis for the prohibition of genocide and, at the same time, affirmed the peremptory status of the prohibition of genocide. | 在随后的裁决中，国际法院重申了这种关于禁止灭绝种族依据的说法，同时申明了禁止灭绝种族的强制性地位。 |
| Moreover, in its 2007 judgment in the case concerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, the Court referred to peremptory norms along with “obligations which protect essential humanitarian values”, thus indicating a relationship between them. | 此外，法院在2007年《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案的判决中，同时提及强制性规范与“保护基本人道主义价值观的义务”，从而指明二者之间存在的联系。 |
| The connection between values and the peremptory character of norms has also been made by other international courts and tribunals. | 其他国际性法院和法庭也提到价值观与规范的强制性之间的联系。 |
| (5) The link between peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and fundamental values has equally been recognized in the decisions of national courts. | (5) 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)与基本价值观之间的联系同样在各国法院的裁决中得到承认。 |
| For example, in Siderman de Blake v. Republic of Argentina, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit quoted with approval the statement that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) are “derived from values taken to be fundamental by the international community”. | 例如，在Siderman de Blake诉阿根廷共和国案中，美国第九巡回上诉法院赞同地引述了如下说法，即一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)“源自国际社会认同的基本价值观”。 |
| The Constitutional Tribunal of Peru referred to the “extraordinary importance of the values underlying” jus cogens obligations. | 秘鲁宪法法庭提到强行法义务“所体现的价值观非常重要”。 |
| Similarly, in the Arancibia Clavel case, the Supreme Court of Argentina held that the purpose of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) was “to protect States from agreements concluded against some values and general interests of the international community of States as a whole”. | 同样，在Arancibia Clavel案中，阿根廷最高法院认为，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的目的是“保护各国不受违反国家组成之国际社会全体的一些价值观和普遍利益而缔结的协定的约束”。 |
| (6) The relationship between peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and values is also accepted in scholarly writings. | (6) 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)与价值观之间的关系在学术著作中也得到接受。 |
| Kolb states that the idea that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) are somehow connected with fundamental values “is the absolutely predominant theory”. | Kolb指出，关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)与基本价值观有某种联系的观点是“绝对占主要地位的理论”。 |
| Hannikainen, describing the role of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), observes that “a legal community may find it necessary to establish peremptory norms for the protection of such overriding interests and values of the community itself”. | Hannikainen在述及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的作用时指出，“法律界可能认为有必要确立强制性规范来保护其本身的这些最高利益和价值观”。 |
| Similarly, Pellet sees peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) as paving a way towards a more “moral value oriented public order”, while Tomuschat describes them as “the class of norms that protect the fundamental values of the international community”. | 同样，Pellet认为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)为建立一个更加“以道德价值观为导向的公共秩序”铺平了道路， Tomuschat则将这些规范称为“保护国际社会基本价值观的一类规范”。 |
| (7) It will be noted from the discussion above that courts and scholarly writers have employed different terms to signify the relevance of values. | (7) 从上面的讨论可以看出，法院和学术著作者采用了不同说法来表明价值观的相关性。 |
| For example, the phrases “fundamental values” and “interests”, or variations thereof, have been employed interchangeably. | 例如，“基本价值观” 和“利益” 或其不同表述形式被交替使用。 |
| These different choices of words, however, are not mutually exclusive and they indicate the important normative and moral background of the norm in question. | 但这些不同措词并不是相互排斥的，它们表明了有关规范的重要规范和道德背景。 |
| (8) As a second characteristic, draft conclusion 3 states that peremptory norms of general international law are hierarchically superior to other norms of international law. | (8) 作为第二个特点，结论草案3指出，一般国际法强制性规范的等级高于国际法其他规范。 |
| The fact that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) are hierarchically superior to other norms of international law is both a characteristic and a consequence of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)在等级上高于其他国际法规范，这既是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的特点，也是其后果。 |
| It is a consequence in that the identification of a norm as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) has the effect that it will be superior to other norms. | 说它是一种后果是因为，识别一项规范为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，即具有该规范高于其他规范的后果。 |
| It is, however, also a characteristic since hierarchical superiority describes the nature of the peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 但它也是一个特点，因为等级优先说明了一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的性质。 |
| (9) International courts and tribunals have often referred to the hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (9) 国际性法院和法庭经常提到一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的优先等级。 |
| The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, for example, held that a feature of the prohibition of torture “relates to the hierarchy of rules in the international normative order” and that the prohibition “has evolved into a peremptory norm or jus cogens, that is, a norm that enjoys a higher rank in the international hierarchy than treaty law and even ‘ordinary’ customary rules”. | 例如，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭认为，禁止酷刑的一个特征“涉及国际规范秩序中的规则等级”，这种禁止“已演变成一项强制性规范或强行法，即在国际等级体系中享有比条约法甚至是‘普通’习惯规则更高等级的规范”。 |
| The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has similarly accepted the hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 美洲人权法院同样接受一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的优先等级。 |
| In Kadi v. Council and Commission, the Court of First Instance of the European Communities described peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) as a “body of higher rules of public international law”. | 在Kadi诉理事会和委员会案中，欧洲共同体初审法院将一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)描述为“一套地位较高的国际公法规则”。 |
| The European Court of Human Rights, in Al-Adsani v. the United Kingdom, has similarly described a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) as “a norm that enjoys a higher rank in the international hierarchy than treaty law and even ‘ordinary’ customary rules”. | 欧洲人权法院在Al-Adsan诉联合王国案中，也同样将一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)描述为“在国际等级体系中享有比条约法甚至是‘普通’习惯规则更高等级的规范”。 |
| (10) The recognition of the hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) can also be seen in the practice of States. | (10) 在国家实践中也可看到对一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)优先等级的承认。 |
| For example, the High Court of Zimbabwe, in Mann v. Republic of Equatorial Guinea, described peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) as those norms “endowed with primacy in the hierarchy of rules that constitute the international normative order”. | 例如，津巴布韦高等法院在Mann诉赤道几内亚共和国案中，将一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)描述为“在构成国际规范秩序的规则等级中具有首要地位”的规范。 |
| Courts in the United States have similarly recognized the hierarchical superiority of norms of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 美国的法院也同样确认了一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的优先等级。 |
| In Siderman de Blake v. Republic of Argentina, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) were those norms “deserving of the highest status in international law”. | 在Siderman de Blake诉阿根廷共和国案中，第九巡回上诉法院指出，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)是“应在国际法中享有最高地位”的规范。 |
| Various terms denoting hierarchical superiority have been used by different national courts to describe peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 不同国家法院使用了各种表示等级优先的用语来描述一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| They have been held to have “the highest hierarchical position amongst all other customary norms and principles”, to be “not only above treaty law, but over all other sources of law”, and to be norms which “prevail over both customary international law and treaties”. | 这些规范被认为是“在所有其他习惯规范和原则中占据最高等级位置”的规范， “不仅高于条约法，还高于一切其他法律渊源”， 是“高于习惯国际法和条约”的规范。 |
| States have also, in their statements, referred to the hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 各国在其声明中也提到一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的优先等级。 |
| (11) The hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) was recognized in the conclusions of the work of the Commission’s Study Group on the fragmentation of international law. | (11) 委员会国际法不成体系问题研究组的工作结论承认一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)在等级上优先。 |
| This characteristic is also generally recognized in the writings of scholars. | 这一特点在学术著作中也得到普遍承认。 |
| (12) Finally, with respect to the third characteristic, draft conclusion 3 provides that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) are universally applicable. | (12) 最后，关于第三个特点，结论草案3规定，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)具有普遍适用性。 |
| The universal applicability of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) means that they are binding on all subjects of international law that they address. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的普遍适用性意味着这些规范对其处理的所有国际法主体具有约束力。 |
| The idea that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) are universally applicable, like that of their hierarchical superiority, flows from non-derogability. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)普遍适用的概念，同其等级优先一样，源于不容克减。 |
| The fact that a norm is non-derogable, by extension, means that it is applicable to all since States cannot derogate from it by creating their own special rules that conflict with it. | 一项规范不容克减，意味着它适用于所有国家，因为各国不能通过制定与之相冲突的特殊规则来对其进行克减。 |
| The universal application of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) is both a characteristic and a consequence of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的普遍适用性，既是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)是的特点，也是其后果。 |
| (13) In its Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, the International Court of Justice referred to “the universal character of the condemnation of genocide”, which it considered to be a consequence of the fact that genocide “shocks the conscience of mankind and results in great losses to humanity, and [which] is contrary to moral law”. | (13) 国际法院在关于“对《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的保留”的咨询意见中提到“灭绝种族行为普遍受到谴责”，认为这是因为灭绝种族“震撼人类良知，致使人类蒙受重大损失，与道德法大相悖谬”。 |
| The universal character of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) was affirmed by the judgments of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭在各种情况下的判决也确认了一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的普遍性。 |
| The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has described peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) as being “applicable to all States” and as norms that “bind all States”. | 美洲人权法院称一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)“适用于所有国家”并“对所有国家具有约束力”。 |
| Similarly, in Michael Domingues v. United States, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has determined that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) “bind the international community as a whole, irrespective of protest, recognition or acquiescence”. | 同样，在Michael Domingues诉美国案中，美洲人权委员会认定，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)“对整个国际社会具有约束力，不管有无抗议、确认或默许”。 |
| (14) The universal character of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) is further reflected in decisions of national courts. | (14) 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的普遍性进一步反映在各国法院的裁决中。 |
| In Tel-Oren et al. v. Libyan Arab Republic, et al., the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia referred to peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) as “universal and obligatory norms”. | 在Tel-Oren等人诉阿拉伯利比亚共和国等一案中，美国哥伦比亚特区上诉法院将一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)称为“普遍的强制性规范”。 |
| In Youssef Nada v. State Secretariat for Economic Affairs, the Swiss Federal Supreme Court described peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) as those norms that were “binding on all subjects of international law”. | 在Youssef Nada诉国家经济事务秘书处案中，瑞士联邦最高法院将一般国际法强制性规范(强制法)描述为“对所有国际法主体都具有约束力”的规范。 |
| The view that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) have a universal character is also reflected in the writings of scholars. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)具有普遍性的观念还反映在学术著作中。 |
| (15) The characteristic of universal applicability of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) itself has two implications. | (15) 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)普遍适用的特点本身有两个含义。 |
| First, the persistent objector rule or doctrine is not applicable to peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 第一，一贯反对者规则或理论不适用于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| This aspect is considered further in draft conclusion 14. | 这个方面在结论草案14中进一步讨论。 |
| As described in paragraph (7) of the commentary to draft conclusion 1, a second implication of the universal application of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) is that such norms do not apply on a regional or bilateral basis. | 如结论草案1的评注第(7)段所述，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)普遍适用的第二个含义是这些规范不适用于区域或双边层面。 |
| (16) The characteristics contained in draft conclusion 3 are themselves not criteria for the identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (16) 结论草案3所载的特点本身并不是识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的标准。 |
| The criteria for the identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) are contained in Part Two of the draft conclusions. | 识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的标准载于结论草案第二部分。 |
| Though themselves not criteria, the existence of the characteristics contained in draft conclusion 3 may provide an indication of the peremptory status of a particular norm of general international law. | 结论草案3所载的特点存在本身虽然不是标准，但可以表明特定的一般国际法规范的强制性地位。 |
| In other words, evidence that a norm reflects and protects fundamental values of the international community of States as a whole, is hierarchically superior to other norms of international law and is universally applicable, may serve to support or confirm the peremptory status of a norm. | 换言之，一项规范反映和保护国家组成之国际社会全体的基本价值观，在等级上高于国际法其他规范且普遍适用的证据，可能有助于支持或确认一项规范的强制性地位。 |
| A view was expressed in the Commission that the difference between “criteria” and “characteristics” is obscure, as is the proposition that such “characteristics” provide supplementary evidence. | 委员会中有一种观点认为，“标准”和“特点”之间的区别是模糊的，一如关于这些“特点”提供了补充证据的主张。 |
| Part Two Identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 第二部分 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的识别 |
| Conclusion 4 Criteria for the identification of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论4 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的识别标准 |
| To identify a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), it is necessary to establish that the norm in question meets the following criteria: | 要识别一项规范为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，必须确定该规范符合以下标准： |
| (a) it is a norm of general international law; | (a) 它是一般国际法规范； |
| and | 并且 |
| (b) it is accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. | (b) 被国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认为不容克减的规范，此类规范只能由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范加以变更。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 4 sets out the criteria for the identification of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (1) 结论草案4规定了识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的标准。 |
| The criteria are drawn from the definition of peremptory norms contained in article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention, which was reproduced in draft conclusion 2. | 这些标准参照了1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条所载、结论草案2照搬的强制性规范定义。 |
| Such criteria must be shown to be present in order to establish that a norm has a peremptory character. | 要确定一项规范具有强制性，必须证明存在这些标准。 |
| (2) The chapeau of the draft conclusion states “[t]o identify a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), it is necessary to establish that the norm in question meets the following criteria”. | (2) 本条结论草案的起首部分指出，“要识别一项规范为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，必须确定该规范符合以下标准”。 |
| The phrase “it is necessary to establish” indicates that the criteria must be shown to be present and that they should not be assumed to exist. | “必须确定”一语表示，必须证明这些标准存在，而不应假定它们存在。 |
| It is thus not sufficient to point to the importance or the role of a norm in order to show the peremptory character of that norm. Rather, “it is necessary to establish” the existence of the criteria enumerated in the draft conclusion. | 因此，要证明一项规范的强制性，仅仅指出它的重要性或作用是不够的，而是“必须确定”存在本条结论草案中所列举的标准。 |
| (3) On the basis of the definition contained in draft conclusion 2, draft conclusion 4 sets forth two criteria. | (3) 根据结论草案2所载的定义，结论草案4列出了两个标准。 |
| First, the norm in question must be a norm of general international law. | 第一，有关规范必须是一般国际法规范。 |
| This criterion is derived from the phrase “norm of general international law” in the definition of peremptory norms (jus cogens) and is the subject of draft conclusion 5. | 这项标准源于强制性规范(强行法)定义中的“一般国际法规范”一语，也是结论草案5的主题。 |
| Second, the norm must be accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted, and which can be modified only by a norm having the same character. | 第二，该规范必须被国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认为不容克减的规范，并且只能由具有相同性质的规范加以变更。 |
| It bears pointing out that this second criterion, though composed of various elements, is a single composite criterion. | 值得指出的是，第二个标准虽然由各种要素组成，但却是单一的综合标准。 |
| This criterion is the subject of draft conclusions 6 to 9. | 这一标准是结论草案6至9的主题。 |
| The two criteria are cumulative: they are both necessary conditions for the establishment of the peremptory character of a norm of general international law. | 这两个标准是累积的：它们都是确定一般国际法规范强制性的必要条件。 |
| (4) The language of article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention is complex and has given rise to different interpretations. | (4) 1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条的措辞很复杂，产生了不同的解释。 |
| The phrase “and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character” could, for example, be viewed as a separate criterion. | 例如，可将“此类规范只能由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范加以变更”视为一项单独的标准。 |
| Yet, the essence of the second criterion is the acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole, not just that the norm is one from which no derogation is permitted, but also that it can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. | 然而，第二个标准的实质是国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认：该规范不仅是不容克减的规范，而且只能由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范加以变更。 |
| Hence, the non-derogation and modification elements are not themselves criteria but rather, form an integral part of the “acceptance and recognition” criterion. | 因此，不容克减和变更这两个要素本身不是标准，而是“接受和承认”标准的组成部分。 |
| It is in this sense that the second criterion, though composed of several elements, constitutes a single criterion. | 从这个意义上说，第二个标准虽然由几个要素组成，却是一个单一的标准。 |
| (5) Alternatively, it has been suggested that the phrase “accepted and recognized” qualifies “general international law” rather than the non-derogation and modification clauses. | (5) 或者，有人认为，“被接受和承认”修饰的是“一般国际法”，而不是不容克减和变更。 |
| Seen from this perspective, article 53 would have three criteria for proving that a norm has peremptory character: (a) the norm must be a norm of general international law that is accepted and recognized (as a norm of general international law) by the international community of States as a whole; | 从这个角度看，第五十三条有三个标准来证明一项规范具有强制性：(a) 该规范必须是被国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认(为一般国际法规范)的一般国际法规范； |
| (b) it must be a norm from which no derogation is permitted; | (b) 它必须是不容克减的规范； |
| and (c) it must be a norm that can only be modified by a subsequent peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (c) 它必须是只能由嗣后一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)变更的规范。 |
| Such an interpretation, however, raises at least two problems. | 但这种解释至少有两个问题。 |
| First, it would render the first criterion tautologous, since “general international law” ought to be generally accepted and/or recognized by the international community to begin with. | 首先，它会使第一个标准同义反复，因为“一般国际法”理应就是国际社会普遍接受和/或承认的法律。 |
| Second, in that form the second and third criteria would not be criteria but rather a consequence of peremptoriness and a description of how peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) can be modified, respectively. | 其次，以这种形式，第二和第三项标准都不是标准，而分别是强行法的后果和对如何变更一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的描述。 |
| (6) Based on the foregoing, the two cumulative criteria in draft conclusion 4 imply a two-step approach to the identification of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (6) 综上所述，结论草案4中的两个累积标准意味着采用两步法来识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| First, evidence that the norm in question is a norm of general international law is required. | 首先，需要有证据证明有关规范是一般国际法规范。 |
| Second, the norm must be shown to be accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as having a peremptory character. | 第二，必须表明该规范是国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认为具有强制性的规范。 |
| This two-step approach was aptly described by the Commission in the commentaries to the draft articles on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts: | 委员会在《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》评注中恰当地描述了这种两步法： |
| The criteria for identifying peremptory norms of general international law are stringent. | 识别一般国际法强制性规范的标准是严格的。 |
| Article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention requires not merely that the norm in question meet all the criteria for recognition as a norm of general international law, binding as such, but further that it should be recognized as having peremptory character by the international community of States as a whole. | 1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条不仅要求有关规范符合被承认为一般国际法规范的所有标准，具有一般国际法规范的约束力，还进一步要求它被国家组成之国际社会全体承认具有强制性。 |
| Conclusion 5 Bases for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论5 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的基础 |
| 1. Customary international law is the most common basis for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 1. 习惯国际法是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的最常见的基础。 |
| 2. Treaty provisions and general principles of law may also serve as bases for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 2. 条约规定和一般法律原则也可作为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的基础。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 5 concerns the bases of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (1) 结论草案5涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的基础。 |
| It addresses the first criterion specified in draft conclusion 4 to identify peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), namely that the norm in question must be a norm of “general international law”. | 它述及结论草案4规定的识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的第一个标准，即有关规范必须是“一般国际法”规范。 |
| The draft conclusion is composed of two parts. | 本条结论草案由两部分组成。 |
| The first paragraph deals with customary international law as the basis for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), while the second paragraph addresses treaty provisions and general principles of law as possible bases of such norms. | 第一段述及作为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)基础的习惯国际法，第2段则述及可能作为此类规范基础的条约规定和一般法律原则。 |
| (2) The Study Group on fragmentation of international law established by the Commission observed that “there is no accepted definition of ‘general international law’”. | (2) 委员会设立的国际法不成体系问题研究组指出，“‘一般国际法’没有公认的定义”。 |
| The meaning of general international law will always be context-specific. | 一般国际法的含义将始终根据具体情况而定。 |
| In some contexts, “general international law” could be construed in contradistinction to lex specialis. | 在某些情况下，“一般国际法”可解释为与特别法相对。 |
| In the context of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), however, the term “general international law” is not a reference to lex generalis or law other than lex specialis. | 但在一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)范围内，“一般国际法”并不是指一般法，或特别法以外的法律。 |
| Rather, the word “general” in “norms of general international law”, in the context of peremptory norms, refers to the scope of applicability of the norm in question. | 实际上，在强制性规范范围内，“一般国际法规范”中的“一般”一词指的是有关规范的适用范围。 |
| Norms of general international law are thus those norms of international law that, in the words of the International Court of Justice, “must have equal force for all members of the international community”. | 因此，一般国际法规范是――用国际法院的话来说――“必须对国际社会所有成员具有同等效力”的国际法规范。 |
| (3) The words “basis” in the first paragraph and “bases” in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 5 are to be understood flexibly and broadly. | (3) 结论草案5第1段中的“基础”(basis)和第2段中的“基础”(bases)应作灵活和广义的理解。 |
| They are meant to capture the range of ways that various sources of international law may give rise to the emergence of a peremptory norm of general international law. | 它们是为了反映各种国际法渊源可能导致产生一般国际法强制性规范的一系列方式。 |
| (4) The first paragraph of draft conclusion 5 states that customary international law, which refers to a general practice accepted as law (opinio juris), is the most common basis for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (4) 结论草案第1段指出，习惯国际法――指被接受为法律(法律确信)的一般惯例――是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)最常见的基础。 |
| This is because customary international law is the most obvious manifestation of general international law. | 这是因为，习惯国际法是一般国际法最明显的表现形式。 |
| This position is borne out by State practice which confirms that customary international law is the most common basis for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 这一立场在国家实践中得到体现，国家实践证实，习惯国际法是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)最常见的基础。 |
| The Supreme Court of Argentina, for example, recognized that peremptory norms relative to war crimes and crimes against humanity emerged from rules of customary international law already in force. | 例如，阿根廷最高法院确认，与战争罪和危害人类罪有关的强制性规范来自已经生效的习惯国际法规则。 |
| Similarly, the Constitutional Tribunal of Peru stated that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) referred to “customary international norms under the auspices of an opinio juris seu necessitatis”. | 同样，秘鲁宪法法庭也指出，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)是指“依据法律必要确信的习惯国际规范”。 |
| In Bayan Muna v. Alberto Romulo, the Supreme Court of the Philippines defined jus cogens as “the highest hierarchical position among all other customary norms and principles”. | 在Bayan Muna诉Alberto Romulo案中，菲律宾最高法院将强行法界定为“在所有其他习惯规范和原则中占据最高等级位置”。 |
| Similarly, in The Kenya Section of the International Commission of Jurists v. The Attorney-General and Others, the High Court of Kenya determined the “duty to prosecute international crimes” to be both a rule of customary international law and a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 同样，在国际法学家委员会肯尼亚分会诉总检察长等人案中，肯尼亚高等法院认定“起诉国际罪行的责任”既是习惯国际法规则也是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| In Kazemi Estate v. Islamic Republic of Iran, the Supreme Court of Canada described peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) as a “higher form of customary international law”. | 在Kazemi财产托管方诉伊朗伊斯兰共和国案中，加拿大最高法院将一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)描述为“较高形式的习惯国际法”。 |
| In Siderman de Blake v. Republic of Argentina, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit described peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) as “an elite subset of the norms recognized as customary international law”. | 在Siderman de Blake诉阿根廷共和国案中，美国第九巡回上诉法院将一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)描述为“被承认为习惯国际法的规范的上层子集”。 |
| That court also noted that, in contrast to ordinary rules of customary international law, jus cogens “embraces customary laws considered binding on all nations”. | 该法院还指出，“与习惯国际法的普通规则相反，强行法规范“包含对所有国家均有约束力的习惯法”。 |
| In Buell v. Mitchell, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit noted that “[s]ome customary norms of international law reach a ‘higher status’”, namely that of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 在Buell诉Mitchell案中，美国第六巡回上诉法院指出，“有些国际法习惯规范”达到了“更高地位”，即一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的地位。 |
| In determining that the prohibition of the death penalty was not a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), the court made the following observation: | 在确定禁止死刑不是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)时，法院提出以下意见： |
| Moreover, since the abolition of the death penalty is not a customary norm of international law, it cannot have risen to the level that the international community as a whole recognizes it as jus cogens, or a norm from which no derogation is permitted. | 此外，由于废除死刑不是国际法习惯规范，因此它不能上升到被整个国际社会承认为强行法或不容克减的规范的地位。 |
| (5) The jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice equally provides strong evidence of the basis of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) in customary international law. | (5) 国际法院的判例也为习惯国际法中的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)基础提供了有力证据。 |
| In the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite, the Court recognized the prohibition of torture as “part of customary international law” that “has become a peremptory norm (jus cogens)”. | 在与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案中，国际法院承认禁止酷刑是“已成为强制性规范(强行法)”的“习惯国际法的一部分”。 |
| Similarly, the Court’s description of “many [of the] rules of humanitarian law” as constituting “intransgressible principles of international customary law” suggests that peremptory norms – referred to here as “intransgressible principles” – have a customary basis. | 同样，法院将“人道法[的]许多规则”描述为“国际习惯法不可违反的原则”，表明强制性规范―― 即这里所称“不可违反的原则” ――具有习惯法的基础。 |
| (6) Other international courts and tribunals have also accepted customary international law as the basis for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (6) 其他国际性法院和法庭也接受以习惯国际法作为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的基础。 |
| The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, for example, has noted that the prohibition of torture is a “norm of customary international law” and that it “further constitutes a norm of jus cogens”. | 例如，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭指出，禁止酷刑是“习惯国际法规范”，同时“它进一步构成强行法规范”。 |
| In Prosecutor v. Furundžija, that Tribunal described peremptory norms as those that “enjoy a higher rank in the hierarchy of international law than treaty law or even ‘ordinary’ customary rules”. | 在检察官诉Furundžija案中，该法庭将强制性规范描述为“在国际法等级体系中享有比条约法甚至是‘普通’习惯规则更高等级”的规范。 |
| Similarly, in Prosecutor v. Jelisić, the Tribunal stated that “[t]here can be absolutely no doubt” that the prohibition of genocide in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide falls “under customary international law” and is now “on the level of jus cogens”. | 同样，在检察官诉Jelisić案中，该法庭指出，“毫无疑问”，《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》禁止种族灭绝的规定属于“习惯国际法”，现已达到“强行法级别”。 |
| (7) While customary international law is the most common basis for the emergence of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), other sources listed in Article 38, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the International Court of Justice may also form the basis of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) to the extent that they can be regarded as norms of general international law. | (7) 虽然习惯国际法是形成一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的最常见基础，但《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款所列的其他渊源只要可被视为一般国际法规范，也可以构成一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的基础。 |
| The second paragraph of draft conclusion 5 captures this idea by stating that “[t]reaty provisions and general principles of law may also serve as bases for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens)”. | 为体现这一点，结论草案5第2段指出，“条约规定和一般法律原则也可作为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的基础”。 |
| The words “may also” are meant to indicate that it is not impossible for provisions of a treaty and general principles of law to form the basis of peremptory norms of general international law. | “也可”二字是为了表明，条约规定和一般法律原则构成一般国际法强制性规范基础的情况并非不可能。 |
| (8) The phrase “general principles of law” in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 5 refers to general principles of law in the sense of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. | (8) 结论草案5第2段中的“一般法律原则”一语是指《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项意义上的一般法律原则。 |
| It is appropriate to refer to the possibility of general principles of law forming the basis of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 提及一般法律原则有可能构成一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的基础，是适当的。 |
| General principles of law are part of general international law since they have a general scope of application with equal force for all members of the international community. | 一般法律原则是一般国际法的一部分，因为它们有“对国际社会所有成员具有同等效力”的普遍适用范围。 |
| In the context of the interpretation of treaties under article 31, paragraph 3 (c), of the 1969 Vienna Convention, the conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law distinguished between the application of treaty law on the one hand, and of general international law on the other. | 在根据1969年《维也纳公约》第三十一条第三款(c)项解释条约方面，国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论区分了条约法和一般法律的适用。 |
| The latter, according to the Commission, consists of both “customary international law and general principles of law”. | 委员会认为后者包括“习惯国际法和一般法律原则”。 |
| There is, moreover, support in writings for general principles of law as a source of peremptory norms of general international law. | 此外，在学术著作中也能找到对将一般国际法原则作为一般国际法强制性规范来源的支持。 |
| The view was expressed, however, that there was insufficient support from either the position of States or international jurisprudence to support the proposition that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) may be based on general principles of law. | 但有人认为，在国家立场和国际判例中没有足够的依据，支持关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)可能基于一般法律原则的主张。 |
| (9) Treaties are an important source of international law, as provided for in Article 38, paragraph 1 (a) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. | (9) 根据《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(子)项的规定，条约是国际法的重要渊源。 |
| The second paragraph of draft conclusion 5 also identifies treaty provisions as a possible basis for peremptory norms of general international law. | 结论草案5第2段还指出，条约规定是一般国际法强制性规范的可能基础。 |
| The phrase “treaty provisions” is used instead of “treaties” to indicate that what is at issue are the one or more norms contained in the treaty rather than the treaty itself. | 使用“条约规定”一词而不是“条约”，是为了表明，这里涉及的是条约所载的一项或多项规范，而不是条约本身。 |
| Treaties, in most cases, are not “general international law” since they do not usually have a general scope of application with “equal force for all members of the international community”. | 在大多数情况下，条约不是“一般国际法”，因为它们通常不具备“对国际社会所有成员具有同等效力”的普遍适用范围。 |
| There is, however, support in scholarly writings that provisions in treaties can form the basis of the peremptory norms of international law (jus cogens). | 然而，在学术著作中可找到对条约规定可以构成国际法强制性规范(强行法)基础的支持。 |
| While recognizing the special character of the Charter of the United Nations, it is noteworthy that in the commentary to draft article 50 of the 1966 draft articles on the law of treaties, the Commission identified “the law of the Charter [of the United Nations] concerning the prohibition of the use of force” as a “conspicuous example of a rule of international law having the character of jus cogens”. | 在承认《联合国宪章》特殊性质的同时，值得注意的是，委员会在1966年《条约法条款草案》第50条草案的评注中，将“[联合国]宪章中关于禁止使用武力的规则”列为一个“具有强行法性质的国际法规则的显著例子”。 |
| The role of treaties as an exceptional basis for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) may be understood as a consequence of the relationship between treaty rules and customary international law as described by the International Court of Justice in North Sea Continental Shelf cases. | 条约是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的一个例外基础，这种作用可理解为国际法院在北海大陆架案中所描述的条约规则与习惯国际法之间关系的结果。 |
| In that case, the Court observed that a treaty rule can codify (or be declaratory of) an existing general rule of international law, or the conclusion of a treaty rule can help crystallize an emerging general rule of international law, or that a treaty rule can, after adoption, come to reflect a general rule on the basis of subsequent practice. | 在该案中，法院认为，条约规则可以编纂(或宣示)一项现有的一般国际法规则， 或者，缔结一项条约规则可有助于将新出现的一般国际法规则具体化， 或条约规则通过后，可以在嗣后实践的基础上反映一般规则。 |
| This general approach can also be seen in judgments of other international courts and tribunals. | 在其他国际性法院和法庭的判决中也可以看到这种一般性方法。 |
| (10) The phrase “accepted and recognized” has a particular relevance for the sources which can serve as a basis for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (10) “得到接受和承认”一语对可作为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)基础的来源尤为重要。 |
| The text “accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole” was adopted at the United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties on the basis of a joint proposal of Finland, Greece and Spain with regard to what later became article 53 (“recognized by the international community”), to which the Drafting Committee at the Conference inserted the word “accepted”. | 联合国条约法会议通过的“得到国家组成的国际社会全体接受和承认”的案文，是基于芬兰、希腊和西班牙就后来成为第五十三条(“得到国际社会的承认”)的联合提案， 起草委员会在会议上在该条中插入了“接受”一词。 |
| As explained by the Chairperson of the Drafting Committee, this was done because Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice includes both the words “recognized” and “accepted”; | 正如起草委员会主席解释的那样，这样做是因为《国际法院规约》第三十八条既包括“承认”一词，也包括“接受”一词； |
| “recognized” was used in connection with conventions and treaties and general principles of law, while “accepted” was used in connection with customary international law. | “承认”用于公约和条约以及一般法律原则，而“接受”则用于习惯国际法。 |
| Conclusion 6 Acceptance and recognition | 结论6 接受和承认 |
| 1. The requirement of “acceptance and recognition” as a criterion for identifying a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is distinct from acceptance and recognition as a norm of general international law. | 1. 作为识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)标准的“接受和承认”要求不同于接受和承认为一般国际法规范的要求。 |
| 2. To identify a norm as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), there must be evidence that such a norm is accepted and recognized as one from which no derogation is permitted and which can only be modified by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. | 2. 要识别一项规范为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，必须有证据表明该规范被接受和承认为不容克减的规范，且只能由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范加以变更。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) The second criterion for the identification of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is that the norm in question must be recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can only be modified by a subsequent norm having the same character. | (1) 识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的第二个标准是，有关规范必须是被国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认为不容克减的规范，且只能由嗣后具有相同性质的规范加以变更。 |
| As stated in paragraph (4) of the commentary to draft conclusion 4, this is a single criterion composed of different elements. | 如结论草案4的评注第(4)段所指出的，这是一个由不同要素组成的单一标准。 |
| One element indicates that for a norm of general international law to be peremptory, the international community of States as whole must accept and recognize the peremptory character of that norm. | 其中一个要素表明，要识别一项一般国际法规范为强制性规范，国家组成之国际社会全体必须接受和承认该规范的强制性。 |
| The emphasis in this criterion is thus on “acceptance and recognition”. | 因此，这一标准的重点在于“接受和承认”。 |
| The other elements of the criterion indicate two aspects of that recognition and acceptance. | 该标准的其他要素表明了承认和接受的两个方面。 |
| First, they indicate what must be accepted and recognized, namely that the norm is one from which no derogation is permitted and that it can only be modified by a norm having the same character. | 首先，这些要素表明了必须接受和承认的内容，即该规范是不容克减的规范，且只能由具有相同性质的规范加以变更。 |
| Second, they indicate who must do the accepting and recognizing, namely the international community of States as a whole. | 其次，这些要素表明了必须由谁接受和承认，即国家组成之国际社会全体。 |
| Draft conclusion 7 addresses this latter aspect. | 结论草案7述及后一个方面。 |
| (2) The first paragraph of draft conclusion 6 seeks to make clear that the acceptance and recognition referred to in the draft conclusion is distinct from the acceptance and recognition required for other rules of international law. | (2) 结论草案6第1段旨在表明，本条结论草案中提到的接受和承认不同于其他国际法规则所要求的接受和承认。 |
| In other words, the “acceptance and recognition” addressed in draft conclusion 6 is not the same as, for example, acceptance as law (opinio juris), which is an element for the identification of customary international law. | 换言之，例如，结论草案6中提到的“接受和承认”与接受为法律(法律确信)不同，后者是识别习惯国际法的要素。 |
| The acceptance and recognition referred to in draft conclusion 6 is qualitatively different. | 结论草案6中提到的接受和承认有质的差异。 |
| Acceptance as law (opinio juris) addresses the question whether States accept a practice as a rule of law and is a constitutive element of customary international law. | 接受为法律(法律确信)涉及的是国家是否接受某一实践为法律规则的问题，它是习惯国际法的一个构成要素。 |
| Recognition as a general principle of law addresses the question whether a principle has been recognized as provided for in Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. | 承认为一项一般法律原则，处理的是一项原则是否根据《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项得到承认的问题。 |
| Acceptance and recognition, as a criterion of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), concerns the question whether the international community of States as a whole recognizes a rule of international law as having peremptory character. | 作为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的标准，接受和承认涉及国家组成之国际社会全体是否承认一项国际法规则具有强制性。 |
| (3) The second paragraph explains what is meant by the acceptance and recognition required to elevate a norm of general international law to the status of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (3) 第2段解释了将一项一般国际法规范提升为一项一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的地位所需的接受和承认的含义。 |
| It states that the norm in question must be accepted and recognized as one from which no derogation is permitted, and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm having the same character. | 它指出，有关规范必须被接受和承认为不容克减的规范，且只能由嗣后具有相同性质的规范加以更改。 |
| This implies that in order to show that a norm is a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), it is necessary to provide evidence that the norm is accepted and recognized as having the qualities mentioned, in other words that it is a norm from which no derogation is permitted and that can only be modified by a subsequent norm having the same character. | 这意味着，要表明一项规范是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，必须提供证据表明该规范被接受和承认为具有所提到的性质，换言之，它是一种不容克减的规范，并只能由嗣后具有相同性质的规范加以变更。 |
| Although draft conclusion 6 requires evidence of recognition and acceptance of two elements, it is not necessary to provide evidence showing first recognition and, separately, acceptance. | 虽然结论草案6要求有证据表明对两个要素的承认和接受，但没有必要提供证据先证明承认，再证明接受。 |
| It is sufficient to show, in general, the “acceptance and recognition” of the norm of general international law as being peremptory in nature. | 一般来说，只要表明“接受和承认”该一般国际法规范具有强制性即可。 |
| (4) The word “evidence” is used to indicate that it is not sufficient merely to assert that a norm is accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as one from which no derogation is permitted. | (4) “证据”一词用于表明，仅仅声称一项规范被国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认为不容克减的规范是不够的。 |
| It is necessary to substantiate such a claim by means of providing evidence. | 必须通过提供证据来证实这种说法。 |
| The evidence that may be relied upon is addressed in draft conclusions 8 and 9. | 结论草案8和9述及可以依赖的证据。 |
| (5) This framework of acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole is based on the generally accepted interpretation of article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | (5) 国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认这一框架基于对1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条作出的普遍接受的解释。 |
| Conclusion 7 International community of States as a whole | 结论7 国家组成之国际社会全体 |
| 1. It is the acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole that is relevant for the identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 1. 在识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)时，具有相关意义的是国家组成之国际社会全体的接受和承认。 |
| 2. Acceptance and recognition by a very large majority of States is required for the identification of a norm as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens); | 2. 识别一项规范为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)需要绝大多数国家接受和承认； |
| acceptance and recognition by all States is not required. | 不要求所有国家都接受和承认。 |
| 3. While the positions of other actors may be relevant in providing context and for assessing acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole, these positions cannot, in and of themselves, form a part of such acceptance and recognition. | 3. 其他行为体的立场虽可有助于提供背景和评估国家组成之国际社会全体的接受和承认，但这些立场本身不能构成此种接受和承认的一部分。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) As already indicated in draft conclusion 6, the second criterion for the peremptory character of a norm is that the norm in question must be accepted and recognized as having a peremptory character. | (1) 如结论草案6所已经指出的，关于一项规范强制性的第二个标准是，有关规范必须被接受和承认具有强制性。 |
| Draft conclusion 7 is concerned with the question of whose acceptance and recognition is relevant for the identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 结论草案7涉及谁的接受和承认在识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)方面具有相关性的问题。 |
| It is worth recalling that the Commission itself, when adopting draft article 50 of its 1966 draft articles on the law of treaties, had not included the element of recognition and acceptance by the international community of States as a whole, stating only that a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is one “from which no derogation is permitted”. | 值得回顾的是，委员会本身在通过1966年《条约法条款草案》第50条草案时，并没有纳入国家组成之国际社会全体承认和接受这项要素，而只是指出一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)是“不容克减”的规范。 |
| Rather, this element was added by States in the course of the 1968–1969 United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties leading to the adoption of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 实际上，这一要素是各国在使1969年《维也纳公约》得以通过的1968-1969年联合国条约法会议期间添加的。 |
| However, even during the deliberations in the Commission, the link between peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and the acceptance and recognition of the “international community of States” had been expressed by some members of the Commission. | 然而，即便在委员会审议期间，也有一些委员表示认为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)与“国家组成之国际社会”的接受和承认之间有联系。 |
| (2) The first paragraph of draft conclusion 7 states that it is the acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole that is relevant. | (2) 结论草案7第1段指出，具有相关意义的是国家组成的国际社会全体的接受和承认。 |
| This paragraph seeks to make clear that it is the position of States that is relevant and not that of other actors. | 该段旨在明确说明，相关的是国家的立场，而不是其他行为体的立场。 |
| While there have been calls for the inclusion of other actors whose acceptance and recognition might be pertinent for the establishment of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), the current state of international law retains States as the entities whose acceptance and recognition is relevant. | 虽然有人呼吁列入其接受和承认可能与确立一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)有关的其他行为体， 但国际法现况是仍将国家作为其接受和承认具有相关性的实体。 |
| In the context of the draft articles on the law of treaties between States and international organizations or between international organizations, the Commission considered using the phrase “international community as a whole” and thus excluding the words “of States” from the phrase. | 在《国家和国际组织间或国际组织相互间条约法的条款草案》中，委员会曾考虑使用“整个国际社会”一语，而不包括“国家”一词。 |
| However, on reflection, the Commission decided that “in the present state of international law, it is States that are called upon to establish or recognize peremptory norms”. | 但是，经思考后，委员会决定，“在国际法现况中，被要求确立或承认强制性规范的是国家”。 |
| (3) State practice and the decisions of international courts and tribunals have continued to link the elevation of norms of general international law to peremptory status with State acceptance and recognition. | (3) 国家实践及国际性法院和法庭的裁决继续将一般国际法规范提升到强制地位的问题与国家的接受和承认相联系。 |
| The International Criminal Court, for example, has stated that a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) requires recognition by States. | 例如，国际刑事法院指出，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)要求各国的承认。 |
| The International Court of Justice, likewise, in the case concerning Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite, determined the peremptory character of the prohibition of torture on the basis of instruments developed by States. | 同样，国际法院在与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案中，根据各国制定的文书确定了禁止酷刑的强制性。 |
| Domestic courts have similarly continued to link the establishment of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) with State recognition. | 国内法院也继续将一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的确立与国家承认联系起来。 |
| For example, in determining that the prohibition of the death penalty was not a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit stated, in Buell v. Mitchell, that “only sixty-one countries, or approximately thirty-two-percent of countries, had completely abolished the use of the death penalty”. | 例如，在确定禁止死刑不是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)时，美国第六巡回上诉法院在Buell诉Mitchell案中指出，“只有61个国家，即大约32%的国家，完全废除了死刑”。 |
| While peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) continue to be linked to notions of the conscience of mankind in practice and scholarly writings, even then the material advanced to illustrate recognition of the norms as peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) remains acts and practice generated by States, including within international organizations, such as treaties and General Assembly resolutions. | 虽然在实践和学术著作中，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)继续与人类良知的观念联系在一起， 但用来表明承认有关规范是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的材料仍然是国家产生的行为和实践，包括国际组织内部产生的行为和实践，例如条约和联大决议。 |
| (4) Although draft conclusion 7 states that it is the acceptance and recognition of States that is relevant for determining whether a norm has a peremptory character, that does not mean that other actors do not play a role. | (4) 虽然结论草案7指出，在识别一项规范是否具有强制性时，具有相关意义的是国家的接受和承认，但这并不意味着其他行为体不起作用。 |
| Other actors may provide context and may contribute to the assessment of the acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole. | 其他行为体可以提供背景，并可有助于评估由国家组成的国际社会全体的接受和承认。 |
| The subsidiary role of other actors has been recognized by the Commission in other topics. | 委员会在其他专题中承认了其他行为体的这种辅助作用。 |
| In its draft conclusions on the identification of customary international law, the Commission stated that it is “primarily … the practice of States that contributes to the formation, or expression, of rules of customary international law”, while noting that “[i]n certain cases the practice of international organizations also contributes to the formation, or expression, of rules of customary international law”. | 在关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案中，委员会指出，“有助于习惯国际法规则的形成或表述的国家实践，主要…是国家实践”，并同时指出，“在某些情况下，国际组织的实践也有助于习惯国际法规则的形成或表述。 |
| It went on to note that the conduct of non-State actors, even though not practice for such purposes, “may be relevant when assessing the practice” of States. | ”委员会还指出，非国家行为体的行为即使不是为此目的的实践，但“在评估”国家“实践时可能相关”。 |
| Likewise, in the topic “Subsequent agreements and subsequent practice in relation to the interpretation of treaties”, the Commission concluded that the conduct of non-State actors did not constitute practice for the purposes of article 31 of the 1969 Vienna Convention but that it may “be relevant when assessing the subsequent practice of parties to a treaty”. | 同样，在与条约解释相关的嗣后协定和嗣后实践专题中，委员会得出结论认为，就解释1969年《维也纳公约》第三十一条而言，非国家行为体的行为不构成实践，但“在评估条约缔约方的嗣后实践时可能相关”。 |
| Acts and practice of international organizations may provide evidence for the acceptance and recognition of States when determining whether a norm has a peremptory character. | 在确定一项规范是否具有强制性时，国际组织的行为和实践可为国家的接受和承认提供证据。 |
| Ultimately, however, the positions of entities other than States are not, of themselves, sufficient to establish the acceptance and recognition required for the elevation of a norm of general international law to peremptory status. | 但归根结底，国家以外实体的立场本身不足以确定将一般国际法规范提升到强制性地位所需的接受和承认。 |
| This consideration is reflected in the third paragraph of draft conclusion 7. | 这一考虑反映在结论草案7第3段中。 |
| (5) The second paragraph of draft conclusion 7 seeks to explain what is meant by “as a whole”. | (5) 结论草案7第2段旨在解释“全体”的含义。 |
| It states that what is required is the acceptance and recognition by a very large majority of States. | 它指出，所需要的是绝大多数国家的接受和承认。 |
| As explained by the Chairperson of the Drafting Committee during the United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties, the words “as a whole” are meant to indicate that it was not necessary for the peremptory nature of the norm in question “to be accepted and recognized … by all States” and that it would be sufficient if “a very large majority did so”. | 如起草委员会主席在联合国条约法会议上解释的那样，“全体”二字是要表明有关规范的强制性不必“由…所有国家接受和承认”，“只要绝大多数国家接受和承认”就可以了。 |
| This sense is also captured by the phrase “community of States” as opposed to simply “States”. | 这种意义也体现在使用了“国家组成之社会”一语，而不仅仅是“国家”中。 |
| The combination of the phrases “as a whole” and “community of States” serves to emphasize that it is States as a collective or community, that must accept and recognize the non-derogability of a norm for it to be a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 将“全体”和“国家组成之社会”这两个短语组合起来，是为了强调，一项规范要成为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，必须由作为一个集体或社会的各国接受和承认其不容克减性。 |
| (6) The Commission considered that acceptance and recognition by a simple “majority” of States was not sufficient to establish the peremptory status of a norm. | (6) 委员会认为，简单“多数”国家的接受和承认不足以确立规范的强制性地位。 |
| Rather, the majority had to be very large. | 这一多数必须是绝大多数。 |
| Determining whether there was a very large majority of States accepting and recognizing the peremptory status of a norm was not, however, a mechanical exercise in which the number of States is to be counted. | 但是，确定是否绝大多数国家接受和承认一项规范的强制性地位，并不是机械地计算国家的数量。 |
| The acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole requires that the acceptance and recognition be across regions, legal systems and cultures. | 国家组成之国际社会全体的接受和承认要求各种区域、法律制度和文化的接受和承认。 |
| The view was expressed that in the light of importance of State consent and the extraordinarily strong legal effect of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), the recognition and acceptance of the “overwhelming majority of States”, “virtually all States”, “substantially all States” or “the entire international community of States as a whole” was required. | 有意见认为，鉴于国家同意的重要性和一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)格外强大的法律效力，因此要求“绝大多数国家”、“几乎所有国家”、“基本上所有国家”或“国家组成的国际社会全体”的承认和接受。 |
| Conclusion 8 Evidence of acceptance and recognition | 结论8 接受和承认的证据 |
| 1. Evidence of acceptance and recognition that a norm of general international law is a peremptory norm (jus cogens) may take a wide range of forms. | 1. 表明一项一般国际法规范被接受和承认为强制性规范(强行法)的证据可具有广泛多样的形式。 |
| 2. Such forms of evidence include, but are not limited to: public statements made on behalf of States; | 2. 此种证据形式包括但不限于：以国家名义发表的公开声明； |
| official publications; | 官方出版物； |
| government legal opinions; | 政府的法律意见； |
| diplomatic correspondence; | 外交信函； |
| legislative and administrative acts; | 立法和行政行为； |
| decisions of national courts; | 各国法院的判决； |
| treaty provisions; | 条约规定； |
| and resolutions adopted by an international organization or at an intergovernmental conference. | 国际组织通过的或在政府间会议上通过的决议。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) To identify a norm as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), it is necessary to show the acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole of the non-derogability of such a norm. | (1) 要将一项规范确定为一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)，就有必要表明国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认这一规范的不可克减性。 |
| As implied in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 7, this requires that evidence of acceptance and recognition must be adduced. | 正如结论草案7第2款所暗示的，这要求必须举出接受和承认的证据。 |
| Draft conclusion 8 concerns the types of evidence necessary to identify that the international community of States as a whole accepts and recognizes that a norm has a peremptory character. | 结论草案8涉及确定国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认这一规范具有强制性的必要证据类型。 |
| Other subsidiary materials which may be relevant for the identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) is addressed in draft conclusion 9. | 结论草案9讨论了可能与确定一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)有关的其他辅助材料。 |
| (2) The first paragraph of draft conclusion 8 is a general statement. | (2) 结论草案8第1款是一般性声明。 |
| It provides that evidence of acceptance and recognition may take a wide range of forms. | 此款规定，接受和承认的证据可具有广泛多样的形式。 |
| In its judgment in Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite, the International Court of Justice relied on a variety of materials as evidence of the peremptory character of the prohibition of torture. | 在与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题一案的判决中，国际法院依据各种材料，作为禁止酷刑的强制性的证据。 |
| It should be recalled that what is at stake is the acceptance and recognition of the international community of States as a whole. | 应当指出，国家组成之国际社会全体接受和承认是关键所在。 |
| Therefore, any material capable of expressing or reflecting the views of States would be relevant as evidence of acceptance and recognition. | 因此，任何能够表达或反映各国意见的材料都可以作为接受和承认的证据。 |
| (3) The second paragraph of draft conclusion 8 describes the forms of materials that may be used as evidence that a norm is a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (3) 结论草案8第2款描述了可用作一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)的证据的材料形式。 |
| In keeping with the statement above that evidence of acceptance and recognition may take various forms, the second paragraph of draft conclusion 8 states that the forms of evidence “include, but are not limited to”. | 根据上文关于接受和承认的证据可具有广泛多样形式的说法，结论草案8第2款指出，证据的形式“包括但不限于”。 |
| The list contained in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 8 is therefore not a closed list. | 因此，结论草案8第2款所载清单并不是一个封闭的清单。 |
| Other forms of evidence not mentioned in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 8, if reflecting or expressing the acceptance and recognition of States, may be adduced in support of the peremptory character of a norm. | 结论草案8第2款中未提及的其他形式的证据，如果反映或表达了各国接受和承认的意思，可援引这些证据，以证明一项规范的强制性。 |
| (4) It will be noted that the forms of evidence listed in paragraph 2 of draft conclusion 8 are similar to those provided for in paragraph 2 of conclusion 10, which concerns forms of evidence of acceptance of law (opinio juris), of the Commission’s conclusions on the identification of customary international law. | (4) 应当指出，结论草案8第2款所列的证据形式与委员会关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案中关于被接受为法律(法律确信)的证据形式的结论10第2段中规定的形式相似。 |
| This similarity is because the forms of evidence identified are those from which, as a general matter, the positions, opinions and views of States can be gleaned. | 之所以存在这种相似性，是因为所列证据形式一般来说正是体现出各国的立场、意见和看法的形式。 |
| The potential uses of these materials for the purposes of satisfying the acceptance and recognition criterion for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), on one hand, and their use for the purposes of the identification of customary international law must be distinguished, on the other hand. | 一方面是为了满足一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的接受和承认标准而可能使用这些材料，另一方面是为了识别习惯国际法的目的而使用这些材料，必须对这两方面加以区分。 |
| For the former, the materials must establish acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole that the norm in question is one from which no derogation is permitted, while for the latter the materials are used to assess whether States accept the norm as a rule of customary international law. | 对于前者而言，这些材料必须使国家组成之国际社会全体确定接受和承认，即有关规范是不容克减的，而对于后者而言，这些材料被用于评估各国是否接受该规范作为习惯国际法的规则。 |
| (5) The non-exhaustive list of forms of evidence in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 8 have in common that they are materials expressing or reflecting the views of States. | (5) 结论草案8第2款中非详尽无遗的清单所列证据形式有一个共同之处，即它们是表达或反映各国意见的材料。 |
| These materials are the result of processes capable of revealing the positions and views of States. | 这些材料是能够揭示各国立场和观点的进程的结果。 |
| Treaties and resolutions adopted by States in international organizations or at intergovernmental conferences may be an obvious example of such materials. | 各国在国际组织或政府间会议上通过的条约和决议可能是这种材料的一个明显实例。 |
| Decisions of national courts may also be a reflection of the views of States and have been relied upon in the determination of the peremptory character of norms. | 国家法院的裁决同样也可反映出各国的意见，曾充当确定规范的强制性的依据。 |
| Legislative and administrative measures are yet another way by which States express their views and may thus also provide evidence of the peremptory character of a norm of general international law. | 立法和行政措施是各国表达意见的另一种方式，因此也可以为一般国际法规范的强制性提供证据。 |
| States also routinely express their views about the peremptory character of particular norms through public statements and statements in international fora. | 各国还经常通过公开声明和在国际论坛上发表声明，就特定规范的强制性发表意见。 |
| (6) In addition to the caveat that the forms of evidence in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 8 are non-exhaustive, it should also be recalled that such materials must speak to whether the norm has a peremptory character. | (6) 除了结论草案8第2款关于证据形式并非详尽无遗这一提醒之外，还应当回顾的是，这些材料必须说明规范是否具有强制性。 |
| The question is not whether a particular norm has been reflected in these materials but, rather, whether the materials establish the acceptance and recognition of the international community of States as a whole that the norm in question is one from which no derogation is permitted. | 问题不是某一特定规范是否在这些材料中得到反映，而是这些材料是否确定了国家组成的国际社会全体的接受和承认。 |
| These materials are not, individually, conclusive of the peremptory character of a norm. | 这些材料单独而言并不能确定一项规范的强制性。 |
| The materials have to be weighed and assessed together, in their context, in order to determine whether they evince a acceptance and recognition of the international community of States as a whole of the peremptory character of the norm in question. | 这些材料必须在其背景下一同加以权衡和评估，以确定它们是否明显体现出国家组成的国际社会全体对有关规范的强制性接受和承认。 |
| Conclusion 9 Subsidiary means for the determination of the peremptory character of norms of general international law | 结论9 确定一般国际法规范强制性的辅助手段 |
| 1. Decisions of international courts and tribunals, in particular of the International Court of Justice, are a subsidiary means for determining the peremptory character of norms of general international law. | 1. 国际性法院和法庭的决定，特别是国际法院的决定，是确定一般国际法规范强制性的辅助手段。 |
| 2. The works of expert bodies established by States or international organizations and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations may also serve as subsidiary means for determining the peremptory character of norms of general international law. | 2. 各国或国际组织设立的专家机构的工作成果和各国权威最高的公法学家学说也可作为确定一般国际法规范强制性的辅助手段。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) To identify a norm as being a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), it is necessary to provide evidence that the international community of States as a whole accepts and recognizes the said norm as one from which no derogation is permitted and which can only be modified by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. | (1) 要识别一项规范为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，就有必要提供证据，表明该规范被国家组成的国际社会全体接受和承认为不容克减的规范，且只能由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范加以变更。 |
| As explained in draft conclusion 8, the forms of evidence relevant for this purpose are materials expressing or reflecting the views of States. | 如结论草案8的解释，表示或反映各国意见的材料是与此目的有关的证据形式。 |
| Other materials, not reflecting the views of States, may also be relevant as subsidiary means for the determination of the peremptory character of a norm. | 未反映各国意见的其他材料也可作为确定一项规范的强制性的辅助手段。 |
| Draft conclusion 9 concerns some such subsidiary means. | 结论草案9涉及一些这类辅助手段。 |
| It is important to emphasize that the word “subsidiary” in this context is not meant to diminish the importance of such materials, but is rather aimed at expressing the idea that those materials facilitate the identification of “acceptance and recognition” but do not, themselves, constitute such acceptance and recognition. | 必须强调的是，此背景下的“辅助”一词并不是要削弱这类材料的重要性，而是旨在表达这些材料有助于对“接受和承认”加以识别，但其本身并不构成这种接受和承认的意思。 |
| Draft conclusion 9 concerns such other materials. | 结论草案9涉及其他这类材料。 |
| (2) The first paragraph of draft conclusion 9 provides that decisions of international courts and tribunals are a subsidiary means for determining the peremptory character of norms of general international law. | (2) 结论草案9第1款规定，国际性法院和法庭的决定，是确定一般国际法规范强制性的辅助手段。 |
| This provision mirrors Article 38, paragraph 1 (d), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, which provides, inter alia, that judicial decisions are a “subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law”. | 这条规定仿效了《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(卯)项，除其他外，该项规定，“司法判例”是“确定法律原则之补助资料者”。 |
| It is partly for that reason that the first paragraph of draft conclusion 9 uses the words “means for determining” instead of “identifying” which has more often been resorted to in the present draft conclusions. | 正是部分出于这一原因，结论草案9第1款使用了“确定…的手段”而非本结论草案中经常使用的“识别”一词。 |
| While Article 38, paragraph 1 (d), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice refers to “judicial decisions”, which includes both decisions of international courts and decisions of national courts, the first paragraph of draft conclusion 9 refers only to decisions of international courts and tribunals. | 虽然《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(卯)项提及的“司法判例”既包括国际性法院的决定，也包括国家法院的决定，但结论草案9第1款仅提及国际性法院和法庭的决定。 |
| In addition to serving as subsidiary means under Article 38, paragraph 1 (d), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, decisions of national courts may also constitute primary evidence under draft conclusion 8. | 除了作为《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(卯)项之下的辅助手段以外，国家法院的决定也可能构成结论草案8的主要证据。 |
| (3) There is an abundance of examples of decisions of international courts relying on other decisions of international courts and tribunals. | (3) 有大量国际性法院的决定以其他国际性法性院和法庭的决定作为依据的实例。 |
| As an example, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, in Prosecutor v. Furundžija, determined that the prohibition of torture was a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) on the basis of, inter alia, the extensiveness of the prohibition including the fact that States are prohibited “from expelling, returning or extraditing” a person to a place where they may be subject to torture. | 例如，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭在检察官诉FurundžIja一案中裁定，禁止酷刑是一般国际法的一项强制性规范(强行法)，除其他外，其依据包括“禁止”国家将一个人“驱逐、遣返或引渡”到他们可能遭受酷刑的地方这一禁令的广泛性。 |
| To demonstrate the extensiveness of this prohibition, the Court referred to judgments of, inter alia, the European Court of Human Rights. | 为了表明这种禁止的广泛性，除其他外，法院提到了欧洲人权法院的判决。 |
| The judgment of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in Prosecutor v. Furundžija has itself often been referred to, to illustrate the peremptory status of the prohibition of torture. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭对检察官诉FurundžIja案的判决本身常常被提及，以说明禁止酷刑的强制性地位。 |
| The Special Tribunal for Lebanon in Prosecutor v. Ayyash, et al., concluded that “[t]he principle of legality (nullum crimen sine lege) … [is] so frequently upheld by international criminal courts with regard to international prosecution of crimes that it is warranted to hold that by now it has the status of a peremptory norm (jus cogens)”. | “黎巴嫩问题特别法庭在检察官诉Ayyash等人一案的结论中指出，“国际性刑事法院在对罪行进行国际起诉方面如此频繁地坚持合法性原则(法无明文不为罪)，以致于完全有理由认为，该原则现已具有强制性规范(强行法)的地位”。 |
| The Special Tribunal for Lebanon, in El Sayed, determined that the right to access to justice has “acquired the status of a peremptory norm (jus cogens)” based on, inter alia, jurisprudence of both national and international courts. | 黎巴嫩问题特别法庭在El Sayed案中裁定，诉诸司法的权利已“获得强制性规范(强行法)的地位”，除其他外，其依据包括国家法院和国际性法院的判例。 |
| The decision in El Sayed provides a particularly apt illustration of the manner in which decisions of international courts and tribunals can be a subsidiary means for the identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | El Sayed案的裁决特别恰当地说明，国际性法院和法庭的决定可作为识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的辅助手段。 |
| There, the Tribunal, in the judgment written by its then-President, Antonio Cassese, relied on various forms of evidence, including evidence listed in draft conclusion 8, to come to the conclusion that, taken as a whole, the evidence suggested that there was an acceptance and recognition of the peremptory character of the right of access to courts. | 在该案中，法庭当时的庭长安东尼奥·卡塞塞在判决书中采用了各种证据形式，包括结论草案8所列的证据，从而得出结论认为，从整体上看，证据表明，诉诸法院的权利的强制性得到了接受和承认。 |
| The decision then refers to the decision in Case of Goiburú, et al. v. Paraguay, in which the Inter-American Court of Human Rights determined that the right of access to the courts is a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), in order to give context to the primary evidence relied upon and to solidify that evidence. | 该判决随后提及Goiburú等人诉巴拉圭一案的裁决，在该案中，美洲人权法院裁定，诉诸法院的权利是一项一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，目的是为所依赖的主要证据提供背景，并固化这一证据。 |
| (4) The first paragraph of draft conclusion 9 explicitly mentions the International Court of Justice as a subsidiary means for the determination of the peremptory character of norms. | (4) 结论草案9第1款明确提及国际法院是确定规范的强制性的辅助手段之一。 |
| There are several reasons for the express mention of the International Court of Justice. | 明确提到国际法院有若干原因。 |
| First, it is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations and its members are elected by the main political organs of the United Nations. | 首先，它是联合国的主要司法机关，其成员由联合国主要政治机关选出。 |
| Second, it remains the only international court with general subject-matter jurisdiction. | 其次，它仍然是唯一具有一般属事管辖权的国际法院。 |
| Moreover, while the Court has been reluctant to pronounce on peremptory norms, its jurisprudence has left a mark on the development both of the general concept of peremptory norms and of particular peremptory norms, even in cases where peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) were not explicitly invoked. | 此外，虽然法院不愿就强制性规范发表意见，但其判例为强制性规范的一般概念的发展，尤其是为特别强制性规范的发展留下了印记，即使在没有明确援引一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的情况下也是如此。 |
| In particular, its advisory opinions on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide, the Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia and the Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, as well as its decisions in Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, East Timor, and the Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua, have made major contributions to the understanding and evolution of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), notwithstanding the fact that they do not expressly and unambiguously invoke, for their respective conclusions, peremptory norms. | 具体而言，法院在关于对《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的保留意见、南非继续留驻纳米比亚(西南非洲)对各国的法律后果、在被占巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果的咨询意见中，以及在关于巴塞罗那电车公司、电灯及电力有限公司、东帝汶和尼加拉瓜境内和针对尼加拉瓜的军事和准军事活动的决定中，都为理解一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)及其演变作出了重大贡献，尽管这些咨询意见和决定没有明确和清楚地援引强制性规范作为各自的结论。 |
| When the International Court of Justice has pronounced itself expressly on peremptory norms, its decisions have been even more influential. | 当国际法院就强制性规范作出明确裁决时，这些裁决甚至更具影响力。 |
| The judgment of the Court in the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite case, for example, has confirmed the peremptory status of the prohibition of torture. | 例如，法院对与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案的判决确认了禁止酷刑的强制性地位。 |
| (5) The second paragraph of draft conclusion 9 concerns other subsidiary means for the determination of the peremptory character of norms of general international law. | (5) 结论草案9第2款涉及确定一般国际法规范强制性的其他一些辅助手段。 |
| As with decisions of international courts and tribunals, these other means are subsidiary in the sense that they facilitate the determination of whether there is acceptance and recognition by States but they themselves are not evidence of such acceptance and recognition. | 与国际性法院和法庭的裁决一样，其他这类手段属于辅助手段，因为它们有助于确定国家是否接受和承认，但它们本身并不是这种接受和承认的证据。 |
| The paragraph lists, as examples of other subsidiary means, the works of expert bodies and teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, also referred to as scholarly writings. | 作为其他辅助手段的实例，该款列举了专家机构的工作成果和各国权威最高的公法学家学说，也称为学术著作。 |
| The use of the phrase “may also” in paragraph 2, in contradistinction to the word “are” which is used to qualify decisions of international courts and tribunals in paragraph 1, indicates that less weight may attach to works of expert bodies and scholarly writings in comparison to judicial decisions. | 与第1款中用来限定国际性法院和法庭裁决的“是”一词不同的是，第2款中使用的“也可”一词表明，给予专家机构的工作成果和学术著作的权重可低于司法决定。 |
| The relevance of these other materials as subsidiary means depends on other factors, including on the reasoning of the works or writings, the extent to which the views expressed are accepted by States and the extent to which such views are corroborated either by other forms of evidence listed in draft conclusion 8 or decisions of international courts and tribunals. | 其他这些材料作为辅助手段的相关性取决于另一些因素，包括工作成果或著作的推理、表达的意见在多大程度上为各国所接受，以及这些意见在多大程度上得到结论草案8所列其他形式的证据或国际性法院和法庭裁决的证实。 |
| (6) The first category relates to the works of expert bodies. | (6) 第一类涉及专家机构的工作成果。 |
| The phrase “established by States or international organizations” indicates that the paragraph refers to organs established by international organizations and subsidiary bodies of such organizations, such as the International Law Commission as well as expert treaty bodies. | “各国或国际组织设立的”一语指的是由国际组织设立的机关和此类组织的附属机构，如国际法委员会以及专家条约机构。 |
| The qualification was necessary to emphasize that the expert body in question had to have an intergovernmental mandate and had to be created by States. | 这一限定是必要的，以强调有关专家机构必须具有政府间任务授权，而且必须由各国设立。 |
| The use of the phrase “established by States or by international organizations” means that private organizations which do not have an intergovernmental mandate are not included in the category of expert bodies. | 使用“各国或国际组织设立的”一语意味着没有政府间任务授权的私营组织不属于专家机构类别。 |
| This does not mean that the works of expert bodies without an intergovernmental mandate are irrelevant. | 这并不意味着没有政府间任务授权的专家机构的工作成果无关紧要。 |
| The works of the Institute of International Law or the International Law Association may, for example, qualify as “teachings of the most highly qualified publicists” under paragraph 2 of draft conclusion 9. | 例如，根据结论草案9第2款，国际法学会或国际法协会的工作成果可被视为“权威最高的公法学家学说”。 |
| The term “works” covers not only the final outcomes of the expert bodies but also their work leading up to the final outcome. | “工作成果”一词不仅包括专家机构的最终成果，而且还包括形成最终成果的工作。 |
| (7) The reliance on other materials is also supported by courts. | (7) 法院也支持使用其他材料作为依据。 |
| In RM v. the Attorney-General, for example, the High Court of Kenya relied on the Human Rights Committee general comment No. 18 on non-discrimination for its determination that non-discrimination is a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 例如，在RM诉总检察长一案中，肯尼亚高等法院依据了人权事务委员会关于不歧视的第18号一般性意见，确定不歧视是一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| Similarly, for its conclusion that the principle of non-refoulement was a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), the International Criminal Court relied on, inter alia, an advisory opinion of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. | 同样，为了提出不驱回原则是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的结论，国际刑事法院，除其他外，以联合国难民事务高级专员公署的一项咨询意见作为依据。 |
| Similarly, the finding by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in Prosecutor v. Furundžija that the prohibition of torture was a norm of jus cogens was based, inter alia, on observations of the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, the Human Rights Committee, and a report of a Special Rapporteur, Mr. Kooijmans. | 同样，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭在检察官诉FurundžIja一案的裁决中指出，禁止酷刑是强行法的一项规范，其依据除其他外包括美洲人权委员会的意见、人权事务委员会的意见以及特别报告员科艾曼斯先生的一份报告。 |
| (8) The Commission has also often been referred to in the assessment of whether a particular norm has attained peremptory status or not. | (8) 在评估某项规范是否已达到强制性地位时，国际法委员会也常被提及。 |
| In assessing the status of the prohibition of the use of force, the International Court of Justice observed that the “International Law Commission … expressed the view that ‘the law of the Charter [of the United Nations] concerning the prohibition of the use of force in itself constitutes a conspicuous example of a rule in international law having the character of jus cogens’”. | 在评估禁止使用武力的地位时，国际法院注意到“国际法委员会…认为‘关于禁止使用武力的《联合国宪章》法律本身就是一个具有强行法性质的国际法规则的突出例子’”。 |
| Scholarly writings that provide a list of generally accepted peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) often rely on the list provided by the Commission in the commentary to draft article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 提供普遍接受的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)清单的学术著作，往往以委员会在《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》中在条款草案26条的评注中提供的清单为依据。 |
| The Commission’s own work may thus also contribute to the identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 因此，委员会本身的工作也可能有助于识别一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| (9) The second paragraph refers to “teachings of the most highly qualified publicists”, which may also be useful as subsidiary material for the identification of peremptory norms of international law. | (9) 第2款提到“权威最高的公法学家学说”，这些学说也可用作识别国际法强制性规范的辅助材料。 |
| This refers to scholarly writings and other works that may be used as secondary material in assessing and providing context to the primary forms of acceptance and recognition of peremptory status. | 这指的是学术著作和其他作品也可用作次要材料，用于评估接受和承认强制性地位的主要形式并提供背景参考。 |
| It is important to emphasize that the weight to be accorded to such teachings will vary greatly depending on the quality of the reasoning and the extent to which they find support in State practice and in the decisions of international courts and tribunals. | 必须强调的是，给予这类学说的权重将因其推理的质量以及它们在国家实践中以及得到国际性法院和法庭的裁决的支持程度而大不相同。 |
| (10) It is worth pointing out that the subsidiary means identified in paragraphs 1 and 2 of the draft conclusion 9 are not exhaustive. | (10) 值得指出的是，结论草案9第1和第2款中列出的辅助手段并不是详尽无遗的。 |
| The means identified in draft conclusion 9 are, however, the most common subsidiary means that have been relied upon in the identification of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 但是，结论草案9中列出的手段的确是在识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)时所依赖的最常见的辅助手段。 |
| Part Three Legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 第三部分 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的法律后果 |
| Conclusion 10 Treaties conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论10 与一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)抵触的条约 |
| 1. A treaty is void if, at the time of its conclusion, it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 1. 条约在缔结时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触者无效。 |
| The provisions of such a treaty have no legal force. | 此种条约的规定无法律效力。 |
| 2. If a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) emerges, any existing treaty which is in conflict with that norm becomes void and terminates. | 2. 新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)产生时，与该项规范相抵触的任何现行条约即为无效并终止。 |
| The parties to such a treaty are released from any obligation further to perform the treaty. | 条约缔约方继续履行条约之义务解除。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 10 concerns the invalidity and termination of treaties on account of being in conflict with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (1) 结论草案10涉及与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的条约无效和终止的问题。 |
| The invalidity of treaties is the legal effect that is most closely associated with peremptory norms of general international law. | 条约无效是与一般国际法强制性规范最密切相关的法律效力。 |
| Article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention has rarely been relied upon to invalidate a treaty, so much so that it has been questioned whether it remains operative. | 1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条很少用作条约无效的依据，以致该条是否仍然有效受到质疑。 |
| The fact that treaties have rarely been invalidated on account of a conflict with peremptory norms is, however, not because the rule in article 53 is not accepted by States, but simply because States do not generally enter into treaties that conflict with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 然而，条约很少因与强制性规范相抵触而无效，这一事实并不是因为第五十三条所载规则不为各国所接受，而只是因为各国一般不缔结与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的条约。 |
| Thus, the rule that a treaty in conflict with peremptory norms is invalid continues to be applicable even though it has rarely been applied. | 因此，与强制性规范相抵触的条约无效的规则继续适用，尽管很少适用该规则。 |
| (2) While instances of invalidity of treaties on account of conflict with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) have been rare, this does not mean that there has been no practice at all that may be relevant to this question. | (2) 虽然因与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触而使条约无效的情况很少，但这并不意味着根本没有可能与此问题相关的实践。 |
| There have been statements made by individual States assessing whether a particular treaty was consistent or not with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) and, accordingly, whether it could be considered as valid or not. | 有些国家做出了声明，评估某一特定条约是否符合一项一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，以及是否因此可能被视为无效的问题。 |
| The General Assembly has adopted resolutions which some have interpreted as recognizing that the validity of certain agreements is to be determined by reference to their consistency with certain fundamental principles. | 对联大通过的决议， 一些人的解释是，决议承认某些协定的合法性取决于它们是否提及符合某些基本原则。 |
| There have also been judicial decisions that have considered the invalidity of treaties on account of possible inconsistency with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 还有一些司法决定认为某些条约无效，因为这些条约可能不符合一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| In Prosecutor v. Taylor, the Special Court for Sierra Leone had to determine whether the provision in its own Statute which removed immunities of officials was invalid. | 在检察官诉Taylor一案中，塞拉利昂问题特别法庭必须确定其《规约》中取消官员豁免的规定是否无效。 |
| The Court held that since the provision was “not in conflict with any peremptory norm of general international law, [it] must be given effect” to by the Court. | 法院认为，因为这些规定“并未与一般国际法任何强制性规范相抵触”，所以法院“必须赋予[其]效力”。 |
| It seems to follow that had the provision been in conflict it would not have been given effect to by the Court. | 接下来似乎应该是，如果该规定存在抵触情况，法院就不会赋予其效力。 |
| Similarly, in the Aloeboetoe, et al. v. Suriname case before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, reliance had been placed on an agreement concluded between the Netherlands and the Saramaka community for the purposes of reparation. | 同样，美洲人权法院审理的Aloeboetoe等人诉苏里南案依据的就是荷兰出于赔偿目的与萨拉马卡社区之间缔结的一项协定。 |
| The Court noted that, under some provisions of the treaty, the Saramaka undertook to capture any escaped slaves and return them to slavery. | 法院指出，根据该条约的某些规定，萨拉马卡人承诺抓获逃脱的奴隶并使其重新为奴。 |
| On that account, the Court held that if the agreement in question were a treaty, it would be “null and void because it contradicts the norms of jus cogens superveniens”. | 有鉴于此，法院认为，如果所涉协定是一项条约，则该条约“无效，因为它与新的强行法规范相抵触”。 |
| (3) Draft conclusion 10 follows the approach of the 1969 Vienna Convention by distinguishing between, on the one hand, treaties that, at the time of their conclusion, are in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) (paragraph 1) and, on the other hand, treaties that conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law that emerges subsequent to the conclusion of the treaty (paragraph 2). | (3) 结论草案10遵循1969年《维也纳公约》的做法，对以下两种情况作了区分：一种是在缔结时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的条约(第1款)，另一种是在缔结条约后产生的与一般国际法强制性规范相抵触的条约(第2款)。 |
| The first alternative is addressed in the first sentence of article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention while the second alternative is addressed in article 64 of that Convention. | 1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条第一句处理了第一种情况，该公约第64条处理了第二种情况。 |
| Both paragraphs follow closely the text of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 这两款非常贴近1969年《维也纳公约》文本。 |
| (4) The first sentence of the first paragraph of draft conclusion 10 states simply that treaty is void if, at the time of its conclusion, it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law. | (4) 结论草案10第1款第一句话仅声明，条约在缔结时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触者无效。 |
| The sentence follows closely the first sentence of article 53. | 这一句非常贴近第五十三条第一句话。 |
| The import of this sentence is that such a treaty is void ab initio. | 这句话的意思是，这样一项条约自始无效。 |
| The second sentence of the first paragraph of draft conclusion 10 is taken from the first paragraph of article 69 of the 1969 Vienna Convention and provides that the provisions of a treaty that is invalid on account of being in conflict with a peremptory norm at the time of its conclusion have no legal force. | 结论草案10第1款第二句话摘自1969年《维也纳公约》第六十九条第一款，规定因在缔结时与强制性规范相抵触而无效的条约的规定没有法律效力。 |
| (5) The second paragraph of draft conclusion 10 concerns the consequences of a newly emerged peremptory norm of general international law on an existing treaty. | (5) 结论草案10第2款涉及新出现的一般国际法强制性规范对现有条约的后果。 |
| It states that such a treaty becomes void and terminates. | 该款规定，这样一项条约即为无效并终止。 |
| The phrase “becomes void and terminates” indicates that the treaty is not void ab initio but only becomes void at the emergence of the peremptory norm. | “即为无效并终止”的措辞说明，该条约不是自始就无效，而是在强制性规范产生之时成为无效。 |
| The treaty becomes void from the moment the norm in question is recognized and accepted as one from which no derogation is permitted. | 从有关规范作为不容克减的规范被承认和接受那一刻起，条约方告无效。 |
| The consequence of the treaty becoming void is that it is only the continuing legal or subsequent legal effects of the provisions of the treaty that terminate. | 条约无效的后果是，只有条约条款的持续法律效力或随后的法律效力终止。 |
| It is for this reason that the second sentence of the second paragraph provides that the parties to such a treaty are released from any obligation further to perform the treaty. | 正因为如此，第2款第二句规定，这样一项条约的缔约方继续履行条约之义务解除。 |
| This formulation is drawn from article 71, paragraph 2 (a), of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 这一措辞源自1969年《维也纳公约》第七十一条第二款(a)项。 |
| The effect of the text is to recognize that the treaty provisions were valid and could produce legal consequences prior to the emergence of the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 案文的效果是承认条约规定在一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)出现之前是有效的，并可能产生法律后果。 |
| Subject to draft conclusion 12, it is only the obligation to “further” perform that is affected by any termination. | 依照结论草案12, 只有“继续”履行的义务受到任何条约终止的影响。 |
| Prior to the acceptance and recognition, the rights and obligations under the impugned treaty are fully valid and applicable. | 在规范得到接受和承认之前，受责难的条约规定的权利和义务是完全有效和适用的。 |
| (6) Draft conclusion 10 on the invalidity of treaties on account of conflict with peremptory norms should be read together with draft conclusion 21 on procedural requirements for invoking invalidity. | (6) 关于条约因与强制性规范相抵触而无效的结论草案10应与关于援引无效的程序性要求的结论草案21一并解读。 |
| In accordance with draft conclusion 21, a party to a treaty cannot unilaterally declare that a treaty is, in its view, contrary to a peremptory norm and excuse itself from the duty to perform under the treaty. | 根据结论草案21, 条约缔约方不能单方面宣布因为自己认为该条约违反强制性规范而解除其根据该条约履行的义务。 |
| The procedure set out in draft conclusion 21 is to be followed to confirm, objectively, the invalidity of the treaty before any consequences of invalidity can be relied upon. | 在将条约无效的任何后果作为依据之前，应遵循结论草案21规定的程序，以客观地确认条约无效。 |
| Conclusion 11 Separability of treaty provisions conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论11 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的条约规定的可分离性 |
| 1. A treaty which, at the time of its conclusion, conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is void in whole, and no separation of the provisions of the treaty is permitted. | 1. 条约如在缔结时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触则整体无效，条约任何规定均不可分离。 |
| 2. A treaty which becomes void because of the emergence of a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) terminates in whole, unless: | 2. 因出现新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)而无效的条约整体终止，除非： |
| (a) the provisions that are in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) are separable from the remainder of the treaty with regard to their application; | (a) 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的规定就其适用而言，可与条约的其余部分分离； |
| (b) it appears from the treaty or is otherwise established that acceptance of the said provisions was not an essential basis of the consent of any party to be bound by the treaty as a whole; | (b) 条约本身规定或通过其他方式确定，接受有关规定并非任何缔约方同意受整个条约约束之必要基础； |
| and | 并且 |
| (c) continued performance of the remainder of the treaty would not be unjust. | (c) 该条约其余部分继续实施不致有失公正。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 11 addresses circumstances where only some provisions of a treaty are in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) while other provisions are not in conflict with such a norm. | (1) 结论草案11涉及的是一项条约的某些规定与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触，而另一些规定则与这种规范并无抵触的情况。 |
| As with draft conclusion 10 concerning invalidity of treaties, the draft conclusion follows the general approach in the 1969 Vienna Convention, namely to distinguish between, on the one hand, treaties which, at the time of their conclusion conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) and, on the other hand, treaties which conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) that emerges subsequent to the conclusion of the treaty. | 正如关于条约无效的结论草案10, 这项结论草案遵循了1969年《维也纳公约》的一般性做法，即对以下两种情况作了区分：一种是在缔结时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的条约，另一种是在缔结后与新出现的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的条约。 |
| The draft conclusion also follows closely the text contained in the relevant provisions of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 这项结论草案也非常贴近了1969年《维也纳公约》有关条款所载案文。 |
| (2) The first paragraph of draft conclusion 11 concerns those cases where the treaty, at the time of its conclusion, is in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (2) 结论草案11第1款涉及条约在缔结时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的情况。 |
| Under the 1969 Vienna Convention, in such cases, the treaty becomes void in whole. | 根据1969年《维也纳公约》，在这种情况下，条约整体无效。 |
| Article 53 of the Convention provides that the “treaty is void” and not that the relevant provision of the treaty concerned is void. | 《公约》第五十三条规定“条约无效”，而不是有关条约的有关规定无效。 |
| Moreover, article 44, paragraph 5, of the 1969 Vienna Convention makes it express that, in such cases, severance of the impugned provisions from the treaty is not permitted. | 此外，1969年《维也纳公约》第四十四条第五款明确规定，在这种情况下，受责难的条款与条约不许分离。 |
| The whole treaty is void ab initio. | 条约整体自始无效。 |
| Draft conclusion 11 thus makes it clear that the whole treaty is void and that there is no possibility of separating those provisions that are in conflict with peremptory norms from other provisions of the treaty. | 因此，结论草案11明确指出，整个条约都是无效的，不可能将那些与强制性规范相抵触的规定与条约的其他规定分离。 |
| First, the phrase “void in whole” in the draft conclusion is meant to clarify that the whole treaty and not only the offending provision is void. | 首先，结论草案中的“整体无效”一语意在澄清，整个条约无效，而不仅仅是存在抵触的规定无效。 |
| Second, to emphasize this basic point, the second part of the sentence explicitly states that “no separation of the provisions of the treaty is permitted”. | 第二，为了强调这一基本点，这句话的第二部分明确声明，“条约任何规定均不可分离”。 |
| The first part of the sentence follows the text of article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention, while the second part of the sentence is based on paragraph 5 of article 44 of the Convention, which excludes cases of invalidity under article 53 from the rules on separability in article 44. | 该句第一部分贴近1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条的案文，第二部分以该公约第四十四条第五款为依据，该款从第四十四条关于可否分离的规则中排除了第五十三条规定的无效情况。 |
| The view was expressed that there may be cases in which it would nevertheless be justified to separate different provisions of a treaty. | 但有意见认为，在某些情况下，也许将一项条约的不同条款分离是合理做法。 |
| (3) The second paragraph addresses circumstances where a treaty (or particular provisions of a treaty) conflict with a peremptory norm which emerges subsequent to the conclusion of the treaty. | (3) 第2款涉及条约(或条约的特定规定)与在条约缔结后产生的强制性规范相抵触的情况。 |
| The formulation of the second paragraph follows closely that in paragraph 3 of article 44 of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 第2款的措词非常贴近1969年《维也纳公约》第四十四条第三款的措辞。 |
| It recognizes the possibility of separation in cases where a treaty becomes invalid due to the emergence of a peremptory norm of general international law subsequent to the conclusion of the treaty. | 该款承认在条约缔结后因一般国际法强制性规范的出现而使条约无效的情况下分离的可能性。 |
| (4) The chapeau of the second paragraph makes plain that, as a general rule, a treaty becomes void as a whole if it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), even in cases where the peremptory norm emerges subsequent to the conclusion of the treaty. | (4) 第2款的导语直白地表明，作为一般规则，如果一项条约与一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)相抵触，即使强制性规范(强行法)是在条约缔结后出现的，条约整体无效。 |
| For that reason, the first part of the chapeau of the second paragraph of draft conclusion 11 provides that a treaty which becomes void because of the emergence of a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) terminates in whole. | 因此，结论草案11第2款导语的第一部分规定，因出现新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)而无效的条约整体终止。 |
| The word “unless”, at the end of the chapeau, signifies that it is only in those limited instances which are covered by subparagraphs (a) to (c) where separation may take place. | 导语末尾处的“除非”一词表示，只有在(a)至(c)分段所涵盖的有限情况下，才可能发生分离。 |
| The elements listed in subparagraphs (a) to (c) are cumulative in nature. | (a)至(c)分段所列要素为累加性质。 |
| In other words, all three elements must be present in order for provisions that conflict with a peremptory norm to be separated from the rest of the treaty. | 换言之，所有这三个要素都必须存在，才可以将与强制性规范相抵触的规定与条约的其他部分分离。 |
| (5) The elements listed in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 11 are taken from article 44, paragraph 3, of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | (5) 结论草案11第2款列举的要素取自1969年《维也纳公约》第四十四条第三款。 |
| The first element, as stipulated in subparagraph (a), is that the provisions which are in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) must be separable from the remainder of the treaty with regard to their application. | (a)分段规定的第一项要素是，与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的规定就其适用而言，必须可以与条约的其余部分分离； |
| This means that it must be possible to apply the rest of the treaty without the provisions which are in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 这意味着，在与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的规定不存在的情况下，必须有可能适用条约的其余部分。 |
| Where the other provisions serve the function of facilitating the implementation of the impugned provision, such a provision can obviously not be separated from the rest of the treaty with regard to its application. | 例如，如果其他规定的作用是促进执行受责难的规定，则显然不能将受责难的规定与条约其他规定的适用分离。 |
| (6) It is not enough that it is possible to apply the treaty without the impugned provision. | (6) 仅有可能在受到责难的规定不存在的情况下适用条约是不够的。 |
| Subparagraph (b) of the second paragraph of draft conclusion 11 states that it must appear from the treaty or be otherwise established that the acceptance of the said provisions was not an essential basis of the consent of any party to be bound by the treaty as a whole. | 结论草案11第2款(b)分段声明，必须通过条约本身规定或通过其他方式确定，接受有关规定并非任何缔约方同意受整个条约约束之必要基础。 |
| Even if a treaty could be applied without the impugned provision, it would be contrary to the consensual nature of treaties for a treaty to be applied without a provision that was “an essential basis” for its conclusion, since without that provision there would have been no consent to the treaty. | 即使一项条约可以在受责难的规定不存在的情况下适用，它也会违背条约的协商一致性质，即条约是在不存在作为缔结条约的“必要基础”的规定的情况下适用的，因为如果没有这项规定，就不会有对条约的同意。 |
| (7) Pursuant to subparagraph (c), the last condition that has to be met for severance of a provision that conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) that emerges subsequent to the conclusion of a treaty is that the continued performance under the treaty would not be unjust. | (7) 根据(c)分段，将一项与条约缔结后产生的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的规定分离，必须满足最后一个条件，即条约继续实施不致有失公正。 |
| The word “unjust”, in this context, is meant to refer to the essential balance of rights and obligations created by the treaty which could be disturbed only if some provisions were separated while others were retained. | 在这种情况下，“有失公正”一词指的是条约产生的权利和义务的基本平衡，只有在一些规定被分离而另一些规定被保留的情况下，才会破坏这种平衡。 |
| Furthermore, to decide whether continued performance of the treaty would be “unjust”, consideration needs to be given not only to the impact on the parties of the treaty, but also impacts beyond parties, if relevant and necessary. | 此外，决定继续实施条约是否“有失公正”，不仅需要考虑对条约缔约方的影响，如果相关且必要，还应考虑在缔约方以外产生的影响。 |
| Whether the conditions set out in the second paragraph are present is to be established by a consideration of all the relevant circumstances, including the subject of the provision, its relation to other clauses of the treaty and the travaux preparatoires amongst other factors. | 第2款所列条件是否存在，是通过考虑所有相关情况确定的，包括该规定的主题、该主题与条约其他条款的关系、准备工作文件以及其他因素。 |
| Conclusion 12 Consequences of the invalidity and termination of treaties conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论12 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的条约无效和终止的后果 |
| 1. Parties to a treaty which is void as a result of being in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) at the time of the treaty’s conclusion have a legal obligation to: | 1. 因在缔结时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触而无效的条约的缔约方有以下法律义务： |
| (a) eliminate as far as possible the consequences of any act performed in reliance on any provision of the treaty which conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens); | (a) 尽量消除依据与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的条约之任何规定所实施的任何行为之后果； |
| and | 以及 |
| (b) bring their mutual relations into conformity with the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (b) 使彼此关系符合一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| 2. The termination of a treaty on account of the emergence of a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) does not affect any right, obligation or legal situation created through the execution of the treaty prior to the termination of the treaty, provided that those rights, obligations or situations may thereafter be maintained only to the extent that their maintenance is not in itself in conflict with the new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 2. 一项条约因出现新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)而终止，不影响在该条约终止前因实施该条约而产生的任何权利、义务或法律情势，条件是此后这些权利、义务或情势的保持仅以与新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)不相抵触为限。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) One of the consequences of a conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is that the treaty is void or, in the case of the emergence of the peremptory norm subsequent to the adoption of the treaty, the treaty becomes void. | (1) 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的后果之一是条约无效，或在条约通过后出现强制性规范的情况下，条约成为无效。 |
| Yet a treaty, even a void one, may lead to consequences through, for example, parties acting pursuant to the treaty. | 然而，一项条约，即使是一项无效的条约，也可能产生后果，例如因为缔约方根据条约行事而产生后果。 |
| Those consequences may manifest themselves through the creation of rights and obligations or by the establishment of factual situations. | 这些后果可能通过产生权利和义务或通过确立事实情况而表现出来。 |
| Draft conclusion 12 addresses the consequences of the invalidation of treaties as a result of a conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 结论草案12涉及条约因为与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触而无效之后果。 |
| There is therefore a close relationship between draft conclusion 10 and draft conclusion 12. | 因此，结论草案10和结论草案12之间存在密切关系。 |
| Draft conclusion 12 addresses the consequences of a treaty that has been rendered void. | 结论草案12涉及被宣布无效的条约的后果。 |
| (2) As is the case for draft conclusions 10 and 11, draft conclusion 12 is structured on the basis of the distinction between articles 53 and 64 of the 1969 Vienna Convention: those cases of invalidity as a result of a conflict with an existing peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) and those cases of invalidity on account of conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law that emerges subsequent to the adoption of the treaty. | (2) 与结论草案10和11的情况一样，结论草案12的结构依据的是1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条和第六十四条之间的区别：即因与现有的一般国际法强制性规范相抵触而无效的情况，以及因与条约通过后产生的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触而无效的情况。 |
| Furthermore, as with draft conclusions 10 and 11, draft conclusion 12 follows closely the text of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 此外，与结论草案10和11一样，结论草案12也非常贴近1969年《维也纳公约》的案文。 |
| Finally, as is the case with draft conclusion 10, the consequences for the invalidity of a treaty are subject to the procedural requirements set out in draft conclusion 21. | 最后，与结论草案10一样，条约无效的后果也受结论草案21中规定的程序性要求的影响。 |
| (3) The first paragraph of draft conclusion 12 addresses cases where a treaty is void as a result of a conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) at the time of the treaty’s conclusion. | (3) 结论草案12第1款涉及条约在缔结时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触而无效的情况。 |
| The formulation of the paragraph follows closely the formulation of article 71, paragraph 1, of the 1969 Vienna Convention concerning “a treaty which is void under article 53”. | 本款的措词非常贴近1969年《维也纳公约》第七十一条第一款关于“条约依第五十三条无效者”的措词。 |
| Since in that case no treaty comes into being – which is the essence of void ab initio – no reliance can be placed on the provisions of the treaty. | 鉴于在这种情况下不能缔结条约――这也是自始无效之实质――因此不得以条约规定为依据。 |
| However, acts may have been performed in good faith in reliance on the void treaty producing particular consequences. | 尽管如此，可能已一秉诚意地依据该无效条约采取了行动，并产生了特定后果。 |
| To address these consequences, the first paragraph of draft conclusion 12 refers to two obligations. | 为了处理这些后果，结论草案12第1款提到两项义务。 |
| (4) The first obligation of the parties to the void treaty is to eliminate as far as possible the consequences of any act performed in reliance on any provision of the treaty in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (4) 无效条约缔约方的第一项义务是尽量消除依据与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的条约之任何规定所实施的任何行为之后果。 |
| First, it will be noted that the obligation is to eliminate “as far as possible”. | 首先应当指出的是，这项义务在于“尽量”消除。 |
| The obligation is thus not one of result but one of conduct. | 因此，该义务不在于结果，而是在于行为。 |
| It recognizes that it may not be possible to eliminate the relevant consequences but requires States to make best efforts to eliminate any such consequences. | 该款认识到，也许不可能消除相关后果，但要求各国尽最大努力消除任何此类后果。 |
| Second, the duty is not to eliminate the consequences of any acts performed in reliance of any part of the treaty, but only the consequences of those acts which have been performed in reliance on the impugned provisions of the treaty. | 第二，这里的责任不是消除因依据条约任何部分而实施的任何行为的后果，而只是消除依据条约受责难的规定而实施的那些行为的后果。 |
| Thus, while the whole treaty is void, there is no obligation to eliminate consequences of acts performed in reliance of provisions of the treaty that are not in conflict with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 因此，虽然条约整体无效，但并没有义务消除依据不与一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)抵触的条约条款而实施的行为的后果。 |
| The second obligation, which flows from the first, is that the parties are to bring their mutual relations into conformity with the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 第二项义务源自第一项义务，即各方应使彼此关系符合一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| This means that, moving forward, the parties to the treaty should ensure that their relations are consistent with the peremptory norm in question. | 这意味着，在前进过程中，条约缔约方应确保彼此关系符合所涉强制性规范。 |
| Thus, while the first obligation is concerned with past conduct, the second is concerned with future conduct. | 因此，第一项义务涉及过去的行为，而第二项义务则涉及未来的行为。 |
| (5) The second paragraph concerns the situation addressed by article 64 of the 1969 Vienna Convention, namely those cases in which a treaty becomes void as a result of a peremptory norm that emerges subsequent to the adoption of the treaty. | (5) 第2款涉及1969年《维也纳公约》第六十四条处理的情况，即条约因其通过后产生的强制性规范而失效的情况。 |
| The formulation in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 12 follows closely the text of article 71, paragraph 2, of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 结论草案12第2款的措词非常贴近1969年《维也纳公约》第七十一条第二款的案文。 |
| It must be reiterated that, in such cases, the treaty only becomes invalid after the emergence of the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 必须重申，在这种情况下，条约只有在一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)出现之后才会失效。 |
| In other words, during the period between the adoption of the treaty and the emergence of the peremptory norm, the treaty remains valid and consequently acts performed and rights and obligations created pursuant to it, remain valid. | 换言之，在条约通过和强制性规范出现之间的这段时间内，条约仍然有效，因此，根据条约实施的行为和产生的权利和义务仍然有效。 |
| There can therefore be no obligation to eliminate consequences of acts validly performed. | 因此，不存在消除实施有效行为的后果的义务。 |
| The draft conclusion states that the termination of a treaty due to conflict with a peremptory norm that emerges subsequent to the adoption of the treaty does not affect any right, obligation or legal situation created through the execution of the treaty prior to the termination of the treaty. | 结论草案指出，一项条约因与其通过后产生的强制性规范抵触而终止，不影响在该条约终止前因实施该条约而产生的任何权利、义务或法律情势。 |
| Thus, while the treaty becomes void, rights, obligations or legal situations created through the lawful performance under the treaty will not be affected. | 因此，虽然条约成为无效，但通过合法实施条约而产生的权利、义务或法律情势不会受到影响。 |
| However, those rights, obligations or legal situations may be maintained or relied upon only to the extent that their continued existence is not itself a violation of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 然而，只有在这些权利、义务或法律情势的继续存在本身不违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的情况下，才可以对它们予以保持和以之作为依据。 |
| Conclusion 13 Absence of effect of reservations to treaties on peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论13 对条约的保留对一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)不具效果 |
| 1. A reservation to a treaty provision that reflects a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) does not affect the binding nature of that norm, which shall continue to apply as such. | 1. 对反映一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的条约规定的保留不影响该规范的约束性，该规范应继续作为强制性规范适用。 |
| 2. A reservation cannot exclude or modify the legal effect of a treaty in a manner contrary to a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 2. 保留不得以违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的方式排除或更改条约的法律效力。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 13 concerns the effects of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) on the rules of international law relating to reservations to treaties. | (1) 结论草案13涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)对有关对条约的保留的国际法规则的影响。 |
| The purpose of the draft conclusion is not to regulate reservations, which are dealt with in articles 19 to 23 of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 结论草案的目的不是为了规范1969年《维也纳公约》第十九条至第二十三条处理的保留问题。 |
| The draft conclusion proceeds from the effects of reservations as provided for in the Convention. | 结论草案源于该公约规定的保留的效果。 |
| (2) The first paragraph addresses the case where a reservation is entered to a treaty provision that reflects a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (2) 第1款涉及对反映一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的条约规定提出保留的情况。 |
| The formulation of the first paragraph of draft conclusion 13 is based on the Commission’s Guide to Practice on Reservations to Treaties. | 结论草案13第1款的措辞依据的是委员会《对条约的保留实践指南》。 |
| It states that a reservation to a provision in a treaty that reflects a peremptory norm does not affect the binding nature of that norm which shall continue to apply as such. | 该款指出，对反映强制性规范的条约规定的保留不影响该规范的约束性，该规范应继续作为强制性规范适用。 |
| The phrase “as such” is intended to indicate that even when reflected in a treaty provision, a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) retains its validity independent of the treaty provision. | “作为强制性规范”一语意在表明，即使反映在条约规定中，但一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)仍保持其有效性，不受条约规定的影响。 |
| This means that while the reservation may well affect the treaty rule and the application of the treaty rule, the norm, as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), will not be affected and will continue to apply. | 这意味着，虽然保留很可能影响条约规则和条约规则的适用，但作为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的规范将不受影响，并将继续适用。 |
| The rule reflected in this paragraph of draft conclusion 13 flows from the normal operation of international law. | 结论草案13这一款所反映的规则源于国际法的正常运行。 |
| It derives, in particular, from the fact that the treaty provision over which a reservation has been formulated, and the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) in question, have a separate existence. | 它尤其源于一个事实，即提具保留的条约规定和有关的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)是分别存在的。 |
| (3) The rule in the first paragraph of draft conclusion 13 does not relate to the validity of the reservation. | (3) 结论草案13第1款中的规则与保留的有效性无关。 |
| Whether the reservation is valid or not, and the consequences of any invalidity, are matters that are governed by the rules contained in the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 保留是否有效以及任何无效的后果，都属于1969年《维也纳公约》所载规则管辖的事项。 |
| It would be going too far to prohibit a reservation to a provision in a treaty which reflects a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) outright since such a determination should always be dependent upon ascertaining the object and purpose of the treaty in question – an exercise that can only be done through the interpretation of each particular treaty. | 直接禁止对条约中反映一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的规定提出保留是过分的，因为这种裁断应始终取决于对有关条约的目的和宗旨的确定――这项工作只能通过对每项具体条约的解释来进行。 |
| It is nonetheless important to emphasize that, whatever the validity of the reservation in question, a State cannot escape the binding nature of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) by formulating a reservation to a treaty provision reflecting that norm. | 然而，必须强调的是，无论有关保留的有效性如何，一国不能通过对反映一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的条约规定提具保留的办法，逃避该规范的约束性。 |
| (4) The second paragraph of draft conclusion 13 concerns reservations which, on their face, are neutral and do not relate to peremptory norms, but whose application would be contrary to a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (4) 结论草案13第2款涉及表面上为中性、与强制性规范无关，但其适用会违反一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)的保留。 |
| Such reservations are invalid. | 这类保留是无效的。 |
| Drawing on paragraph 2 of guideline 4.4.3 of the Guide to Practice on Reservations to Treaties, draft conclusion 13 states that a reservation cannot exclude or modify the legal effect of a treaty in a manner contrary to a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 根据《对条约的保留实践指南》所载准则4.4.3第2段，结论草案13指出，保留不能以违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的方式排除或更改条约的法律效力。 |
| The typical example identified in the commentary to guideline 4.4.3 is a reservation “intended to exclude a category of persons from benefitting from certain rights granted under a treaty”. | 准则4.4.3的评注中指出的典型例子是“意图将某一类人排除在外，使其不能受益于条约所赋予的某些权利”的保留。 |
| The right to education, though very important, is not, at this time, a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 受教育权虽然非常重要，但目前并不是一般国际法(强行法)的强制性规范。 |
| Thus, the formulation of a reservation to a treaty provision proclaiming a right to education would not, as such, be contrary to a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) nor would it constitute a reservation to a treaty provision reflecting a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 因此，对宣称受教育权的条约规定提出保留本身并不违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，也不构成对反映一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的条约规定的保留。 |
| However, a reservation that limits the implementation of such right to a particular racial group or excludes a particular racial group from the enjoyment of the treaty right, may well be found to violate the generally recognized peremptory norm of general international law prohibiting racial discrimination. | 但是，如果一项保留限定对某一特定种族群体落实这一权利，或不让某一特定种族群体享有这一条约权利，则可认定该保留违反了一般国际法禁止种族歧视这一普遍承认的强制性规范。 |
| Conclusion 14 Rules of customary international law conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论14 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的习惯国际法规则 |
| 1. A rule of customary international law does not come into existence if it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 1. 习惯国际法规则如与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触，则不会形成。 |
| This is without prejudice to the possible modification of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. | 这不妨碍一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)由嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范加以变更的可能性。 |
| 2. A rule of customary international law not of a peremptory character ceases to exist if and to the extent that it conflicts with a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 2. 不具有强制性的习惯国际法规则如与新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触，则在抵触范围内停止存在。 |
| 3. The persistent objector rule does not apply to peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 3. 一贯反对者规则不适用于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 14 addresses the consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) for customary international law. | (1) 结论草案14涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)对习惯国际法的影响。 |
| Draft conclusion 14 is divided into three paragraphs. | 结论草案14分为三段。 |
| The first paragraph concerns the consequences that an existing peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) has on the formation of a new rule of customary international law. | 第一段涉及现有一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)对形成新的习惯国际法规则的影响。 |
| The second paragraph concerns the consequences that a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) has on existing rules of customary international law. | 第二段涉及新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)对现有习惯国际法规则的影响。 |
| The third paragraph addresses the non-applicability of the persistent objector rule. | 第三段论述一贯反对者规则的不适用性。 |
| The first two paragraphs mirror draft conclusion 10, which distinguishes between the situation of a treaty at the time of its conclusion conflicting with an existing peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), on the one hand, and that of a treaty conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) that emerges subsequent to the conclusion of a treaty. | 前两段反映了结论草案10, 该草案区分了与条约缔结时已存在的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的情况和与条约缔结后才出现的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的情况。 |
| (2) The first sentence of the first paragraph of draft conclusion 14 provides that a rule of customary international law does not come into existence if it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (2) 结论草案14第一段第一句规定，如果习惯国际法规则与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触，则该规则不会形成。 |
| The words “does not come into existence” are meant to indicate that, even if constituent elements of customary international law are present, a rule of customary international law does not come into existence if the putative rule conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | “不会形成”一词意在表明，即使习惯国际法的组成要素存在，在假定规则与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的情况下，该习惯国际法的规则不会形成。 |
| Unlike in the case of treaties, the terms “invalid” or “void” are not appropriate since the putative rule of customary international law does not come into existence in the first place. | 与条约不同的是，“无效”或“失效”这两个术语不合适，因为习惯国际法的假定规则本来就不存在。 |
| (3) Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) are hierarchically superior to other norms of international law and therefore override such norms in the case of conflict. | (3) 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)在等级上优越于其他国际法规范，因此在相互抵触情况下可以否定后一类规范。 |
| Decisions of national courts have recognized that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) prevail over conflicting rules of customary international law. | 国家法院的决定承认，一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)优先于与之相抵触的习惯国际法规则。 |
| In Siderman de Blake v. Republic of Argentina, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit considered that “[i]indeed … the supremacy of jus cogens extends over all rules of international law” and noted that “norms that have attained the status of jus cogens ‘prevail over and invalidate international agreements and other rules of international law in conflict with them’”. | 在Siderman de Blake诉阿根廷共和国一案中，美国第九巡回上诉法院认为“[i]事实上…强行法的至高无上超越了国际法的所有规则”，并指出“已达到强行法地位的规范优先于并使与之相抵触的国际协定和其他国际法规则无效”。 |
| The Supreme Court of Argentina has similarly stated that crimes against humanity had the “character of jus cogens, meaning that [the prohibition is] above both treaty law, and all other sources of international law”. | 阿根廷最高法院同样指出，危害人类罪具有“强行法的性质，这意味着[禁令]高于条约法和所有其他国际法渊源”。 |
| (4) The position that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) prevail over conflicting rules of customary international law has also been recognized in decisions of international courts and tribunals. | (4) 国际法院和法庭的决定也承认一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)优先于相抵触的习惯国际法规则的立场。 |
| In the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State case, the International Court of Justice noted the proposition of Italy that “jus cogens rules always prevail over any inconsistent rule of international law, whether contained in a treaty or in customary international law”. | 在国家管辖豁免案中，国际法院注意到意大利的主张，即“强行法规则总是优先于任何不一致的国际法规则，无论是条约还是习惯国际法所载国际法规则”。 |
| The Court did not reject that proposition, but declined to find that there was a conflict between the rule on State immunities in civil proceedings and peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 法院未驳回这一立场，但拒绝认定民事诉讼中的国家豁免规则与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)之间存在冲突。 |
| The hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) over customary international law was also recognized in Al-Adsani v. the United Kingdom, in which the European Court of Human Rights determined, having considered Prosecutor v. Furundžija, that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) are those norms that enjoy “a higher rank in the international hierarchy than treaty law and even ‘ordinary’ customary rules”. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相对于习惯国际法的等级优势也在Al-Adsani诉联合王国一案中得到承认，欧洲人权法院在该案中参照检察官诉Furundžija案的结论认定，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)是那些“在国际等级中比条约法甚至‘普通’习惯规则享有更高等级”的规范。 |
| The consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) on the existence of a conflicting rule of customary international law is aptly captured in the joint dissenting opinion of Judges Rozakis and Caflisch in the Al-Adsani v. the United Kingdom case: | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)对与之相抵触的习惯国际法规则的存在产生的后果，在罗萨基斯(Rozakis)法官和卡弗利施(Caflisch)法官在Al-Adsani诉联合王国案中的联合反对意见中体现得恰如其分： |
| By accepting that the rule on prohibition of torture is a rule of jus cogens, the majority recognise that it is hierarchically higher than any other rule of international law …. | 大多数人接受禁止酷刑规则是一项强行法规则，因此承认它在等级上高于国际法的任何其他规则…。 |
| For the basic characteristic of a jus cogens rule is that … it overrides any other rule which does not have the same status. | 因为强行法规则的基本特征是…它优先于不具有同样地位的任何其他规则。 |
| In the event of a conflict between a jus cogens rule and any other rule of international law, the former prevails. | 如果强行法规则与任何其他国际法规则发生冲突，前者优先。 |
| (5) The rule in the first sentence of the first paragraph of draft conclusion 14, which states that a rule of customary international law does not come into existence if it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), follows from the fact that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) prevail over conflicting rules of customary international law. | (5) 结论草案14第一段第一句中的规则指出，如果习惯国际法规则与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触，则该规则不会形成，这源于一个事实，即一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)优先于与之相抵触的习惯国际法规则。 |
| Thus, the High Court of Kenya, in The Kenya Section of the International Commission of Jurists v. the Attorney-General and Others, stated that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) “rendered void any other pre-emptory rules which come into conflict with them”. | 因此，肯尼亚高等法院在国际法学家委员会肯尼亚分会诉总检察长等人一案中指出，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)“使任何其他与之抵触的既定规则无效”。 |
| (6) The second sentence of the first paragraph of draft conclusion 14 provides that the general principle captured in the first sentence is without prejudice to the possible modification of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. | (6) 结论草案14第一段第二句规定，第一句中的一般原则不妨碍嗣后具有相同性质的一般国际法规范对一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)加以变更的可能性。 |
| This is based on the recognition that, as provided for in draft conclusion 5, customary international law is the most common basis for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and that, therefore, modification of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is likely to occur through the subsequent acceptance and recognition of a rule of customary international law as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) or the emergence of a new rule of customary international law so accepted and recognized. | 这是基于这样一种认识，即如结论草案5所述，习惯国际法是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)最常见的基础。 因此，通过嗣后接受和承认习惯国际法规则为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，或出现一个被如此接受和承认的习惯国际法新规则，可能需要对一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)进行变更。 |
| However, to be able to modify a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), the rule of customary international law in question must have the same character as the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) being modified. | 然而，为了能够变更一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，有关习惯国际法的规则必须与需要变更的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)具有相同的性质。 |
| The phrase “having the same character”, which is taken from article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention indicates that such a rule of customary international law must itself be recognized and accepted as one from which no derogation is permitted and which can only be modified by a subsequent peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 取自1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条的“具有相同性质”一语表明，必须承认和接受这种习惯国际法规则本身为不允许克减的规则，并且只能由嗣后的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)加以变更。 |
| That a rule of customary international law could only derogate from, and thus modify, a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) if such a rule of customary international law also had a peremptory character is supported by a judgment of the Queen’s Bench Division of the England and Wales High Court of Justice in R (Mohamed) v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, which, having referred to the hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), stated that their “derogation by States through treaties or rules of customary law not possessing the same status [was] not permitted”. | 一项习惯国际法规则只有在其本身也具有强制性的情况下，才能对一项一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)予以克减并变更。 英格兰和威尔士高等法院女王王座法庭在R (Mohamed)诉外交和联邦事务大臣一案的判决中支持这一观点。 判决提到一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的优越等级后，指出“不允许国家通过不具有同等地位的条约或习惯法规则克减这些规范”。 |
| (7) The second paragraph of draft conclusion 14 concerns cases in which a rule of customary international law, which at the time of its formation did not conflict with existing peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) that emerges subsequent to the formation of the rule of customary international law. | (7) 结论草案14第二段涉及习惯国际法规则形成时与现有一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)不相抵触，但在习惯国际法规则形成后与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的情况。 |
| It provides that such a rule of customary international law “ceases to exist if and to the extent that it conflicts with a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens)”. | 该段规定，这种习惯国际法规则“如与新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触，则在抵触范围内停止存在”。 |
| The phrase “ceases to exist” indicates that prior to the emergence of the new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), the rule of customary international law was in force but that it ceases to exist upon the emergence of the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | “停止存在”一词表明，在新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)出现之前，习惯国际法规则已经生效，但在一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)出现时，则停止存在。 |
| The phrase “if and to the extent” is meant to indicate that only those parts of the rule of customary international law in question that conflict with the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) will cease to exist. | “如…则在抵触范围内”一语意在表明，习惯国际法规则只有与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的部分将停止存在。 |
| This phrase operates like a separability provision, in order to maintain those parts of the rule of customary international law that are consistent with the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 这一短语的作用就像一个分离条款，目的是保留习惯国际法规则中与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相一致的部分。 |
| The qualifier “if and to the extent” does not apply to the first paragraph of draft conclusion 14 since, in the case of a pre-existing peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), the rule of customary international law in question does not come into existence at all. | 限定词“如…则在抵触范围内”不适用于结论草案14的第一段，因为就先前存在的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)而言，所涉习惯国际法规则根本不存在。 |
| (8) The third paragraph of draft conclusion 14 deals with the persistent objector rule. | (8) 结论草案14第三段涉及一贯反对者规则。 |
| It provides that the persistent objector rule does not apply to peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 该段规定，一贯反对者规则不适用于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| Draft conclusion 15 of the Commission’s draft conclusions on identification of customary international law states that a rule of customary international law is not opposable to a State that has persistently objected to that rule of customary international law while it was in the process of formation for as long as that State maintains its objection. | 委员会关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案之结论草案15指出，在习惯国际法规则形成过程中，只要一个国家坚持反对，该习惯国际法规则就不对一贯反对该规则的国家适用。 |
| Draft conclusion 15 of the draft conclusions on identification of customary international law also stated, however, that this rule was without prejudice to any question concerning peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 然而，关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案之结论草案15也指出，这一规则不妨碍一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所涉任何问题。 |
| (9) The rule that persistent objection does not apply to peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) flows from both the universal application and hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms of general international law as reflected in draft conclusion 3. | (9) 一贯反对不适用于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的规则源于结论草案3所反映的一般国际法强制性规范的普遍适用和等级优越。 |
| This means that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) apply to all States. | 这意味着一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)适用于所有国家。 |
| In this respect, the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland, in Youssef Nada v. State Secretariat for Economic Affairs and Federal Department of Economic Affairs, stated that jus cogens norms “were binding on all subjects of international law”. | 在这方面，瑞士联邦最高法院在Youssef Nada诉国家经济事务秘书处和联邦经济事务部案中指出，强行法规范“对国际法的所有主体都具有约束力”。 |
| The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has concluded that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) “bind all States”. | 美洲人权法院的结论认为，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)“约束所有国家”。 |
| The rule that, by virtue of their universal application and hierarchical superiority, peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) cannot be subject to the persistent objector rule has been reflected in statements by States. | 由于普遍适用和等级优越，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)不受制于一贯反对者规则的规定也反映在各国的论述中。 |
| Specifically in response to an argument about the persistent objector rule, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, in Michael Domingues v. United States, determined that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) “bind the international community as a whole, irrespective of protest, recognition or acquiescence”. | 具体针对一贯反对者规则的一个论点，美洲人权委员会在Michael Dominques诉美国一案中裁定，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)“对整个国际社会具有约束力，无论是抗议、承认或默许”。 |
| (10) A question that arises in scholarly writings is whether a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) can ever emerge in the face of persistent objection of one or a few States. | (10) 学术著作中产生的一个问题是，一项一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)面对一个或几个国家的一贯反对，是否还会出现？ |
| It can because persistent objection to a rule of customary international law by a few States does not prevent the rule’s emergence; | 答案是还会出现，因为少数国家对习惯国际法规则的一贯反对并不妨碍该规则的出现； |
| rather, such objection merely renders that rule not opposable to the State or States concerned for so long as the objection is maintained. | 相反，这种反对只是使该规则不对坚持反对意见的一个或多个有关国家适用。 |
| For that reason, the persistent objector rule does not prevent the emergence of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) based on a rule of customary international law to which one or more States have persistently objected. | 因此，一贯反对者规则不妨碍基于一个或更多国家一贯反对的习惯国际法规则的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的出现。 |
| At the same time, if a rule of customary international law, to which a State has persistently objected, becomes accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as one from which no derogation is permitted and which can only be modified by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character, the effect of the persistent objection falls away. | 与此同时，如果一国一贯反对的习惯国际法规则被整个国际社会接受和承认为不可克减的规则，并且只能由嗣后具有同样性质的一般国际法规范加以变更，则一贯反对的效果就会消失。 |
| (11) Whether there is such acceptance and recognition of a rule of general international law (jus cogens) may be affected by the objections. | (11) 一项一般国际法规范(强行法)是否得到这种接受和承认，可能受到反对的影响。 |
| According to the second paragraph of draft conclusion 7, the phrase “international community of States as a whole” does not require the acceptance and recognition of all States but does require the acceptance and recognition of a very large majority. | 根据结论草案7第二段，“国际社会全体”一词不要求所有国家接受和承认，但要求绝大多数国家接受和承认。 |
| Thus, if a rule of customary international law was the object of persistent objections from several States, such objections might not be sufficient to preclude the emergence of a rule of customary international law but might be sufficient to preclude the norm from being recognized as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 因此，如果一项习惯国际法规则遭到若干国家的一贯反对，这种反对可能不足以妨碍习惯国际法规则的出现，但可能足以妨碍该规范被承认为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| In other words, to the extent that such persistent objection implies that the norm in question is not accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as one from which no derogation is permitted, then a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) might not arise. | 换句话说，如果这种一贯反对意味着有关规范不被整个国际社会接受和承认为不可克减的规范，那么一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)可能不会出现。 |
| (12) A view was expressed that “persistent objection” to a rule of customary international law should not be characterized as a “rule” but rather as a “doctrine”. | (12) 有人认为，对习惯国际法规则的“一贯反对”不应被定性为“规则”，而应被定性为“理论”。 |
| The Commission, however, decided to use the phrase “persistent objector rule” since this concept is often referred to as a “rule” and since the Commission has already referred to it as either a “rule” or a “doctrine” in its prior work. | 然而，委员会决定使用“一贯反对者规则”一词，因为这一概念经常被称为“规则”，而且委员会在以前的工作中已经将其称为“规则”或“理论”。 |
| (13) The application of draft conclusion 14 is to be read together with the interpretative rule set out in draft conclusion 20 and the procedural requirements set forth in draft conclusion 21. | (13) 结论草案14的适用应与结论草案20中提出的解释性规则和结论草案21中提出的程序要求一并解读。 |
| Conclusion 15 Obligations created by unilateral acts of States conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论15 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的国家单方面行为所创设的义务 |
| 1. A unilateral act of a State manifesting the intention to be bound by an obligation under international law that would be in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) does not create such an obligation. | 1. 表明有意接受与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的国际法义务约束的国家单方面行为，不创设此种义务。 |
| 2. An obligation under international law created by a unilateral act of a State ceases to exist if and to the extent that it conflicts with a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 2. 国家单方面行为所创设的国际法义务如与新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触，则在抵触范围内停止存在。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 15 addresses the legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) for unilateral acts of States manifesting the intention to be bound by an obligation under international law. | (1) 结论草案15涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)对表明有意接受国际法义务约束国家的单方面行为的法律后果。 |
| Draft conclusion 15 is based on the understanding that unilateral acts may, under certain conditions described below, establish obligations for the State performing the unilateral act. | 结论草案15基于这样一项理解，即单方面行为，在下述某些条件下，可以对实施此种单方面行为的国家产生义务。 |
| The first paragraph of draft conclusion 15 addresses those cases in which the unilateral act, at the time of its performance, is in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 结论草案15第一段涉及单方面行为在实施时与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的情况。 |
| It provides that, in such cases, the unilateral act does not create any such obligation. | 该段规定，在这种情况下，单方面行为不产生任何此种义务。 |
| This consequence of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) mirrors those in the first sentence of draft conclusion 10 and the first paragraph of draft conclusion 14 of the present draft conclusions, namely that no obligations come into existence at all. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的这一后果与本结论草案之结论草案10第一句和结论草案14第一段所述的后果是一致的，即根本不会产生任何义务。 |
| (2) The first paragraph of draft conclusion 15 is inspired by article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | (2) 结论草案15第一段受1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条的启发。 |
| The Commission, in its guiding principles applicable to unilateral declarations of States capable of creating legal obligations, formulated the rule in the following terms: “A unilateral declaration which is in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law is void”. | 委员会在其《适用于能够产生法律义务的国家单方面声明的指导原则》中，对这一规则使用以下措辞：“与一般国际法强制性规范相抵触的单方面声明是无效的”。 |
| Although the guiding principles use the phrase “is void” in the context of a declaration, the present draft conclusion uses broader phrases, “does not create such an obligation” and “ceases to exist”, so as to capture more fully the broader context of the draft conclusion, which is addressing unilateral acts in a broader sense. | 虽然《指导原则》使用了声明“无效”一词，但本结论草案使用了更宽泛的术语，即“不创设此种义务”和“停止存在”，以便更充分地反映结论草案的更宽泛背景，即从更广泛意义上处理单方面行为。 |
| The focus is therefore on the legal obligations intended to be created by the unilateral act in question. | 因此，重点是有关单方面行为打算产生的法律义务。 |
| As indicated in the first paragraph, such obligations are not created if they conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 如第一段所述，这种义务如果与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触，则不会产生。 |
| (3) The second paragraph concerns those cases in which a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) emerges subsequent to the creation of an obligation under international law resulting from a unilateral act. | (3) 第二段涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)在单方面行为产生国际法义务以后才出现的情况。 |
| The scope of this paragraph is different from that of the first paragraph because the second paragraph refers to obligations that have already been created by a unilateral act. | 该段的范围不同于第一段，第二段涉及单方面行为业已产生的义务。 |
| The second paragraph provides that such an obligation would cease to exist if, subsequent to its creation, it conflicted with a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 第二段规定，如果这种义务在产生以后与新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触，此种义务将停止存在。 |
| The second paragraph of draft conclusion 15 mirrors the second paragraph of draft conclusion 10 and the second paragraph of draft conclusion 14. | 结论草案15第二段反映了结论草案10第二段和结论草案14第二段的论述。 |
| It recognizes that, in these circumstances, obligations do come into existence but only cease to exist at the time of the emergence of a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 该段承认，在这些情况下，义务已经确实形成，只有在新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)出现后停止存在。 |
| The rule in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 15 is inspired by article 64 of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 结论草案15第二段的规则受到1969年《维也纳公约》第六十四条的启发。 |
| (4) The obligations arising from a unilateral act that conflict with a new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) emerging subsequent to the performance of the unilateral act cease to exist only to the extent that such obligations are inconsistent with the new peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (4) 单方面行为所产生的义务与单方面行为实施后出现的新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触，这种义务只有在与新的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)不一致的范围内停止存在。 |
| As in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 14, the phrase “if and to the extent” is meant to indicate that only those aspects of the obligation in question that conflict with the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) will cease to exist. | 如同结论草案14第二段，“如…则在抵触范围内”一语意在表明，有关义务只有与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的那些方面将停止存在。 |
| Other aspects of the obligation would continue to exist and apply, but only if it is possible to maintain them in the absence of the aspects of the obligations that cease to exist. | 义务的其他方面将继续存在和适用，但前提是在相抵触的方面停止存在的情况下其他方面仍有可能维持。 |
| (5) Draft conclusion 15 does not concern all unilateral acts, nor does it concern all acts creating obligations. | (5) 结论草案15不涉及所有单方面行为，也不涉及创设义务的所有行为。 |
| It is concerned with unilateral acts by a State undertaken with the intention to create obligations only for the State itself. | 它关注的是仅一国打算对该国本身创设义务的单方面行为。 |
| This draft conclusion does not concern sources of obligations, such as treaties and customary international law, which are addressed in previous draft conclusions. | 本结论草案不涉及义务的来源，如条约和习惯国际法，这些在以前的结论草案中都有涉及。 |
| Similarly, it does not address reservations, which are dealt with in draft conclusion 13. | 同样，本结论草案也不涉及结论草案13中论述的保留。 |
| Moreover, draft conclusion 15 does not cover other acts in conflict with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), which are addressed by other draft conclusions concerning responsibility for wrongful acts under international law. | 此外，结论草案15不涵盖与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的其他行为，那些行为由关于国际法之下不法行为的责任的其他结论草案处理。 |
| For example, a unilateral act that is not intended to create obligations on the State but that, nonetheless, constitutes a breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is subject to draft conclusions 17, 18, 19 and 22 of the present draft conclusions. | 例如，不打算对国家创设义务但却构成违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的单方面行为见本结论草案17、18、19和22。 |
| Draft conclusion 15 concerns only those unilateral acts by which a State manifests the intention to unilaterally assume obligations and not other acts. | 结论草案15只涉及一国表示有意单方面承担义务的单方面行为，而不涉及其他行为。 |
| (6) The first paragraph of draft conclusion 15 describes the unilateral act under consideration as one “manifesting the intention to be bound by an obligation under international law”. | (6) 结论草案15第一段将有关的单方面行为描述为“表明有意接受国际法义务约束的单方面行为”。 |
| The State performing the unilateral act must thus intend to establish obligations under international law. | 因此，实施单方面行为的国家必须有意确立国际法下的义务。 |
| This requires an ascertainment of the intention of the State performing a unilateral act. | 这需要确定实施单方面行为国家的意图。 |
| In Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Mali), the International Court of Justice determined that whether a unilateral act could create obligations “all depends on the intention of the State in question”. | 在边界争端案(布基纳法索/马里)中，国际法院裁定，单方面行为是否能够产生义务“完全取决于有关国家的意图”。 |
| The words “manifesting the intention” intend to convey that, although it is the subjective intention of the State that is sought, this intention has to be determined from the overall facts and circumstances of each particular case. | “表明有意”一词旨在表明，尽管寻求的是国家的主观意图，但这一意图必须根据每个具体案件的总体事实和情况来确定。 |
| The subjective intention is therefore to be sought by relying on objective facts. | 因此，主观意图要依靠客观事实来寻求。 |
| In the words of the International Court of Justice, whether a unilateral act was intended to create a legal obligation is to be “ascertained by interpretation of the act”. | 用国际法院的话说，单方面行为是否有意创设法律义务，将“通过对该行为的解释来确定”。 |
| Likewise, the second paragraph of draft conclusion 15 only applies to unilateral acts as described in paragraph (5). | 同样，结论草案15第二段仅适用于第(5)款所述的单方面行为。 |
| (7) Draft conclusion 15 applies to unilateral acts of States. | (7) 结论草案15适用于国家的单方面行为。 |
| Unilateral acts of international organizations that create or are intended to create obligations for that international organization are addressed in draft conclusion 16. | 结论草案16论述国际组织为该国际组织创设或打算创设义务的单方面行为。 |
| The fact that draft conclusion 15 applies to unilateral acts of States is without prejudice to the possible legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) for unilateral acts of non-State actors. | 结论草案15涉及国家的单方面行为，这一事实不影响一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)可能对非国家行为者单方面行为产生的法律后果。 |
| (8) The application of draft conclusion 15 is to be read together with the interpretative rule set out in draft conclusion 20 and the procedural requirements set forth in draft conclusion 21. | (8) 结论草案15的适用问题应与结论草案20中提出的解释性规则和结论草案21中提出的程序要求一并解读。 |
| Conclusion 16 Obligations created by resolutions, decisions or other acts of international organizations conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论16 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触的国际组织决议、决定或其他行为所创设的义务 |
| A resolution, decision or other act of an international organization that would otherwise have binding effect does not create obligations under international law if and to the extent that they conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 国际组织本应具有约束力的决议、决定或其他行为如与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触，则在抵触范围内不创设国际法义务。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 16 concerns the legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) for resolutions, decisions and other acts of international organizations. | (1) 结论草案16涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)对国际组织的决议、决定和其他行为的法律后果。 |
| (2) Draft conclusion 16 applies to resolutions, decisions or other acts of international organizations whatever their designation. | (2) 结论草案16适用于国际组织的决议、决定或其他行为，无论其名称如何。 |
| The phrase “resolution, decision or other act” of an international organization is intended to convey the same meaning as the description of “resolution” in paragraph (2) of the commentary to draft conclusion 12 of the draft conclusions on identification of customary international law. | 国际组织的“决议、决定或其他行为”一语意在表达关于习惯国际法的识别结论草案之结论草案12评注第(2)段中对“决议”的称谓。 |
| It also covers unilateral acts of international organizations manifesting an intention to be bound. | 它还涵盖国际组织表明有意接受约束的单方面行为。 |
| The words “that would otherwise have binding effect” serve to limit the scope of the draft conclusion to resolutions, decisions and acts of international organizations that would ordinarily have binding effect, but for the conflict with the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | “本应具有约束力”一语希望将结论草案的范围限制在通常具有约束力的国际组织的决议、决定和行为，除非与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触。 |
| Examples of a resolution, decision or act of an international organization that would otherwise have binding effect include a decision in a resolution of the Security Council, taken under chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, or a decision of the General Assembly admitting a State to become a member of the Organization. | 国际组织“本应具有约束力”的决议、决定或行为的实例包括安全理事会根据《联合国宪章》第七章通过的一项决议中的决定， 或联大接纳一国成为本组织成员的决定。 |
| The question of whether such a decision has binding effect (or is one that would otherwise have binding effect) is to be determined by an interpretation of the relevant decision. | 这种决定是否具有约束力(或者本应具有约束力)的问题将通过对相关决定的解释来确定。 |
| The European Union also produces acts in the form of directives, regulations and decisions, which are binding on Member States. | 欧洲联盟还以指令、条例和决定的形式产生对成员国具有约束力的法规。 |
| Other international organizations, such as the International Civil Aviation Organization, the African Union and the World Trade Organization may also produce resolutions, decisions or other acts that, but for the rule set forth in this draft conclusion, would have binding effect. | 其他国际组织，如国际民用航空组织、非洲联盟和世界贸易组织也可能产生具有约束力的决议、决定或其他行为，但本结论草案中规定的情况除外。 |
| Draft conclusion 16 is thus meant to be broad, covering all resolutions, decisions and acts that would otherwise establish obligations under international law. | 因此，结论草案16意在宽泛，涵盖本应产生国际法义务的所有决议、决定和行为。 |
| (3) Following the language of draft conclusions 14 and 15, draft conclusion 16 states that resolutions, decisions and other acts, as described in paragraph (2), do not create obligations under international law if and to the extent that such obligations conflict with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (3) 遵循结论草案14和15的措辞，结论草案16指出，第(2)段所述决议、决定和其他行为如与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)抵触，则在抵触范围内不创设国际法义务。 |
| As in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 14 and the second paragraph of draft conclusion 15, the words “if and to the extent” are meant to indicate that only those obligations that conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) will be affected by the operation of the draft conclusion. | 与结论草案14第二段和结论草案15第二段一样，“如…则在抵触范围内”一语的意思是，只有那些与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触的义务才会受到结论草案实施的影响。 |
| Other obligations not in conflict with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) will not be affected by the operation of draft conclusion 16. | 与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)不相抵触的其他义务不受结论草案16实施的影响。 |
| Provisions in a resolution, decision or other act of an international organization that are not in conflict with the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) will continue to apply if they are separable. | 国际组织的决议、决定或其他行为中与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)不相抵触的部分，如果可以分离，将继续适用。 |
| (4) The rule in draft conclusion 16, that a resolution, decision or act does not create obligations under international law if those obligations conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), follows from the hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (4) 结论草案16中一项决议、决定或行为如与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触则不创设国际法义务的规则，源于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的等级优越性。 |
| If rules of international law that are inconsistent with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) cannot be created through treaties, customary international law and unilateral acts, it follows that such rules cannot be created through resolutions, decisions or other acts of international organizations either. | 如果不能通过条约、习惯国际法和单方面行为产生与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)不一致的国际法规则，那么也不能通过国际组织的决议、决定或其他行为产生此种规则。 |
| Resolutions, decisions or acts of the Security Council, however, require additional consideration since, pursuant to Article 103 of the Charter of the United Nations, obligations under the Charter prevail over other rules of international law. | 然而，安全理事会的决议、决定或行为则另当别论，因为根据《联合国宪章》第一百零三条，《宪章》规定的义务优先于国际法的其他规则。 |
| For this reason, considering the hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), the Commission considered it important to highlight that draft conclusion 16 applies equally to binding resolutions, decisions and acts of the Security Council. | 因此，委员会认为，考虑到一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的等级优越性，必须强调，结论草案16同样适用于安全理事会具有约束力的决议、决定和行为。 |
| (5) The application of the rule in draft conclusion 16 has to be read together with the interpretative rule set out in draft conclusion 20 and the procedural requirements laid down in draft conclusion 21. | (5) 结论草案16中规则的适用应与结论草案20中提出的解释性规则和结论草案21中提出的程序要求一并解读。 |
| Conclusion 17 Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) as obligations owed to the international community as a whole (obligations erga omnes) | 结论17 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)作为对整个国际社会承担的义务(普遍义务) |
| 1. Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) give rise to obligations owed to the international community as a whole (obligations erga omnes), in which all States have a legal interest. | 1. 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)产生对整个国际社会承担的义务(普遍义务)，关乎所有国家的合法利益。 |
| 2. Any State is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State for a breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), in accordance with the rules on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 2. 根据关于国家对国际不法行为的责任的规则，任何国家均有权援引另一国对违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的责任。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 17 addresses obligations erga omnes. It consists of two paragraphs. | (1) 结论草案17涉及普遍义务问题，由两个段落组成。 |
| The first paragraph states that the peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) give rise to obligations owed to the international community as a whole (obligations erga omnes). | 第一段指出，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)产生对整个国际社会承担的义务(普遍义务)。 |
| The relationship between peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and obligations erga omnes has been recognized in the practice of States. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)与普遍义务之间的关系，已在国家实践当中得到承认。 |
| The Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly known as Zaire), for example, in a statement in the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly, proposed a treaty on the prohibition of the use of force and stated that the proposed treaty should have an erga omnes effect in view of the fact that the prohibition of the use of force was a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 例如，刚果民主共和国(旧称扎伊尔)在联大第六委员会的一次发言中提议缔结一项禁止使用武力条约，并指出，鉴于禁止使用武力是一项一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，所提议的条约应具有普遍效力。 |
| Similarly, the Czech Republic stated that “jus cogens obligations were erga omnes obligations, which did not allow for any derogation, including by means of an agreement”. | 同样，捷克共和国指出，“强行法义务是普遍义务，不容有任何克减，包括协议克减。 |
| The Federal Court of Australia, in Nulyarimma and Others v. Thompson, also accepted the contention of the parties that “the prohibition of genocide is a peremptory norm of customary international law (jus cogens) giving rise to non derogable obligations erga omnes that is, enforcement obligations owed by each nation State to the international community as a whole”. | ” 澳大利亚联邦法院在Nulyarimma等人诉Thompson一案中也接受了当事方的主张，即“禁止灭绝种族是一项习惯国际法强制性规范(强行法)，产生不可克减的普遍义务，即每个国家对整个国际社会承担的强制执行义务”。 |
| Similarly, in Kane v. Winn, the United States District Court of Massachusetts determined that “the prohibition against torture” is an obligation erga omnes that, “as [a] jus cogens norm[s] … [is] ‘non-derogable and peremptory’”. | 同样，美国马萨诸塞州联邦地区法院在Kane诉Winn一案中裁定“禁止酷刑”是一项普遍义务，“作为一项强行法规范…是‘不可克减且具有强制性的’”。 |
| (2) The International Court of Justice has not explicitly pronounced that a link exists between peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and obligations erga omnes. | (2) 国际法院尚未明确宣布一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)与普遍义务之间存在的关联。 |
| Nevertheless, such a link could be deduced from some of its judgments and advisory opinions. | 尽管如此，可以从该法院的一些判决和咨询意见当中推断出此种关联。 |
| First, every norm described by the Court as one having an erga omnes character is also one that has been included in the non-exhaustive list of norms previously referred to by the Commission as having peremptory status. | 首先，曾被该法院描述为具有普遍性的每一项规范， 均同时出现于委员会以往提出的具有强制性地位的规范的非详尽清单。 |
| This list is reproduced in the annex to the present draft conclusions. | 该清单载于本结论草案附件。 |
| Second, the Court has applied the legal consequences under article 41 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts (which concern breaches of peremptory norms) to breaches of such erga omnes obligations. | 其次，国际法院曾针对违反此类普遍义务情事(相关情事涉及违反强制性规范)适用《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第41条之下的法律后果。 |
| The Commission itself has been more explicit in recognizing a close relationship between obligations erga omnes and peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 在承认普遍义务与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)之间关系密切方面，委员会本身的态度更为明确。 |
| The relationship between peremptory norms and obligations erga omnes has also been recognized in scholarly writings. | 强制性规范与普遍义务之间的关系在学术著作当中也得到承认。 |
| (3) Although all peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) give rise to obligations erga omnes, it is widely considered that not all obligations erga omnes arise from peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (3) 虽然所有一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)均产生普遍义务，但普遍认为，并非所有的普遍义务均源自一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| For example, certain rules relating to common spaces, in particular common heritage regimes, may produce erga omnes obligations independent of whether they have peremptory status. | 例如，某些与共同空间有关的规则，尤其是共同遗产制度，无论是否具有强制性地位，均可能产生普遍义务。 |
| (4) The first paragraph of draft conclusion 17 is intended to capture, in a general way, the relationship described above between peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and obligations erga omnes. | (4) 结论草案17第一段意在从总体上把握上文所述一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)与普遍义务之间的关系。 |
| It states that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) “give rise to” obligations erga omnes. | 该段指出，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)“产生”普遍义务。 |
| This wording is based on the Commission’s articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, in which obligations erga omnes are described as those obligations which “arise under peremptory norms of general international law”. | 这一措辞系基于委员会的《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》。 在上述条款当中，普遍义务被描述为“一般国际法强制性规范产生”的义务。 |
| The phrase “in which all States have a legal interest” describes the main consequence of the erga omnes character of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | “关乎所有国家的合法利益”语句描述了一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)具有普遍性的主要后果。 |
| The words “legal interest” encompasses the protection of the legal norm as such, including rights and obligations. | “合法利益”词语涵盖对法律规范本身的保护，包括权利和义务在内。 |
| (5) The second paragraph of draft conclusion 17 builds on the first paragraph by describing a distinct consequence of the connection between obligations erga omnes and peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (5) 结论草案17第二段在第一段基础上更进一步，描述了普遍义务与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)之间联系的一个确切后果。 |
| It describes, in more precise terms, the implications of the phrase “in which all States have a legal interest” in the first paragraph. | 该段以更精确的语言，描述了第一段当中“关乎所有国家的合法利益”语句的含意。 |
| This consequence is that any State is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State for the latter’s breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 上述后果是，任何国家均有权就另一国违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事援引后者的责任。 |
| The words used in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 17 follow the text of article 48 of the Commission’s articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, which provides that “[a]ny State … is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State … if … the obligation breached is owed to the international community as a whole”. | 结论草案17第二段所采用的措辞系遵循委员会《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第48条案文。 该条规定，“任何国家有权…对另一国援引责任…被违反的义务是对整个国际社会承担的义务。 |
| Although draft conclusion 17 refers to “the responsibility of another State”, it is without prejudice to the responsibility of international organizations. | ” 虽然结论草案17提到的是“另一国的责任”，但不影响国际组织的责任。 |
| It will be recalled that, under article 49 of the articles on the responsibility of international organizations, a State or an international organization is entitled to invoke the responsibility of an international organization for the breach by that international organization of an obligation owed to the international community of States as a whole. | 应回顾，根据《国际组织的责任条款》第49条，国家或国际组织有权就某国际组织违反对整个国际社会所承担义务之情事援引其责任。 |
| (6) According to the second paragraph of draft conclusion 17, the right of a State to invoke the responsibility of another State for the latter’s breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is to be exercised in accordance with the rules on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | (6) 根据结论草案17第二段，一国就另一国违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事援引后者责任的权利，须根据关于国家对国际不法行为的责任相关规则行使。 |
| This qualification is intended to emphasize the distinction between the invocation of responsibility by an injured State and the invocation of responsibility by any other State. | 这一限定旨在强调受害国援引责任与任何其他国家援引责任之间的区别。 |
| Under the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, the right of an injured State to invoke the responsibility of another State for the breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is to be exercised according to article 42; | 根据《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》，受害国就违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事援引另一国责任的权利须根据第42条行使； |
| whereas third States are entitled to invoke the responsibility for such a breach under article 48. | 而第三国则有权根据第48条就此类违反情事援引责任。 |
| When invoking the responsibility of another State in its capacity as an injured State, the injured State is entitled to claim all the forms of reparations provided for in chapter II of Part Two of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 受害国在以受害国身份援引另一国责任时，有权就《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第二部分第二章规定的所有形式赔偿提出主张。 |
| However, a State other than an injured State that invokes the responsibility of another State for the latter’s breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) may only claim “cessation of the internationally wrongful act, and assurances and guarantees of non-repetition”. | 但是，受害国以外的国家就另一国违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事援引后者责任时，只可主张“停止国际不法行为，并提供不重复的承诺和保证”。 |
| A State other than an injured State, may only claim reparations “in the interest of the injured State or of the beneficiaries of the obligation breached” and not for its own benefit. | 受害国以外的国家只可为“受害国或被违反之义务的受益人”，提出赔偿主张，不可为使本国获益提出赔偿主张。 |
| Conclusion 18 Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and circumstances precluding wrongfulness | 结论18 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)和解除不法性的情况 |
| No circumstance precluding wrongfulness under the rules on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts may be invoked with regard to any act of a State that is not in conformity with an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 对于违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生的义务的任何国家行为，不得援引关于国家对国际不法行为的责任的规则所规定的任何解除不法性的情况。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 18 addresses circumstances precluding wrongfulness in relation to a breach of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (1) 结论草案18涉及解除违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事不法性的情况。 |
| As a general rule, the existence of certain circumstances can serve to preclude the wrongfulness of an act of a State that would otherwise be unlawful. | 一般规则是，特定情况的存在可有助于解除原本不合法之国家行为的不法性。 |
| Draft conclusion 18 sets out an exception to this general rule on State responsibility by providing that where the breach in question concerns a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), the circumstances precluding wrongfulness may not be invoked. | 结论草案18规定在相关违反情事涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)时不得援引解除不法性的情况，从而为上述有关国家责任的一般规则阐明了一种例外情况。 |
| (2) Draft conclusion 18 is based on article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, which excludes the invocation of grounds precluding wrongfulness as spelt in chapter V of Part One of the articles for any act that is not in conformity with an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (2) 结论草案18系基于《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条。 该条不允许就违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生义务的任何行为，援引条款第一部分第五章所列解除不法性的理由。 |
| The effect of this rule is that, where the responsibility of a State for a breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is invoked, the State against which the breach is invoked cannot seek to excuse itself from responsibility by raising any circumstance that might ordinarily preclude wrongfulness. | 该规则的效力在于，在就违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事援引了一国责任的情况下，因违反情事而被援引责任的国家不能通过提出任何通常情况下可能解除不法性的情况，寻求为本国免除责任。 |
| This applies even where the circumstance precluding wrongfulness itself involves a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 即便在解除不法性情况本身涉及到一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)时，该规则也同样适用。 |
| As the Commission has previously stated, a genocide cannot be invoked as a justification for the commission of a counter-genocide. | 正如委员会此前指出的那样，不能援引灭绝种族作为以牙还牙的正当理由。 |
| (3) Draft conclusion 18 is without prejudice to the invocation of such circumstances by international organizations and other entities. | (3) 结论草案18不影响国际组织及其他实体援引此类情况。 |
| Article 26 of the articles on the responsibility of international organizations also provides that the wrongfulness of an act of an international organization not in conformity with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) will not be precluded by the invocation of a circumstance precluding the wrongfulness of that act. | 《国际组织的责任条款》第26条还规定，国际组织违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)之行为的不法性，不会因援引解除该行为不法性的情况而解除。 |
| Conclusion 19 Particular consequences of serious breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论19 严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的特定后果 |
| 1. States shall cooperate to bring to an end through lawful means any serious breach by a State of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 1. 各国应进行合作，通过合法手段制止一国严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生的义务的任何行为。 |
| 2. No State shall recognize as lawful a situation created by a serious breach by a State of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), nor render aid or assistance in maintaining that situation. | 2. 任何国家均不得承认因一国严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生的义务而造成的状况为合法，也不得为维持这种状况提供援助或协助。 |
| 3. A breach of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is serious if it involves a gross or systematic failure by the responsible State to fulfil that obligation. | 3. 违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生的义务如涉及责任国严重或系统性地不履行该义务，则为严重违反。 |
| 4. This draft conclusion is without prejudice to the other consequences that a serious breach by a State of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) may entail under international law. | 4. 本条结论草案不妨碍一国严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生的义务可能依国际法引起的其他后果。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 19 concerns particular consequences of serious breaches of obligations arising under peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (1) 结论草案19涉及严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生义务的特定后果。 |
| It is based on article 41 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 此结论草案系基于《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第41条。 |
| Draft conclusion 19 is concerned only with “additional consequences” arising from serious breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 结论草案19仅涉及严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)引起的“更多的后果”。 |
| It does not address consequences arising from breaches of rules of international law that are not of a peremptory character nor does it address the consequences of breaches of peremptory norms that are not serious in nature. | 此结论草案不涉及违反不具强制性的国际法规则所产生的后果，也不涉及性质并不严重的违反强制性规范情事所产生的后果。 |
| (2) The first particular consequence of serious breaches of obligations arising under peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) is provided in the first paragraph of draft conclusion 19. | (2) 严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生义务的第一个特定后果见结论草案19第一段。 |
| The first paragraph of draft conclusion 19, which is based on article 41, paragraph 1, of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, provides that States shall cooperate to bring to an end serious breaches of obligations arising under peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 结论草案19第一段系基于《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第41条第1款，该款规定各国应进行合作，制止严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生义务之情事。 |
| The obligation to “cooperate to bring to an end through lawful means” serious breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) builds upon the general obligation to cooperate under international law. | “进行合作，通过合法手段制止”严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事的义务，是基于在国际法下进行合作的一般义务。 |
| Although at the time of the adoption of its articles on the law of treaties, the Commission expressed some doubt as to whether the obligation expressed in paragraph 1 of article 41 constituted customary international law, the obligation to cooperate to bring to an end serious breaches of obligations arising under peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) is now recognized under international law. | 虽然在通过《条约法条款》时，委员会对第41条第1款中表述的义务是否构成习惯国际法表达过一些疑问，但合作制止严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生义务之情事的义务，如今已在国际法下得到了承认。 |
| The United Kingdom House of Lords in A, Amnesty International (intervening) and Commonwealth Lawyers Association (intervening) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, for example, referred explicitly to the obligation under international law “to cooperate to bring to an end through lawful means any serious breach of an obligation under a peremptory norm of general international law”, and cited both article 41 of the Commission’s articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts and the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. | 例如，联合王国上议院在A、大赦国际(参与诉讼)和英联邦律师协会(参与诉讼)诉内政大臣案中明确提到根据国际法“进行合作，通过合法手段制止任何严重违反一般国际法强制性规范所产生义务之情事”的义务，并援引了委员会《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第41条和国际法院关于在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果的咨询意见。 |
| The Commission has recognized the obligation, albeit just in general terms in its draft articles on the protection of persons in the event of disasters. | 委员会承认了上述义务，尽管只是在《发生灾害时的人员保护条款草案》中概括承认。 |
| The International Court of Justice, in its Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, has, since the adoption of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, determined that there is an obligation to cooperate to bring to an end breaches of “obligations to respect the right … to self-determination, and certain … obligations under international humanitarian law”, norms that are widely cited as peremptory. | 自《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》通过以来，国际法院已在其在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果咨询意见当中确认，存在着合作以制止违反“尊重…自决权的义务以及…按照国际人道法应遵守的某些义务”， 这些是被广泛承认为具有强制性的规范。 |
| The Court determined that one of the obligations arising from the breaches of such obligations was an obligation on other States “while respecting the United Nations Charter and international law, to see to it that any impediment, resulting from” the breaches are “brought to an end”. | 国际法院确认，因违反这类义务而产生的义务之一是，其他国家“在遵守《联合国宪章》及国际法的同时，应确保终止任何”通过违反情事“造成阻碍”的行为。 |
| Similarly, in the Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965, the Court determined that all States “must cooperate with the United Nations” to bring to an end the breach of obligations arising from the right of self-determination. | 同样，国际法院在1965年查戈斯群岛从毛里求斯分裂的法律后果咨询意见当中确认，所有国家均“必须与联合国合作”，制止违反因民族自决权而产生的义务情事。 |
| Similarly, in the Case of La Cantuta v. Peru, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights identified “the duty of cooperation among States for” the purpose of eradicating breaches as itself a consequence of breaches of obligations arising under peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 同样，美洲人权法院在La Cantuta诉秘鲁案中，将“各国之间”以消除违反情事为目的“进行合作之责”本身确认为违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生义务的一个后果。 |
| (3) The obligation to cooperate to bring to an end serious breaches of obligations arising under peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) is to be carried out “through lawful means”. | (3) 合作制止严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生义务情事的义务，须“通过合法手段”履行。 |
| This means that the breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) may not serve as a justification for the breach of other rules of international law. | 这意味着违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的行为不得成为违反其他国际法规则的合理理由。 |
| Although international law does not prohibit unilateral measures to bring to an end a serious breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) if such unilateral measures are consistent with international law, the emphasis in the first paragraph of draft conclusion 19 is on collective measures. | 虽然国际法并不禁止采取单边措施制止严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法) 情事，只要此类单边措施符合国际法，但结论草案19第一段的重点在于集体措施。 |
| This is the essence of “cooperation”. | 这是“合作”的精髓。 |
| (4) Depending on the type of breach and the type of peremptory norm in question, the collective system of the United Nations is the preferred framework for cooperative action. | (4) 取决于违反情事的类型以及相关强制性规范的类型，联合国的集体机制是首选的合作行动框架。 |
| It is for this reason that, in the light of the determination by the International Court of Justice of a breach of “self-determination” and “basic principles of humanitarian law”, the Court stated that “the United Nations, and especially the General Assembly and the Security Council, should consider what further action is required to bring to an end the illegal situation”. | 出于这一原因，鉴于国际法院已裁定违反了“自决权”和“人道法基本原则”，该法院指出，“联合国，尤其是联大和安全理事会，应该考虑须采取何种进一步行动，终止…的非法状况。 |
| Similarly, in its advisory opinion on Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965, the Court referred to the obligation of “all Member States” to “cooperate with the United Nations” to end the breach in question. | ” 同样，国际法院在1965年查戈斯群岛从毛里求斯分裂的法律后果咨询意见当中提到了“所有会员国与联合国合作”以终止相关违反情事的义务。 |
| Collective measures under other international organizations with a mandate may also be taken to bring to an end serious breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 也可在其他享有授权的国际组织之下采取集体措施，以制止严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事。 |
| Another example of an organization whose mandate permits it to take measures to bring to an end breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) is the African Union. | 另一个其授权准许其采取措施制止严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事的组织实例是非洲联盟。 |
| However, it is not only measures under institutionalized cooperation mechanisms that may be adopted. | 不过，不仅是在制度化合作机制之下可采取措施。 |
| The obligation to cooperate to bring to an end serious breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) may also be implemented through non-institutionalized cooperation, including through ad hoc arrangements by a group of States acting together to bring to an end a breach of a peremptory norm. | 合作制止严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法) 情事的义务也可通过非制度化合作来履行，包括为此对一组国家共同行动进行特定安排，以制止违反强制性规范情事。 |
| Indeed, the International Court of Justice, in its advisory opinion on Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, seems to suggest that, over and above collective action, there is an obligation on individual States to make efforts to bring situations created by the breach to an end. | 事实上，国际法院在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果咨询意见当中似乎间接表示，除集体行动外，单个国家有义务作出努力，以终止违反行为所造成的局面。 |
| In that opinion, in addition to referring to the measures that may be adopted by the General Assembly and the Security Council, the Court stated that “[i]t is also for all States” to take measures to end the breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). The requirement, however, is that such measures should be consistent with international law. | 在上述意见当中，国际法院除提到联大和安全理事会可以采取的措施外，还指出“所有各国…应”采取措施制止违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法) 情事，但要求是此类措施应符合国际法。 |
| (5) The obligation of States to act collectively to bring to an end serious breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) has particular consequences for cooperation within the organs of the United Nations and other international organizations. | (5) 各国集体采取行动制止严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事的义务，对于联合国机构的内部合作和对其他国际组织有着特别的影响。 |
| It means that, in the face of serious breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), international organizations should act, within their respective mandates and when permitted to do so under international law, to bring to an end such breaches. | 该义务意味着，在面临严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法) 情事时，国际组织应在国际法许可的情况下，在各自的授权范围内采取行动制止此类违反情事。 |
| Thus, where an international organization has the discretion to act, the obligation to cooperate imposes a duty on the members of that international organization to act with a view to the organization exercising that discretion in a manner to bring to an end the breach of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 由此，在国际组织具备采取行动的酌处权情况下，合作之义务赋予该国际组织成员采取行动的责任，使组织能够行使上述酌处权，以制止违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法) 情事。 |
| A duty of international organizations to exercise discretion in a manner that is intended to bring to an end serious breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) is a necessary corollary of the obligation to cooperate provided for in the first paragraph of draft conclusion 19. | 国际组织以旨在制止严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法) 情事的方式行使酌处权的责任，是结论草案19第一段所规定之合作义务推导出的一个必然结果。 |
| (6) The second paragraph of draft conclusion 19 states that States shall not “recognize as lawful” a situation created by a breach of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) nor “render aid or assistance” in the maintenance of such a situation. | (6) 结论草案19第二段指出，各国不得“承认”因违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所产生的义务而造成的状况为“合法”，也不得为维持这种状况“提供援助或协助”。 |
| The second paragraph of draft conclusion 19, which is derived from article 41, paragraph 2, of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, contains two separate obligations. | 结论草案19第二段系源自《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第41条第2款，内含两项不同的义务。 |
| The first is the obligation not to recognize as lawful situations created by a serious breach of a peremptory norm of international law (jus cogens). | 第一项是不承认严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事所造成状况为合法的义务。 |
| The second is the obligation not to render aid or assistance in maintaining the situation created by the serious breach of a peremptory norm of international law (jus cogens). | 第二项是不为维持严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事所造成状况提供援助或协助的义务。 |
| While these two obligations are separate and distinct obligations, they are related in the sense that the obligation of non-assistance is a logical consequence of the obligation of non-recognition of a situation as lawful. | 上述两项义务各自独立、各有不同，但是，不协助义务是从不承认某种状况为合法的义务中推导出的必然结果，从这个意义上讲，二者之间是相互关联的。 |
| Unlike the obligation in the first paragraph of draft conclusion 19, the duties of non-recognition and non-assistance are negative duties. | 与结论草案19第一段所载义务不同的是，不承认和不协助的责任是消极责任。 |
| In other words, while the first paragraph of draft conclusion 19 requires States to do something, i.e. to cooperate to bring to an end serious breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), the duties of non-recognition and non-assistance in the second paragraph require States to refrain from acting. | 换言之，结论草案19第一段要求各国采取某种行动，即进行合作以制止严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)情事，而第二段所载的不承认和不协助责任则要求各国不要采取行动。 |
| The duties in the second paragraph of draft conclusion 19 are thus less onerous. | 可见，结论草案19第二段所载责任较易履行。 |
| (7) Already in 2001, the Commission had recognized that the duties of non-recognition and non-assistance were part of customary international law. | (7) 委员会早在2001年即已承认不承认和不协助之责是习惯国际法的组成内容。 |
| In Kuwait Airways Corporation v. Iraqi Airways Company and Others, the United Kingdom House of Lords refused to give legal validity to acts resulting from the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait – a breach of the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) relating to the use of force. | 联合王国上议院在科威特航空公司诉伊拉克航空公司及其他方一案当中，拒绝赋予伊拉克入侵科威特所产生之行为以法律效力――伊拉克入侵科威特系违反与使用武力有关的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| The obligation of non-recognition had been recognized in decisions of the International Court of Justice and in the practice of States acting in international organizations. | 不承认义务已在国际法院的决定以及在国际组织内行事的各国的实践当中得到承认。 |
| In its advisory opinion on Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), for example, the Court recalled that “qualification of a situation as illegal does not by itself put an end to” the situation. | 例如，国际法院在南非不顾安全理事会第276(1970)号决议继续留驻纳米比亚(西南非洲)对各国的法律后果咨询意见当中回顾指出，“将某种状况定性为非法本身并不能终止”该状况。 |
| The Court held that there was an obligation on third States “to recognize the illegality and invalidity of South Africa’s continued presence”. | 该法院认为，第三方国家有义务“承认南非继续留驻的非法性和无效性”。 |
| Similarly, in its advisory opinion on Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, the Court determined that “all States are under an obligation not to recognize the illegal situation resulting from” the breach of an obligation widely recognized as having peremptory character. | 同样，该法院在其在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果咨询意见当中确认，“所有国家都有义务不承认”违反被广泛承认为具有强制性义务“所导致的非法状况”。 |
| The Security Council has also recognized the obligation on States not to recognize the situation created by a breach of the prohibition of apartheid and the obligation to respect self-determination. | 安全理事会也承认各国有义务不承认违反种族隔离禁令所造成的状况，且承认尊重民族自决的义务。 |
| The obligation of non-recognition of acts that are in breach of obligations that arise under the peremptory norms of the right of self-determination and the prohibition of apartheid can also be seen in the General Assembly resolution calling for non-recognition of the Bantustans created by South Africa in the furtherance of apartheid in violation of the right to self-determination. | 对违反民族自决权及种族隔离禁令等强制性规范所产生义务之行为不予承认的义务，另见联大要求不承认南非违反民族自决权推进种族隔离所创建的“班图斯坦”的决议当中。 |
| The obligation not to assist or render aid to the maintenance of a situation created by a serious breach of an obligation arising under a peremptory norm has also been recognized in the decisions of the International Court of Justice and resolutions of the United Nations. | 不为维持严重违反强制性规范之下义务所产生状况提供协助或援助的义务，也已在国际法院的决定以及联合国的决议当中得到承认。 |
| (8) While the obligation of non-recognition is settled, this duty is not to be implemented to the detriment of the affected population and deprive it of any advantages derived from international cooperation. | (8) 虽然不予承认的义务已经确立，但这一责任的履行不应损害受影响人口，剥夺其可从国际合作中获得的利益。 |
| In its Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia, the International Court of Justice declared that the consequences of non-recognition should not negatively affect or disadvantage the affected population and, consequently, that acts related to the civilian population, such as registration of births, deaths and marriages, ought to be recognized notwithstanding the breach. | 国际法院在南非继续留驻纳米比亚对各国的法律后果咨询意见当中宣布：不予承认所导致的后果不应对受影响人口造成消极影响或使其沦入不利境地； 因此，诸如出生、死亡和婚姻登记等与平民人口有关的行为，尽管存在违反行为，亦应得到承认。 |
| (9) The obligations in draft conclusion 19 apply only to serious breaches of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (9) 结论草案19所载义务仅适用于严重违反一般国际法强制性规范(强行法) 情事。 |
| A serious breach is defined in the third paragraph of draft conclusion 19 as a breach that “involves a gross or systematic failure by the responsible State to fulfil that obligation” in question. | 结论草案19第三段将严重违反界定为“涉及责任国严重或系统性地不履行”相关“义务”。 |
| This definition is taken from article 40, paragraph 2, of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 这一定义源自《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第40条第2款。 |
| A view was expressed that the word “serious” should be omitted from the text of draft conclusion 19, inter alia, since the duties of non-recognition and non-assistance were not onerous. | 有意见认为，“严重“一词应从结论草案19中删除，因为不承认和不协助的义务并不繁冗。 |
| (10) The fourth paragraph of draft conclusion 19 provides that the obligations in draft conclusion 19 are without prejudice to other consequences that serious breaches may entail under international law. | (10) 结论草案19第四段规定，结论草案19所载义务不妨碍严重违反情事可能依国际法引起的其他后果。 |
| Draft conclusion 19, for example, does not specifically address the consequences of the breach for the responsible State. | 例如，结论草案19并未具体谈及违反情事对于责任国有何后果。 |
| The International Court of Justice has routinely declared an obligation of cessation on the responsible State. | 国际法院的惯常做法是宣布责任国有义务停止其行为。 |
| Other examples of consequences of breaches of obligations under international law that are not addressed can be found in chapters I and II of Part Two of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 未谈及的违反国际法义务引起的其他后果实例，见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第二部分第一章和第二章。 |
| Although not addressed in the present draft conclusions, these other consequences of responsibility continue to apply. | 相关责任的上述其他后果虽在本结论草案当中未予谈及，但依然适用。 |
| (11) As with draft conclusions 17 and 18, draft conclusion 19 is without prejudice to the application of the duties in draft conclusion 19 to international organizations. | (11) 正如结论草案17和18一样，结论草案19不影响对国际组织适用结论草案19中的责任。 |
| Conclusion 20 Interpretation and application consistent with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) | 结论20 解释和适用与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相一致 |
| Where it appears that there may be a conflict between a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) and another rule of international law, the latter is, as far as possible, to be interpreted and applied so as to be consistent with the former. | 在一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)似与另一国际法规则抵触的情况下，后者的解释和适用应尽可能与前者相一致。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 20 contains an interpretative rule applicable in the case of potential conflicts between peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and other rules of international law. | (1) 结论草案20载有一条适用于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)与其他国际法规则之间存在潜在抵触情况的解释性规则。 |
| Draft conclusions 10, 14, 15 and 16 provide for the invalidity or non-existence of rules of international law that conflict with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 结论草案10、14、15和16规定，与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相冲突的国际法规则无效或不存在。 |
| Whether or not a rule of international law conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is a matter to be determined though interpretation. | 一项国际法规则是否与一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)相抵触，是一个要通过解释来确定的问题。 |
| The rule in draft conclusion 20 applies as part of the process of interpretation under applicable rules on interpretation. | 结论草案20中的规则作为依照适用的解释规则开展解释过程的一部分加以适用。 |
| (2) Draft conclusion 20 is not to be applied in all cases concerning the interpretation of a rule or the determination of its content. | (2) 结论草案20并不适用于所有关于解释一项规则或确定其内容的情况。 |
| It is to be applied only in the limited instances where “it appears that there may be a conflict” between a rule of international law not of a peremptory character and a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 只有在非强制性的国际法规则与一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)之间“似与…抵触”的有限情况下，才能适用。 |
| In such a case, the interpreter is directed to interpret the rule of international law that is not of a peremptory character in such a way that it is consistent with the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 在这种情况下，解释者受到引导，按照与一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)相一致的方式解释不具有强制性的国际法规则。 |
| The words “as far as possible” in the draft conclusion are intended to emphasize that, in the exercise of interpreting rules of international law in a manner consistent with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), the bounds of interpretation may not be exceeded. | 结论草案中的“尽可能”一词旨在强调，在以符合一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的方式解释国际法规则时，不得超出其解释范围。 |
| In other words, the rule in question may not be given a meaning or content that does not flow from the normal application of the rules and methodology of interpretation in order to achieve consistency. | 换言之，为实现一致性，有关规则可能不被赋予非源于正常适用解释规则和方法的含义或内容。 |
| (3) Draft conclusion 20 uses the words “interpreted and applied”. | (3) 结论草案20使用了“解释和适用”一语。 |
| The interpretation and application of a rule are interrelated but separate concepts. | 规则的解释和适用是相互关联而又相互独立的概念。 |
| The words “interpretation and application” were also used in paragraph (3) of the commentary to article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, which addressed this interpretative effect of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条的评注第(3)段也使用了“解释和适用”一词，其中涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的这一解释效果。 |
| It recognizes that, in some cases, what may be at issue is not the interpretation of the rule in question but its application. | 它承认，在某些情况下，可能有争议的不是对有关规则的解释，而是对规则的适用。 |
| This may be the case, for example, where a rule is, on its face, consistent with the relevant peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), but its application in a particular way, would be contrary to the relevant peremptory norm. | 例如，如果一项规则表面上符合一般国际法的有关强制性规范(强行法)，但以特定方式适用它将违反相关的强制性规范，可能就是这种情况。 |
| (4) In the context of treaty rules, the rule in draft conclusion 20 may be seen as an application of article 31, paragraph 3 (c), of the 1969 Vienna Convention, which provides that in the interpretation of treaties “[a]ny relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between the parties” “shall be taken into account”. | (4) 就条约规则而言，结论草案20中的规则可被视为对1969年《维也纳公约》第三十一条第三款(c)项的适用，该款规定，在解释条约时，“一并考虑者尚有”“适用于当事国间关系之任何有关国际法规则”。 |
| Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) are rules of international law applicable in relations primarily between States and international organizations and must therefore, where relevant, be taken into account in the interpretation of treaties. | 一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)是主要适用于国家与国际组织之间关系的国际法规则，因此在解释条约时必须酌情加以考虑。 |
| (5) Although the interpretative rule in draft conclusion 20 constitutes a concrete application of article 31, paragraph 3 (c), of the 1969 Vienna Convention, it does not apply only in relation to treaties but to the interpretation and application of all other rules of international law. | (5) 虽然结论草案20中的解释性规则构成1969年《维也纳公约》第三十一条第三款(c)项的具体适用，但它不仅适用于条约，而且适用于所有其他国际法规则的解释和适用。 |
| In this respect, the Commission has stated that “when there is an apparent conflict between primary obligations, one of which arises for a State directly under a peremptory norm of general international law, it is evident that such an obligation must prevail … peremptory norms of general international law generate strong interpretative principles which will resolve all or most apparent conflicts”. | 在这方面，委员会指出，“在一些主要义务看来互相抵触的情况下，若其中有一项义务属于一国直接根据一般国际法强制性规范而具有的义务，该义务明显必须优先…一般国际法强制性规范会产生强有力的解释原则，足以解决所有或大部分明显抵触的情况”。 |
| (6) As noted in paragraph (2) of this commentary, the words “as far as possible” are meant to indicate that the rule in this draft conclusion does not permit the limits of interpretation to be exceeded. | (6) 如本评注第(2)段所述，“尽可能”一词意在表明，本结论草案中的规则不得超出解释的限度。 |
| Where it is not possible to arrive at an interpretation of the rule not of a peremptory character that is consistent with the peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), the rule that is not of a peremptory character is to be invalidated in accordance with draft conclusions 10, 14, 15 and 16. | 如果不能对非强制性的规则作出与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相一致的解释，则不具有强制性的规则将根据结论草案10、14、15和16而无效。 |
| (7) The phrase “another rule of international law” in draft conclusion 20 is to be understood as referring to obligations under international law, whether arising under a treaty, customary international law, a general principle of law, a unilateral act or a resolution, decision or other act of an international organization. | (7) 结论草案20中的“另一国际法规则”一语应理解为指国际法规定的义务，不论是条约、习惯国际法、一般法律原则、单方面行为或国际组织的决议、决定或其他行为所产生的义务。 |
| Draft conclusion 20 therefore applies in the interpretation of the rules or obligations identified in draft conclusions 10, 14, 15 and 16. | 因此，结论草案20适用于对结论草案10、14、15和16所确定的规则或义务的解释。 |
| Conclusion 21 Procedural requirements | 结论21 程序性要求 |
| 1. A State which invokes a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) as a ground for the invalidity or termination of a rule of international law is to notify other States concerned of its claim. | 1. 一国如援引一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)作为一项国际法规则无效或终止之理由，应将其主张通知其他有关国家。 |
| The notification is to be in writing and is to indicate the measure proposed to be taken with respect to the rule of international law in question. | 通知应以书面形式发出，并说明拟就有关国际法规则采取的措施。 |
| 2. If none of the other States concerned raises an objection within a period which, except in cases of special urgency, shall not be less than three months, the invoking State may carry out the measure which it has proposed. | 2. 如其他有关国家在除特别紧急情况外不短于三个月的期间内无一表示反对，则援引国可采取其所提议的措施。 |
| 3. If any State concerned raises an objection, then the States concerned are to seek a solution through the means indicated in Article 33 of the Charter of the United Nations. | 3. 如任何有关国家表示反对，则有关国家应通过《联合国宪章》第三十三条所述方法寻求解决。 |
| 4. If no solution is reached within a period of twelve months, and the objecting State or States concerned offer to submit the matter to the International Court of Justice, the invoking State may not carry out the measure which it has proposed until the dispute is resolved. | 4. 如在十二个月内未能达成解决办法，而表示反对的一个或多个有关国家提出将该事项提交国际法院，则在争端解决之前，援引国不得采取其所提议的措施。 |
| 5. This draft conclusion is without prejudice to the procedural requirements set forth in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, the relevant rules concerning the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice, or other applicable dispute settlement provisions agreed by the States concerned. | 5. 本条结论草案不妨碍《维也纳条约法公约》、关于国际法院管辖权的有关规则或有关国家商定的其他适用的争端解决规定所载的程序性要求。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 21 concerns the procedure for the invocation of, and the reliance on, the invalidity of rules of international law, including treaties, by reason of being in conflict with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (1) 结论草案21涉及援引和依据包括条约在内的国际法规则无效的程序，因为这些规则与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触。 |
| It is important to recall that during the United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties, States generally supported the provisions relating to peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and concerns about articles 53 and 64 arose from the concern that the right to invoke the invalidity of treaties could be abused by States unilaterally invoking articles 53 and 64 and thus threatening the stability of treaty relations. | 必须回顾指出，在联合国条约法会议期间，各国普遍支持与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)有关的规定，对第五十三条和第六十四条的关切源于另一个关切，即国家可能通过单方面援引第五十三条和第六十四条，滥用援引条约无效的权利，从而威胁到条约关系的稳定。 |
| To address the concern, the 1969 Vienna Convention subjects any reliance on articles 53 and 64 to a process involving judicial settlement procedures. | 为处理这一关切，1969年《维也纳公约》规定，任何依据第五十三条和第六十四条的情况都必须经过涉及司法解决程序的进程。 |
| In the context of the present draft conclusions, invocation of the rules set forth in Part Three without some type of mechanism to avoid unilateral measures raises similar concerns as those raised at the United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties. | 就本结论草案而言，在没有某种可避免单边措施的机制的情况下援引第三部分提出的规则，会引起与联合国条约法会议提出的关切类似的关切。 |
| (2) The formulation of an appropriate provision for the purposes of the present draft conclusions is, however, not without its difficulties. | (2) 然而，为本结论草案的目的拟订一项适当的规定并非没有困难。 |
| The principal difficulty is that detailed dispute resolution provisions are embedded in treaties and do not operate as a matter of customary international law. | 主要困难在于，详细的争端解决条款已纳入条约，而不是作为习惯国际法的问题出现。 |
| Thus, with respect to peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), the 1969 Vienna Convention contains an elaborate dispute settlement framework. | 因此，关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，1969年《维也纳公约》载有一个详尽的争端解决框架。 |
| Under this framework, a State party that claims that a treaty is invalid on any ground, including for reason of being in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law, must notify other State parties of its claim. | 在这一框架下，一国以任何理由宣称一项条约无效，包括以与一般国际法强制性规范相抵触为由宣称条约无效，必须将宣称的内容通知其他缔约国。 |
| If, after the expiry of a specified period, no objections to its notification are received, the consequences of invalidity may be implemented. | 如果在指定期限结束后，没有收到对其通知的反对意见，则可以实施无效的后果。 |
| If, however, there is an objection, the 1969 Vienna Convention requires that the State parties concerned seek a solution through the means provided for in the Charter of the United Nations. | 但是，如果收到反对意见，1969年《维也纳公约》要求有关国家通过《联合国宪章》规定的手段寻求解决办法。 |
| These means include negotiation, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or other peaceful means. | 这些手段包括谈判、调停、和解、仲裁、司法解决、诉诸区域机构或其他和平手段。 |
| If the claim of invalidity is based on a conflict with a peremptory norm under article 53 or article 64 and a solution to the conflict is not found using such means, then any party to the dispute may refer the matter to the International Court of Justice unless there is an agreement to submit it instead to arbitration. | 如果依据与第五十三条或第六十四条规定的强制性规范相抵触而提出无效主张，并且不能使用这类手段找到解决冲突的办法，则争端的任何当事方都可以将此事提交国际法院，除非各方同意对其进行仲裁。 |
| (3) In the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project case, the International Court of Justice stated that “both Parties agree that Articles 65 to 67 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, if not codifying customary international law, at least generally reflect customary international law and contain certain procedural principles which are based on an obligation to act in good faith”. | (3) 在加布奇科沃－大毛罗斯项目案中，国际法院声明，“双方同意，如果不编纂习惯国际法，《维也纳条约法公约》第六十五至六十七条至少总体上反映习惯国际法，并含有以真诚行事义务为基础的某些程序性原则”。 |
| This observation by the Court refers primarily to the consultation process leading up to any termination of the agreement. | 法院的这一观察主要指的是导致任何协议终止的协商进程。 |
| The Court did not, by this statement, determine that there was a customary international law rule concerning the establishment of jurisdiction of the Court for the settlement of disputes relating to invalidation of treaties on the basis of the peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 法院做出这一声明并非决定存在一项关于确定法院在争端解决方面的管辖权的习惯国际法规则，以处理基于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的条约无效问题。 |
| The provisions of articles 65 to 67 of the 1969 Vienna Convention, in particular the provisions pertaining to the submission to the International Court of Justice of a dispute, cannot be said to reflect customary international law. | 1969年《维也纳公约》第六十五至六十六条的规定，特别是关于向国际法院提交争端的规定，不能被视为反映了习惯国际法。 |
| As treaty provisions, they cannot be imposed on States that are not party to the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 作为条约规定，不能将其强加于非1969年《维也纳公约》缔约国的国家。 |
| Moreover, even amongst States that are party to the Convention, a number have formulated reservations to the application of the dispute settlement mechanism, particularly as it relates to the submission of disputes to the International Court of Justice and arbitration (article 66 (a) of the 1969 Vienna Convention). | 此外，即使是在该公约缔约国中，也有一些国家对争端解决机制的适用提出了保留，特别是有关向国际法院提交争端和仲裁问题的保留(1969年《维也纳公约》第六十六条(a)款)。 |
| (4) In formulating a provision for dispute settlement in relation to the invalidation of rules of international law on account of inconsistency with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), the Commission had to ensure, on the one hand, that it did not purport to impose treaty rules on States that are not bound by such rules while, on the other hand, ensuring that the concerns regarding the need to avoid unilateral invalidation of rules was taken account of. | (4) 委员会在就国际法规则因为不符合一般法律强制性规范(强行法)而无效的问题制定解决争端的规定时，必须一方面确保该规定并非旨在将条约规则强加给不受这类规则约束的国家，而另一方面还要确保考虑到关于有必要避免单方面使规则无效的关切。 |
| Draft conclusion 21 sets out procedural requirements designed to achieve such a balance. | 结论草案21列出了旨在实现这种平衡的程序性要求。 |
| Not every aspect of the detailed procedure set forth in draft conclusion 21 constitutes customary international law. | 并非结论草案21规定的详细程序的每个方面都构成习惯国际法。 |
| (5) The first three paragraphs of draft conclusion 21 follow article 65 of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | (5) 结论草案21的前三款仿照了1969年《维也纳公约》第六十五条。 |
| The first paragraph requires that a State which seeks to impugn a rule of international law for being in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) is to notify other States of its claim. | 第1款要求因国际法规则与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触而对其加以非难的国家将其主张通知其他国家。 |
| Although this paragraph follows closely the wording of the 1969 Vienna Convention, the paragraph refers to “a rule of international law”, to signify that the procedural requirements apply to treaties and other international obligations deriving from other sources of international law. | 虽然该款紧贴1969年《维也纳公约》的措辞，但此款提及“国际法规则”，以表明程序性要求适用于源自其他国际法来源的条约和其他国际义务。 |
| Consequently, the paragraph refers to “States concerned” to indicate that the potential addressees of the notification are broader than parties to a treaty. | 因此，本款用“有关国家”的表述，以表明通知的潜在对象比条约缔约方更广泛。 |
| The first paragraph of draft conclusion 21 also provides that the notification is to indicate the measures proposed to remedy the conflict. | 结论草案21第1款还规定，通知的目的是为了指明拟就对冲突予以补救采取的措施。 |
| Such measures may be those referred to in draft conclusions 10 to 13 of the draft conclusions. | 这些措施可以是结论草案10至13中提到的措施。 |
| The requirement to specify the measures proposed is in keeping with the purposes of the notification which is to enable other States to respond appropriately, if necessary. | 具体说明拟议措施的要求符合通知的目的，目的是使其他国家能够在必要时作出适当回应。 |
| The notification can be distributed to other States through a variety of means, including through the Secretary-General of the United Nations. | 通知可以通过各种方式分发给其他国家，包括通过联合国秘书长分发。 |
| (6) Paragraph 2 of draft conclusion 21 states that if no other State raises an objection to the notification, then the State making the claim may carry out the measure it has proposed. | (6) 结论草案21第2款指出，如果其他国家无一对通知表示反对，则提出请求的国家可采取拟议的措施。 |
| The right to carry out these measures, however, can only be exercised after “a period which, except in cases of special urgency, shall not be less than three months”. | 然而，采取这些措施的权利只能在“除特别紧急情况外不短于三个月的期间”之后行使。 |
| This means, in the first place, that the notification referred to in paragraph 1 should specify a period within which an objection must be made to the notification. | 这意味着，首先，第1款所指的通知应明确规定必须对通知提出反对的期限。 |
| The period should be a reasonable period and the Commission determined that, as a general rule, a minimum of three months was a reasonable period. | 这个期限应该是一个合理的时间段，委员会决定，作为一般性规则，至少三个月是一个合理的时间段。 |
| Second, it is only after the expiry of the said period, and if there has been no objection, that the State invoking the invalidity of a treaty can carry out the measure proposed. | 其次，只有在所述期限到期之后，且如果没有人表示反对，则援引一项条约无效的国家才能采取提议的措施。 |
| There may be cases where a three-month period may be too long. | 在某些情况下，三个月的期限可能太长。 |
| For this purpose, paragraph 2 of draft conclusion 21 sets out the possibility of a shorter period “in cases of special urgency”. | 因此，结论草案21第2款规定了在“特别紧急情况”下缩短期限的可能性。 |
| The draft conclusions do not define “cases of special urgency”. | 结论草案没有界定“特别紧急情况”。 |
| This is to be determined on the basis of the facts in each particular case. | 这须依据每个具体情况的事实而定。 |
| However, it can be said that “cases of special urgency” will be those in which time is of the essence. | 然而，可以说，“特别紧急情况”将是那些时间至关重要的情况。 |
| A view was expressed that there is no basis for the position that customary international law contains such a three-month waiting period (or the twelve-month waiting period in paragraph 4 of the draft conclusion). | 有意见认为，习惯国际法包含这样一个三个月等待期(或结论草案第4款中的十二个月等待期)的立场是没有根据的。 |
| (7) Paragraph 3 of draft conclusion 21 addresses those cases in which any State concerned raises an objection against a claim that a rule of international law is void as a result of a conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | (7) 结论草案21第3款涉及任何有关国家对国际法规则因与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触而无效的主张提出反对的情况。 |
| If there is such an objection, then the invoking State cannot unilaterally implement the proposed measures. | 如果出现这种反对情况，则援引国不能单方面采取拟议的措施。 |
| In such a case the States concerned as well as the invoking State are then required to seek a solution through the means indicated in Article 33 of the Charter of the United Nations of their own choice. | 在这种情况下，有关国家以及援引国应通过自己选择的《联合国宪章》第三十三条所述手段寻求解决办法。 |
| (8) Paragraph 4 of draft conclusion 21 provides that if no solution is reached within a period of twelve months, and the objecting State or States concerned offer to submit the matter to the International Court of Justice, the invoking State may not carry out the measure which it has proposed until the dispute is resolved. | (8) 结论草案21第4款规定，如在十二个月内未能达成解决办法，而表示反对的一个或多个有关国家提出将该事项提交国际法院，则在争端解决之前，援引国不得采取其拟议的措施。 |
| Paragraph 4 addresses those cases in which the States concerned are not able to find a solution through the means indicated in Article 33 of the Charter of the United Nations. | 第4款处理的是有关国家无法通过《联合国宪章》第三十三条所述手段找到解决办法的情况。 |
| The Commission proceeded from the basis that the invocation of the invalidity of a rule of international law as a result of inconsistency with a peremptory norm of general international law did not, as such, constitute the basis for the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice. | 委员会的依据是，因一项国际法规则与一般国际法的强制性规范不一致而援引其无效性，本身并不构成国际法院管辖权的基础。 |
| However, in the spirit of avoiding unilateralism, the Commission found it appropriate, without obliging submission of the International Court of Justice, to encourage submission of the dispute to the International Court of Justice. | 然而，本着避免单边主义的精神，委员会认为，鼓励将争端提交国际法院是适当的，而国际法院不强迫提交争端。 |
| (9) Draft conclusion 21 is a procedural provision, without implication for the lawfulness of any measures that may be carried out. | (9) 结论草案21是一项程序性规定，对可能采取的任何措施的合法性没有影响。 |
| If after the expiration of the twelve-month period no offer to submit the matter to the International Court of Justice is made by the other States concerned, the invoking State is no longer precluded by the procedural provisions of draft conclusion 21 from taking the measure. | 如果其他有关国家在十二个月期限到期后没有提出将此事提交国际法院，则援引国不再受制于阻止其采取措施的结论草案21的程序性规定。 |
| It is important to emphasize that there is, under this provision, no obligation to submit the matter to the International Court of Justice, nor does this provision establish compulsory jurisdiction. | 必须强调的是，根据这条规定，不存在将此事提交国际法院的义务，该规定也没有确定强制管辖权。 |
| Instead, the provision precludes the State invoking invalidity from carrying out the proposed measures if the other concerned States offer to submit the matter to the International Court of Justice. | 相反，如果其他有关国家提出将该事项提交国际法院，则这条规定排除了援引无效的国家采取拟议措施的可能性。 |
| In the event that such an offer to submit the matter to the International Court of Justice is made, the State invoking invalidity will then only be entitled to carry out the proposed measures after the dispute is resolved and in accordance with a determination by the Court that the measures are justified under international law. | 如果有国家提出将此事提交国际法院，那么援引无效的国家只有在争端解决后，且根据法院关于这些措施依照国际法属于合理措施的决定，才有权采取拟议的措施。 |
| (10) Paragraph 5 is a without prejudice clause. | (10) 第5款是一个不妨碍条款。 |
| As explained above, draft conclusion 21 does not establish the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice, nor does it create an obligation on any State to submit a matter to the Court or to accept the Court’s jurisdiction. | 如上文所述，结论草案21既没有确立国际法院的管辖权，也没有规定任何国家向法院提交事项或接受法院管辖权的义务。 |
| By the same token, draft conclusion 21 does not affect any basis for jurisdiction that may exist under any other rule in international law, including the dispute settlement mechanisms under the 1969 Vienna Convention or other applicable dispute settlement provisions agreed to by the States concerned (including the invoking State). | 同样，结论草案21不影响国际法任何其他规则下可能存在的管辖权依据，包括1969年《维也纳公约》下的争端解决机制或有关国家(包括援引国)商定的其他适用的争端解决规定。 |
| Part Four General provisions | 第四部分 一般规定 |
| Conclusion 22 Without prejudice to consequences that specific peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) may otherwise entail | 结论22 不妨碍特定的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)可能引起的其他后果 |
| The present draft conclusions are without prejudice to consequences that specific peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) may otherwise entail under international law. | 本结论草案不妨碍特定的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)可能依国际法引起的其他后果。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 22 is a without prejudice clause. | (1) 结论草案22是一个不妨碍条款。 |
| It provides that the current draft conclusions are without prejudice to the consequences that specific peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) may otherwise entail under international law. | 它规定，本结论草案不妨碍特定的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)可能依国际法引起的其他后果。 |
| (2) The scope of the present draft conclusions concerns the identification and legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (2) 本结论草案涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的识别和法律后果。 |
| As described in paragraph (3) of the commentary to draft conclusion 1, the present draft conclusions are not intended to address the content of individual peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 正如结论草案1评注第(3)段所述，本结论草案无意处理一般国际法的个别强制性规范(强行法)的内容。 |
| In addition to the methodology and process for identifying peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), the draft conclusions also address, in general, the legal consequences flowing from peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 除了识别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的方法和程序外，结论草案还涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)产生的一般法律后果。 |
| These include consequences for treaty rules, customary international law, unilateral acts and binding resolutions, decisions or other acts of international organizations. | 这包括对条约规则、习惯国际法、单方面行为和具有约束力的国际组织决议、决定或其他行为的后果。 |
| The contents of individual peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) may themselves have legal consequences that are distinct from the general legal consequences identified in the present draft conclusions. | 一般国际法个别强制性规范(强行法)的内容本身可能产生的法律后果不同于本结论草案所确定的一般法律后果。 |
| Hence, draft conclusion 22 is intended to convey that the draft conclusions are without prejudice to any such legal consequences that may otherwise arise from specific peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 因此，结论草案22意在表明，结论草案不妨碍一般国际法特定强制性规范(强行法)可能产生的任何此类法律后果。 |
| (3) The present draft conclusions do not deal with the consequences arising from a conflict between peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (3) 本结论草案不处理因一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)之间存在抵触导致的后果问题。 |
| (4) One area in which the issue of legal consequences for specific peremptory norms has been raised concerns the consequences of crimes the commission of which are prohibited by peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), such as the prohibition of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity, in particular the possible consequences for immunity and jurisdiction of national courts. | (4) 提出具体强制性规范的法律后果问题的一个领域是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)所禁止的犯罪后果，例如禁止灭绝种族罪、战争罪和危害人类罪，特别是针对国家法院的豁免权和管辖权可能产生的后果。 |
| These consequences are not general consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), but rather relate to specific peremptory norms of general international law. | 这些后果并非一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的一般后果，而是与一般国际法的具体强制性规范有关。 |
| As such, they are not addressed in the present draft conclusions. | 因此，本结论草案没有涉及这些问题。 |
| Conclusion 23 Non-exhaustive list | 结论23 非详尽无遗的清单 |
| Without prejudice to the existence or subsequent emergence of other peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), a non-exhaustive list of norms that the International Law Commission has previously referred to as having that status is to be found in the annex to the present draft conclusions. | 在不妨碍其他一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的存在或嗣后出现的情况下，本结论草案附件载有国际法委员会以前提到的具有这种地位的规范的非详尽无遗清单。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft conclusion 1 sets out the scope of the present draft conclusions as concerning the identification and legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | (1) 结论草案1阐述了本结论草案的范围，涉及一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的识别和法律后果。 |
| As indicated in paragraph (3) of the commentary to draft conclusion 1 and paragraph (2) of the commentary to draft conclusion 22, the present draft conclusions are methodological in nature and do not attempt to address the content of individual peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 正如结论草案1评注第(3)段和结论草案22评注第(2)段所述，本结论草案的本质是方法问题，无意处理个别一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的内容。 |
| As a result, the present draft conclusions do not seek to elaborate a list of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 因此，本结论草案无意详细列出一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的清单。 |
| To elaborate a list of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), including a non-exhaustive list, would require a detailed and rigorous study of many potential norms to determine, first, which of those potential norms meet the criteria set out in Part II of the present draft conclusions and, second, which of the norms that meet the criteria ought to be included in a non-exhaustive list. | 拟订一份一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)清单，包括一份非详尽无遗的清单，需要对许多可能的规范进行详细严格的研究，以首先确定其中哪些可能的规范符合本结论草案第二部分所载的标准，其次，哪些符合标准的规范应列入一份非详尽无遗的清单。 |
| Such an exercise falls beyond the scope of the exercise of elaborating draft conclusions on the identification and legal consequences of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 这种做法超出了拟订关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的识别和法律后果的结论草案的范围。 |
| (2) Although the identification of specific norms that have a peremptory character falls beyond the scope of the present draft conclusions, the Commission has decided to include in an annex a non-exhaustive list of norms previously referred to by the Commission as having peremptory character. | (2) 虽然识别具有强制性的具体规范不属于本结论草案的范围，但委员会决定在附件中列入一份非详尽无遗的清单，列出委员会以前提到的具有强制性的规范。 |
| Draft conclusion 23 refers to this annex. | 结论草案23提及该附件。 |
| It provides, first, that this annex is without prejudice to the existence or subsequent emergence of other peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 首先，它规定，本附件不妨碍其他一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的存在或嗣后出现。 |
| The phrase “without prejudice to the existence or subsequent emergence of other peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens)” is meant to indicate that the inclusion of the list in the annex in no way precludes the existence at present of other norms that may have peremptory character or the emergence of other norms in the future having that character. | “在不妨碍其他一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的存在或嗣后出现的情况下”一语意在表明，将该清单列入附件绝不排除目前可能具有强制性质的其他规范的存在，亦不排除今后出现具有此种性质的其他规范。 |
| Second, draft conclusion 23 provides, as a statement of fact, that the norms contained in the annex are those that have been previously referred to by the Commission as having peremptory status. | 其次，作为事实说明，结论草案23规定，附件所载的规范是委员会以前提到的具有强制性地位的规范。 |
| Finally, draft conclusion 23 states that the list contained in the annex is non-exhaustive, which serves to reinforce the fact that this list is without prejudice to other norms having the same character. | 最后，结论草案23指出，附件所载清单并非详尽无遗，它强化了该清单并不妨碍具有同样性质的其他规范这一事实。 |
| It is non-exhaustive in two ways. | 清单在两个方面并非详尽无遗。 |
| It is non-exhaustive, first, in the sense that beyond the norms identified in the list, there are or may be other peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 首先，它并非详尽无遗，因为在清单所确定的规范之外，还有或可能有其他一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| Second, it is non-exhaustive in the sense that, in addition to the norms listed in the annex, the Commission has also referred previously to other norms as having peremptory character. | 第二，它并非详尽无遗，因为除了附件所列的规范外，委员会以前还提到过其他具有强制性的规范。 |
| The annex should therefore not be seen as excluding the peremptory character of these other norms. | 因此，不应视附件为排除了其他规范的强制性。 |
| (3) The fact that the annex referred to in draft conclusion 23 contains norms previously referred to by the Commission has two implications for the list. | (3) 结论草案23中提到的附件载有委员会以前提到的规范，这一事实显示出关于清单的两个含义。 |
| First, the formulation of each norm is based on a formulation previously used by the Commission. | 首先，每一项规范的拟订都是基于委员会以前使用的一种提法。 |
| The Commission has therefore not attempted to reformulate the norms on the list. | 因此，委员会没有试图重新拟订清单上的规范。 |
| As will be seen in the following paragraphs of the commentary to draft conclusion 23, in some cases the Commission has used different formulations in its previous works. | 从结论草案23评注的以下段落中不难看出，在某些情况下，委员会在以前的工作中采用了不同的提法。 |
| The second implication is that there has been no attempt to define the scope, content or application of the norms identified. | 第二个含义是没有对确定的规范的范围、内容或适用范围加以界定的企图。 |
| The annex merely lists norms previously identified by the Commission, relying on the same formulations and without seeking to address any aspects of the content of the rules. | 该附件仅列出了委员会以前确定的规范，依据的是同样的提法，并不涉及规则内容的任何方面。 |
| (4) In its previous works, the Commission has used different phrases to qualify the norms to which it has referred. | (4) 在以前的工作中，委员会使用了不同的措辞来限定它所提到的规范。 |
| In its commentary to draft article 50 of the draft articles on the law of treaties, it used the phrases “conspicuous example” and “example” respectively when referring to two of the norms. | 在《条约法条款草案》第50条草案的评注中，委员会在提及其中两项规范时分别使用了“明显的例子”和“例子”这两个短语。 |
| In the commentary to draft article 26 of the draft articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, the Commission referred to the norms on its list as those “clearly accepted and recognized”, while in the commentary to article 40 of the same articles, it used the phrase “generally agreed” to qualify the norm of “aggression” as peremptory, and said there “seems to be widespread agreement” with regard to other norms listed in that paragraph. | 在《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》第26条草案的评注中，委员会提到其清单上的规范是“明确接受和承认的”， 而在同一条款第40条的评注中，委员会使用“普遍同意”一词将“侵略”的规范限定为强制性规范，并说对该段所列其他规范“似乎有广泛的一致意见”。 |
| (5) The first norm identified in the annex is the prohibition of aggression. | (5) 附件中确定的第一个规范是禁止侵略。 |
| The prohibition of aggression was referred to by the Commission in the commentary to the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 委员会在《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》的评注中提到了禁止侵略。 |
| In 1966, the Commission stated that the “law of the Charter concerning the prohibition of the use of force in itself constitutes a conspicuous example of a rule in international law having the character of jus cogens”. | 1966年，委员会指出，“《宪章》中关于禁止使用武力的规则本身即构成具有强行法性质的国际法规则的一个显著例子”。 |
| Although not strictly the output of the Commission itself, the 2006 work of its Study Group on fragmentation of international law is also noteworthy. | 虽然严格说来并非委员会本身的产出，但委员会的国际法不成体系问题研究组2006年的工作也值得注意。 |
| Like the commentary to the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, the conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law referred to the prohibition of aggression as a peremptory norm. | 如同《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》的评注一样，国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论也提到禁止侵略是一项强制性规范。 |
| The report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law, after referring to the Commission’s identification of the prohibition of aggression, included “the prohibition of aggressive use of force” on its list of the “most frequently cited candidates for the status of jus cogens”. | 国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告在提到委员会确定的禁止侵略之后，将“禁止侵略性使用武力”列入其“最常援引的具有强行法地位的备选规范清单”。 |
| (6) The second norm identified in the annex is the prohibition of genocide. | (6) 附件中确定的第二个规范是禁止灭绝种族。 |
| The prohibition of genocide has been referred to by the Commission with a consistent formulation in all its relevant work. | 委员会在其所有相关工作中都以一致的措辞提到了禁止灭绝种族。 |
| In particular, the draft articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, both in the commentary to draft article 26 and in the commentary to draft article 40, referred to the prohibition of genocide. | 具体而言，《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》，无论是在第26条草案的评注中，还是在第40条草案的评注中，都提到禁止灭绝种族。 |
| Similarly, both the conclusions and the report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law refer to the prohibition of genocide. | 同样，国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论和报告都提到禁止灭绝种族。 |
| (7) The prohibition of crimes against humanity is the third norm included in the annex. | (7) 禁止危害人类罪是附件所载的第三项规范。 |
| The fourth paragraph of the preamble to the 2019 draft articles on crimes against humanity recalled that “the prohibition of crimes against humanity is a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens)”. | 2019年《危害人类罪条款草案》序言第四段回顾，“禁止危害人类罪是一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)”。 |
| In the commentary to article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, the Commission referred not to the prohibition of crimes against humanity separately, but to the prohibition of “crimes against humanity and torture”. | 在《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条的评注中，委员会没有单独提到禁止危害人类罪，而是提到禁止“危害人类罪和酷刑”。 |
| The prohibition of crimes against humanity is also referred to in the report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law as one of the “most frequently cited candidates” for norms with jus cogens status. | 国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告还提到，禁止危害人类罪是具有强行法地位规范中“最常被援引的备选规范之一”。 |
| (8) The basic rules of international humanitarian law, the fourth norm in the annex, has been referred to by the Commission in its commentary to article 40 of its articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | (8) 国际人道法的基本规则是附件中的第四项规范，委员会在其《国家对国际不法行为的责任的条款》第40条的评注中提到了这一规范。 |
| The conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law refer to basic rules of international humanitarian law applicable in armed conflict. | 国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论提到适用于武装冲突的国际人道法的基本规则。 |
| The report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law, on the other hand, referred to “the prohibition of hostilities directed at civilian population (‘basic rules of international humanitarian law’)”. | 另一方面，国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告提到“禁止针对平民的敌对行动(‘国际人道法基本规则’)”。 |
| (9) The fifth norm in the annex is the prohibition of racial discrimination and apartheid. | (9) 附件中的第五项规范是禁止种族歧视和种族隔离。 |
| The prohibition of racial discrimination and apartheid is referred to in the commentary to article 40 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第40条的评注提到禁止种族歧视和种族隔离。 |
| The commentary to article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, however, only refers to the prohibition of racial discrimination, without any reference to apartheid. | 但是，《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条的评注只提到禁止种族歧视，而没有提到种族隔离。 |
| The report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law also refers to the prohibition of racial discrimination and apartheid. | 国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告也提到禁止种族歧视和种族隔离。 |
| The conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law, however, refer to the prohibition of apartheid along with torture, without any reference to racial discrimination. | 然而，国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论提到禁止种族隔离和酷刑，而没有提到种族歧视。 |
| (10) The annex also includes the prohibition of slavery as the sixth norm on the list of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) previously referred to by the Commission. | (10) 附件还将禁止奴役列为委员会以前提到的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)清单上的第六项规范。 |
| The prohibition of slavery was referred to by the Commission as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) in the commentary to draft article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 委员会在《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条草案的评注中提到，禁止奴役是一般国际法的一项强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| The commentary to draft article 40 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts refers to the prohibition of slavery and the slave trade. | 《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第40条草案的评注中提到禁止奴隶制和奴隶贸易。 |
| The commentary to the draft articles on the law of treaties, for its part, refers to the prohibition of the trade in slaves. | 《条约法条款草案》的评注提到禁止奴隶贸易。 |
| (11) The prohibition of torture is the seventh norm in the annex. | (11) 禁止酷刑是附件中的第七项规范。 |
| The prohibition of torture is referred to by the Commission in the commentary to draft article 40 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 委员会在《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第40条草案的评注中提到禁止酷刑。 |
| In the commentary to draft article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, the Commission referred to the prohibition of “crimes against humanity and torture”. | 在《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条草案的评注中，委员会提到禁止“危害人类罪和酷刑”。 |
| The conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law, on the other hand, referred to the prohibition of “apartheid and torture”. | 另一方面，国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论提到禁止“种族隔离和酷刑”。 |
| (12) The final norm listed in the annex is the right of self-determination. | (12) 附件所列的最后一项规范是自决权。 |
| In describing the norm as having peremptory character, the Commission has used the formulation “the right of self-determination”, although it has at times referred to the “right to self-determination”. | 在将规范描述为具有强制性时，委员会使用了“the right of self-determination”(自决权)这一行文，尽管它有时使用the right to self-determination(自决权)。 |
| (13) As explained in paragraph (2), the list is non-exhaustive not only in the sense that it does not purport to cover all peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) that may exist or that may emerge in the future, but also in the sense that it does not reflect all the norms that have been referred to in some way by the Commission as having a peremptory character. | (13) 正如第(2)段所解释的那样，该清单并非详尽无遗，不仅因为它无意涵盖可能存在或将来可能出现的所有一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，而且也因为它没有反映委员会以某种方式提到的所有具有强制性的规范。 |
| This includes those norms that the Commission has considered in the course of its deliberations. | 这包括委员会在审议过程中审议的规范。 |
| For example, in the commentary to draft article 50 of the draft articles on the law of treaties, the Commission referred, inter alia, to the prohibition of piracy and to the principle of the sovereign “equality of States” – a fundamental principle under the Charter of the United Nations.The Commission had also referred to the important role of the Charter of the United Nations, especially those provisions of the Charter which set out the purposes and principles of the United Nations for the development of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 例如，委员会在《条约法条款草案》第50条草案的评注中，除其他外，提到禁止海盗行为和《联合国宪章》中的一项基本原则――主权“国家平等”原则。 委员会还提及《联合国宪章》的重要作用，尤其是《宪章》中为联合国发展一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)规定宗旨和原则的条款。 |
| In the draft articles adopted on first reading in 1976 under the topic “State responsibility”, the Commission also referred to obligations “of essential importance for the safeguarding and preservation of the human environment, such as those prohibiting massive pollution of the atmosphere or of the seas” as peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 在1976年一读通过的“国家的责任”专题条款草案中，委员会还提到“对保护和维护人类环境至关重要的”义务，“例如禁止大规模污染大气层或海洋”的义务，作为一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| (14) The norms in the annex are presented in no particular order. | (14) 附件中的规范未按特定顺序列出。 |
| Their order does not, in any way, signify a hierarchy among them. | 排列顺序丝毫不代表它们之间的重要性排序。 |
| Annex | 附件 |
| (a) The prohibition of aggression; | (a) 禁止侵略； |
| (b) The prohibition of genocide; | (b) 禁止灭绝种族； |
| (c) The prohibition of crimes against humanity; | (c) 禁止危害人类罪； |
| (d) The basic rules of international humanitarian law; | (d) 国际人道法的基本规则； |
| (e) The prohibition of racial discrimination and apartheid; | (e) 禁止种族歧视和种族隔离； |
| (f) The prohibition of slavery; | (f) 禁止奴役； |
| (g) The prohibition of torture; | (g) 禁止酷刑； |
| (h) The right of self-determination. | (h) 自决权。 |
| Chapter VI Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts | 第六章 与武装冲突有关的环境保护 |
| A. Introduction | A. 导言 |
| 58. At its sixty-fifth session (2013), the Commission decided to include the topic “Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts” in its programme of work, and appointed Ms. Marie G. Jacobsson as Special Rapporteur. | 58. 国际法委员会第六十五届会议(2013年)决定将“与武装冲突有关的环境保护”专题列入工作方案，并任命玛丽·雅各布松女士为该专题特别报告员。 |
| 59. The Commission received and considered three reports from its sixty-sixth session (2014) to its sixty-eighth session (2016). | 59. 从第六十六届会议(2014年)至第六十八届会议(2016年)，委员会收到并审议了三份报告。 |
| At its sixty-sixth session (2014), the Commission considered the preliminary report of the Special Rapporteur. | 在第六十六届会议(2014年)上，委员会审议了特别报告员的初步报告。 |
| At its sixty-seventh session (2015), the Commission considered the second report of the Special Rapporteur and took note of the draft introductory provisions and draft principles, provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee, which were subsequently renumbered and revised for technical reasons by the Drafting Committee at the sixty-eighth session. | 在第六十七届会议(2015年)上，委员会审议了特别报告员的第二次报告， 并注意到起草委员会暂时通过的导言部分规定草案和原则草案，起草委员会后来在第六十八届会议上出于技术原因对这些草案作了重新编号和修订。 |
| Accordingly, the Commission provisionally adopted draft principles 1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13, and commentaries thereto, at that session. | 因此，委员会在该届会议上暂时通过了原则草案1、2、5、9、10、11、12和13以及评注。 |
| At the same session, the Commission also considered the third report of the Special Rapporteur, and took note of draft principles 4, 6 to 8, and 14 to 18 provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee, without provisionally adopting any commentaries. | 在同一届会议上，委员会还审议了特别报告员的第三次报告， 并注意到起草委员会暂时通过的原则草案4、6至8和14至18, 未暂时通过任何评注。 |
| 60. At its sixty-ninth session (2017), the Commission established a Working Group to consider the way forward in relation to the topic, as Ms. Jacobsson was no longer a member of the Commission. | 60. 在第六十九届会议(2017年)上，由于雅各布松女士已不再担任委员会委员，委员会设立了一个工作组，以考虑此专题今后的方向。 |
| The Working Group, chaired by Mr. Vázquez-Bermúdez, had before it the draft commentaries prepared by the Special Rapporteur, even though she was no longer a member of the Commission, on draft principles 4, 6 to 8, and 14 to 18 provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee at the sixty-eighth session, and taken note of by the Commission at the same session. | 巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生担任工作组主席，尽管特别报告员雅各布松女士已不再担任委员会委员，但工作组收到了她编写的关于起草委员会在第六十八届会议上暂时通过的原则草案4、6至8和14至18的评注草案，委员会在同一届会议上注意到这些原则草案。 |
| The Working Group recommended to the Commission the appointment of a new Special Rapporteur to assist with the successful completion of its work on the topic. | 工作组建议委员会为本专题任命一名新的特别报告员，以协助顺利完成关于本专题的工作。 |
| Following an oral report by the Chair of the Working Group, the Commission decided to appoint Ms. Marja Lehto as Special Rapporteur. | 在工作组主席作出口头报告后，委员会决定任命玛丽亚·莱赫托女士为特别报告员。 |
| 61. At its seventieth session (2018), the Commission established a Working Group, chaired by Mr. Vázquez-Bermúdez, to assist the Special Rapporteur in the preparation of the draft commentaries to draft principles 4, 6 to 8, and 14 to 18, provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee at the sixty-ninth session, and taken note of by the Commission at the same session. | 61. 在第七十届会议(2018年)上，委员会设立了一个工作组，由巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生担任主席，协助特别报告员编写起草委员会在第六十九届会议上暂时通过的原则草案4、6至8和14至18的评注草案，委员会在同一届会议上注意到这些原则草案。 |
| The Commission provisionally adopted draft principles 4, 6 to 8, and 14 to 18, and commentaries thereto, at that session. | 委员会在该届会议上暂时通过了原则草案4、6至8和14至18以及评注。 |
| Also at the seventieth session, the Commission considered the first report of the Special Rapporteur and took note of draft principles 19, 20 and 21, which had been provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee. | 在第七十届会议上，委员会还审议了特别报告员的第一次报告， 并注意到起草委员会暂时通过的原则草案19、20和21。 |
| B. Consideration of the topic at the present session | B. 本届会议审议此专题的情况 |
| 62. At the present session, at its 3455th meeting on 1 May 2019, the Commission provisionally adopted draft principles 19, 20 and 21, which had been provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee at the seventieth session. | 62. 在本届会议上，委员会在2019年5月1日第3455次会议上暂时通过了起草委员会在第七十届会议上暂时通过的原则草案19、20和21。 |
| 63. At its 3464th to 3471st meetings, from 15 May to 27 May 2019, the Commission considered the second report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/728). | 63. 在2019年5月15日至5月27日举行的第3464至第3471次会议上，委员会审议了特别报告员的第二次报告(A/CN.4/728)。 |
| 64. In her second report, the Special Rapporteur addressed certain questions related to the protection of the environment in non-international armed conflicts, with a focus on how the international rules and practices concerning natural resources may enhance the protection of the environment during and after such conflicts. | 64. 特别报告员在其第二次报告中阐述了与在非国际性武装冲突中保护环境有关的某些问题，重点关注有关自然资源的国际规则和实践如何能够在此类冲突期间和冲突后加强对环境的保护。 |
| The second report also addressed certain questions related to the responsibility and liability of States and non-State actors. | 第二次报告还阐述了与国家和非国家行为体的责任和赔偿责任有关的某些问题。 |
| The Special Rapporteur thus proposed seven draft principles. | 由此，特别报告员提出了七项原则草案。 |
| 65. At is 3471st meeting, on 27 May 2019, the Commission referred draft principles 6 bis, 8 bis, 13 bis, 13 ter, 13 quater, 13 quinquies, and 14 bis, as contained in the second report of the Special Rapporteur, to the Drafting Committee, taking into account the plenary debate in the Commission. | 65. 在2019年5月27日第3471次会议上，委员会考虑到委员会全体会议期间的辩论，将特别报告员第二次报告所载的原则草案6之二、原则草案8之二、原则草案13之二、原则草案13之三、原则草案13之四、原则草案13之五和原则草案14之二转交起草委员会。 |
| 66. At its 3475th meeting, on 8 July 2019, the Chair of the Drafting Committee presented the report of the Drafting Committee on “Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts” (A/CN.4/L.937). | 66. 在2019年7月8日第3475次会议上，起草委员会主席提交了 起草委员会关于“与武装冲突有关的环境保护”的报告(A/CN.4/L.937)。 |
| At the same meeting, the Commission provisionally adopted the entire set of the draft principles on protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts on first reading (see section C.1 below). | 在同一次会议上，委员会一读暂时通过了关于与武装冲突有关的环境保护的整套原则草案(见下文C.1节)。 |
| 67. At its 3504th to 3506th meetings, on 7 and 8 August 2019, the Commission adopted the commentaries to the draft principles on protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts (see section C.2 below). | 67. 在2019年8月7日和8日第3504至第3506次会议上，委员会通过了与武装冲突有关的环境保护原则草案的评注(见下文C.2节)。 |
| 68. At its 3506th meeting, on 8 August 2019, the Commission decided, in accordance with articles 16 to 21 of its statute, to transmit the draft principles on protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts (see sect. C below), through the Secretary-General, to Governments, international organizations, including from the United Nations and its Environment Programme, and others, including the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Environmental Law Institute, for comments and observations, with the request that such comments and observations be submitted to the Secretary-General by 1 December 2020. | 68. 在2019年8月8日第3506次会议上，委员会根据其章程第16至第21条，决定通过秘书长将与武装冲突有关的环境保护原则草案(见下文C节)转交给各国政府、各国际组织(包括联合国机构和联合国环境规划署)和其他组织(包括红十字国际委员会和环境法学会)征求评论和意见，要求在2020年12月1日之前向秘书长提交此类评论和意见。 |
| 69. At its 3506th meeting, on 8 August 2019, the Commission expressed its deep appreciation for the outstanding contribution of the Special Rapporteur, Ms. Marja Lehto, which had enabled the Commission to bring to a successful conclusion its first reading of the draft principles on protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts. | 69. 在2019年8月8日第3506次会议上，委员会向特别报告员玛丽亚·莱赫托女士深表感谢，由于她的杰出贡献，委员会得以圆满结束对与武装冲突有关的环境保护原则草案的一读。 |
| The Commission also reiterated its deep appreciation for the valuable contribution of the previous Special Rapporteur, Ms. Marie G. Jacobsson, to the work on the topic. | 委员会还再次对前任特别报告员玛丽·雅各布松女士对该专题工作的宝贵贡献深表感谢。 |
| C. Text of the draft principles on protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts, adopted by the Commission on first reading | C. 委员会一读通过的与武装冲突有关的环境保护原则草案案文 |
| 1. Text of the draft principles | 1. 原则草案案文 |
| 70. The text of the draft principles adopted by the Commission on first reading is reproduced below. | 70. 委员会一读通过的原则草案案文载录如下。 |
| Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts | 与武装冲突有关的环境保护 |
| Part One Introduction | 第一部分 导言 |
| Principle 1 Scope | 原则1 范围 |
| The present draft principles apply to the protection of the environment before, during or after an armed conflict. | 本原则草案适用于武装冲突之前、期间和之后的环境保护。 |
| Principle 2 Purpose | 原则2 宗旨 |
| The present draft principles are aimed at enhancing the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict, including through preventive measures for minimizing damage to the environment during armed conflict and through remedial measures. | 本原则草案旨在通过将武装冲突期间对环境损害减少至最低限度的预防措施以及通过补救措施，加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| Part Two [One] Principles of general application | 第二[一]部分 一般适用原则 |
| Principle 3 [4] Measures to enhance the protection of the environment | 原则3 [4] 加强环境保护的措施 |
| 1. States shall, pursuant to their obligations under international law, take effective legislative, administrative, judicial and other measures to enhance the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict. | 1. 各国应依照其国际法义务，采取有效的立法、行政、司法措施和其他措施，加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| 2. In addition, States should take further measures, as appropriate, to enhance the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict. | 2. 此外，各国应当酌情采取进一步措施，加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| Principle 4 [I-(x), 5] Designation of protected zones | 原则4 [I-(x), 5] 指定受保护区 |
| States should designate, by agreement or otherwise, areas of major environmental and cultural importance as protected zones. | 各国应当以协议或其他方式，指定具有重大环境和文化意义的区域为受保护区。 |
| Principle 5 [6] Protection of the environment of indigenous peoples | 原则5 [6] 保护土著人民的环境 |
| 1. States should take appropriate measures, in the event of an armed conflict, to protect the environment of the territories that indigenous peoples inhabit. | 1. 各国应当采取适当措施，在发生武装冲突时保护土著人民所居住领土的环境。 |
| 2. After an armed conflict that has adversely affected the environment of the territories that indigenous peoples inhabit, States should undertake effective consultations and cooperation with the indigenous peoples concerned, through appropriate procedures and in particular through their own representative institutions, for the purpose of taking remedial measures. | 2. 如武装冲突对土著人民所居住领土的环境造成有害影响，各国应当在冲突结束后借助适当程序，特别是通过土著人民自己的代表机构，与有关土著人民开展有效的协商与合作，以便采取补救措施。 |
| Principle 6 [7] Agreements concerning the presence of military forces in relation to armed conflict | 原则6 [7] 与武装冲突有关的驻军协议 |
| States and international organizations should, as appropriate, include provisions on environmental protection in agreements concerning the presence of military forces in relation to armed conflict. | 各国和国际组织应当酌情将环境保护条款纳入与武装冲突有关的驻军协议。 |
| Such provisions may include preventive measures, impact assessments, restoration and clean-up measures. | 此种条款可包括预防措施、影响评估、恢复以及清理措施。 |
| Principle 7 [8] Peace operations | 原则7 [8] 和平行动 |
| States and international organizations involved in peace operations in relation to armed conflict shall consider the impact of such operations on the environment and take appropriate measures to prevent, mitigate and remediate the negative environmental consequences thereof. | 参加与武装冲突有关的和平行动的各国和国际组织应考虑此种行动对环境的影响，并采取适当措施，防止、减轻和补救其负面的环境后果。 |
| Principle 8 Human displacement | 原则8 人员流离失所 |
| States, international organizations and other relevant actors should take appropriate measures to prevent and mitigate environmental degradation in areas where persons displaced by armed conflict are located, while providing relief and assistance for such persons and local communities. | 各国、国际组织和其他有关行为体应当采取适当措施，防止和减轻因武装冲突而流离失所者所在地区的环境退化，同时向这些人员和地方社区提供救济和援助。 |
| Principle 9 State responsibility | 原则9 国家责任 |
| 1. An internationally wrongful act of a State, in relation to an armed conflict, that causes damage to the environment entails the international responsibility of that State, which is under an obligation to make full reparation for such damage, including damage to the environment in and of itself. | 1. 一国与武装冲突有关的国际不法行为如对环境造成损害，则引起该国的国际责任，该国有义务对此种损害，包括单纯对环境本身的损害，作出充分赔偿。 |
| 2. The present draft principles are without prejudice to the rules on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 2. 本原则草案不妨碍关于国家对国际不法行为的责任的规则。 |
| Principle 10 Corporate due diligence | 原则10 公司应尽职责 |
| States should take appropriate legislative and other measures aimed at ensuring that corporations and other business enterprises operating in or from their territories exercise due diligence with respect to the protection of the environment, including in relation to human health, when acting in an area of armed conflict or in a post-armed conflict situation. | 各国应当采取适当的立法措施和其他措施，以确保在其领土内或从其领土上开展活动的公司和其他工商企业，在武装冲突地区或冲突后局势中开展活动时就保护环境，包括保护人员健康履行应尽职责。 |
| Such measures include those aimed at ensuring that natural resources are purchased or obtained in an environmentally sustainable manner. | 此种措施包括旨在确保以环境上可持续的方式采购和获取自然资源的措施。 |
| Principle 11 Corporate liability | 原则11 公司的赔偿责任 |
| States should take appropriate legislative and other measures aimed at ensuring that corporations and other business enterprises operating in or from their territories can be held liable for harm caused by them to the environment, including in relation to human health, in an area of armed conflict or in a post-armed conflict situation. | 各国应当采取适当的立法措施和其他措施，以确保在其领土内或从其领土上开展活动的公司和其他工商企业，对于在武装冲突地区或冲突后局势中由它们对环境、包括对人员健康造成的损害，可被认定负有赔偿责任。 |
| Such measures should, as appropriate, include those aimed at ensuring that a corporation or other business enterprise can be held liable to the extent that such harm is caused by its subsidiary acting under its de facto control. | 此种措施应酌情包括旨在确保公司或其他工商企业对事实上由其控制的子公司所造成的此种损害可被认定负有赔偿责任的措施。 |
| To this end, as appropriate, States should provide adequate and effective procedures and remedies, in particular for the victims of such harm. | 为此，各国应当酌情提供，特别是向此种损害的受害者提供充分和有效的程序和补救措施。 |
| Part Three [Two] Principles applicable during armed conflict | 第三[二]部分 武装冲突期间适用的原则 |
| Principle 12 Martens Clause with respect to the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict | 原则12 与武装冲突有关的环境保护方面的马顿斯条款 |
| In cases not covered by international agreements, the environment remains under the protection and authority of the principles of international law derived from established custom, from the principles of humanity and from the dictates of public conscience. | 在国际协议所未包括的情形下，环境仍受来源于既定习惯、人道原则和公众良心要求的国际法原则的保护和支配。 |
| Principle 13 [II-1, 9] General protection of the natural environment during armed conflict | 原则13 [II-1, 9] 武装冲突期间对自然环境的一般保护 |
| 1. The natural environment shall be respected and protected in accordance with applicable international law and, in particular, the law of armed conflict. | 1. 应按照适用的国际法，特别是武装冲突法，尊重和保护自然环境。 |
| 2. Care shall be taken to protect the natural environment against widespread, long-term and severe damage. | 2. 应注意保护自然环境免遭广泛、长期和严重的损害。 |
| 3. No part of the natural environment may be attacked, unless it has become a military objective. | 3. 除非自然环境成为军事目标，否则任何一部分都不得受到攻击。 |
| Principle 14 [II-2, 10] Application of the law of armed conflict to the natural environment | 原则14 [II-2, 10] 对自然环境适用武装冲突法 |
| The law of armed conflict, including the principles and rules on distinction, proportionality, military necessity and precautions in attack, shall be applied to the natural environment, with a view to its protection. | 应对自然环境适用武装冲突法，包括关于区分、相称性、军事必要性和攻击中采取预防措施的原则和规则，以期保护自然环境。 |
| Principle 15 [II-3, 11] Environmental considerations | 原则15 [II-3, 11] 环境因素 |
| Environmental considerations shall be taken into account when applying the principle of proportionality and the rules on military necessity. | 适用相称性原则和军事必要性规则时，应考虑环境因素。 |
| Principle 16 [II-4, 12] Prohibition of reprisals | 原则16 [II-4, 12] 禁止报复 |
| Attacks against the natural environment by way of reprisals are prohibited. | 禁止作为报复而对自然环境进行攻击。 |
| Principle 17 [II-5, 13] Protected zones | 原则17 [II-5, 13] 受保护区 |
| An area of major environmental and cultural importance designated by agreement as a protected zone shall be protected against any attack, as long as it does not contain a military objective. | 以协议方式指定为受保护区的具有重大环境和文化意义的地区，只要不包含军事目标，应保护其不受任何攻击。 |
| Principle 18 Prohibition of pillage | 原则18 禁止掠夺 |
| Pillage of natural resources is prohibited. | 禁止掠夺自然资源。 |
| Principle 19 Environmental modification techniques | 原则19 改变环境的技术 |
| In accordance with their international obligations, States shall not engage in military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting or severe effects as the means of destruction, damage or injury to any other State. | 各国根据其国际义务，不得为军事或任何其他敌对目的使用具有广泛、长期或严重后果的改变环境的技术作为摧毁、破坏或伤害任何其他国家的手段。 |
| Part Four Principles applicable in situations of occupation | 第四部分 在占领局势下适用的原则 |
| Principle 20 [19] General obligations of an Occupying Power | 原则20 [19] 占领方的一般义务 |
| 1. An Occupying Power shall respect and protect the environment of the occupied territory in accordance with applicable international law and take environmental considerations into account in the administration of such territory. | 1. 占领方应按照适用的国际法尊重和保护被占领土的环境，并应在管理此种领土时将环境因素纳入考虑。 |
| 2. An Occupying Power shall take appropriate measures to prevent significant harm to the environment of the occupied territory that is likely to prejudice the health and well-being of the population of the occupied territory. | 2. 占领方应采取适当措施，防止对被占领土的环境造成可能有损被占领土居民健康和福祉的重大损害。 |
| 3. An Occupying Power shall respect the law and institutions of the occupied territory concerning the protection of the environment and may only introduce changes within the limits provided by the law of armed conflict. | 3. 占领方应尊重被占领土关于环境保护的法律和制度，并仅可在武装冲突法规定的限制内予以改动。 |
| Principle 21 [20] Sustainable use of natural resources | 原则21 [20] 自然资源的可持续利用 |
| To the extent that an Occupying Power is permitted to administer and use the natural resources in an occupied territory, for the benefit of the population of the occupied territory and for other lawful purposes under the law of armed conflict, it shall do so in a way that ensures their sustainable use and minimizes environmental harm. | 在占领方为了被占领土居民的利益和出于武装冲突法规定的其他合法目的而获准管理和利用被占领土内自然资源的情形下，其管理和利用方式应确保这些自然资源的可持续利用，并将对环境的损害减少至最低限度。 |
| Principle 22 [21] Due diligence | 原则22 [21] 应尽职责 |
| An Occupying Power shall exercise due diligence to ensure that activities in the occupied territory do not cause significant harm to the environment of areas beyond the occupied territory. | 占领方应履行应尽职责，确保被占领土内的活动不对被占领土以外地区的环境造成重大损害。 |
| Part Five [Three] Principles applicable after armed conflict | 第五[三]部分 武装冲突后适用的原则 |
| Principle 23 [14] Peace processes | 原则23 [14] 和平进程 |
| 1. Parties to an armed conflict should, as part of the peace process, including where appropriate in peace agreements, address matters relating to the restoration and protection of the environment damaged by the conflict. | 1. 武装冲突各方应当作为和平进程的一部分，处理与遭冲突损害的环境的恢复和保护有关的问题，包括酌情在和平协议中处理此事。 |
| 2. Relevant international organizations should, where appropriate, play a facilitating role in this regard. | 2. 有关国际组织应当酌情在这方面发挥协助作用。 |
| Principle 24 [18] Sharing and granting access to information | 原则24 [18] 共享与准许获取信息 |
| 1. To facilitate remedial measures after an armed conflict, States and relevant international organizations shall share and grant access to relevant information in accordance with their obligations under international law. | 1. 为便利武装冲突后采取补救措施，各国和有关国际组织应按照其国际法义务，共享并准许获取相关信息。 |
| 2. Nothing in the present draft principle obliges a State or international organization to share or grant access to information vital to its national defence or security. | 2. 本项原则草案中并无任何内容要求一国或国际组织必须共享或准许获取对其国防或安全至关重要的信息。 |
| Nevertheless, that State or international organization shall cooperate in good faith with a view to providing as much information as possible under the circumstances. | 但国家或国际组织应善意合作，根据具体情况提供尽可能多的信息。 |
| Principle 25 [15] Post-armed conflict environmental assessments and remedial measures | 原则25 [15] 武装冲突后的环境评估与补救措施 |
| Cooperation among relevant actors, including international organizations, is encouraged with respect to post-armed conflict environmental assessments and remedial measures. | 鼓励包括国际组织在内的有关行为体在武装冲突后的环境评估与补救措施方面开展合作。 |
| Principle 26 Relief and assistance | 原则26 救济和援助 |
| When, in relation to an armed conflict, the source of environmental damage is unidentified, or reparation is unavailable, States are encouraged to take appropriate measures so that the damage does not remain unrepaired or uncompensated, and may consider establishing special compensation funds or providing other forms of relief or assistance. | 当与武装冲突有关的环境损害的来源不明或赔偿无法获得时，鼓励各国采取适当措施，以使该损害不会持续得不到修复或补偿，并可考虑设立特别补偿基金或其他形式的救济或援助。 |
| Principle 27 [16] Remnants of war | 原则27 [16] 战争遗留物 |
| 1. After an armed conflict, parties to the conflict shall seek to remove or render harmless toxic and hazardous remnants of war under their jurisdiction or control that are causing or risk causing damage to the environment. | 1. 武装冲突后，冲突各方应争取移除其管辖或控制下正在造成或可能造成环境破坏的有毒和危险的战争遗留物或使之无害。 |
| Such measures shall be taken subject to the applicable rules of international law. | 在采取此种措施时应遵守适用的国际法规则。 |
| 2. The parties shall also endeavour to reach agreement, among themselves and, where appropriate, with other States and with international organizations, on technical and material assistance, including, in appropriate circumstances, the undertaking of joint operations to remove or render harmless such toxic and hazardous remnants of war. | 2. 冲突各方还应努力相互达成并酌情与其他国家和国际组织达成关于技术与物资援助的协议，包括在适当情况下开展联合行动，以移除此种有毒和危险的战争遗留物或使之无害。 |
| 3. Paragraphs 1 and 2 are without prejudice to any rights or obligations under international law to clear, remove, destroy or maintain minefields, mined areas, mines, booby-traps, explosive ordnance and other devices. | 3. 第1和第2段不妨碍任何关于清除、移除、销毁或维护雷场、雷区、地雷、诱杀装置、爆炸性弹药和其他装置的国际法权利或义务。 |
| Principle 28 [17] Remnants of war at sea | 原则28 [17] 海上战争遗留物 |
| States and relevant international organizations should cooperate to ensure that remnants of war at sea do not constitute a danger to the environment. | 各国和有关国际组织应当开展合作，确保海上战争遗留物不对环境构成危险。 |
| 2. Text of the draft principles on protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts and commentaries thereto | 2. 与武装冲突有关的环境保护原则草案案文及其评注 |
| 71. The text of the draft principles and commentaries thereto adopted by the Commission on first reading at its seventy-first session is reproduced below. | 71. 委员会第七十一届会议一读通过的原则草案案文及其评注载录如下。 |
| Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts | 与武装冲突有关的环境保护 |
| Part One Introduction | 第一部分 导言 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) As is always the case with the Commission’s outputs, the draft principles are to be read together with the commentaries. | (1) 与委员会以往工作成果一样，本原则草案应结合评注来解读。 |
| (2) Structurally, the set of draft principles are divided into five parts, including the initial part entitled “Introduction” which contains draft principles on the scope and purpose of the draft principles. | (2) 从结构上看，本套原则草案分为五个部分，起首部分标题为“导言”，其中载有关于原则草案范围和宗旨的几项原则草案。 |
| Part Two concerns guidance on the protection of the environment before the outbreak of an armed conflict but also contains draft principles of a more general nature that are of relevance for more than one temporal phase: before, during or after an armed conflict. | 第二部分涉及为武装冲突爆发之前保护环境的问题提供的指导，但也载有与冲突之前、期间和之后三个时间段中不止一个时间段有关的更具一般性的原则草案。 |
| Part Three pertains to the protection of the environment during armed conflict, and Part Four pertains to the protection of the environment in situations of occupation. | 第三部分涉及武装冲突期间保护环境的问题，第四部分涉及在占领局势下保护环境的问题。 |
| Part Five contains draft principles relative to the protection of the environment after an armed conflict. | 第五部分载有关于武装冲突之后保护环境的几项原则草案。 |
| (3) The provisions have been cast as draft “principles”. | (3) 这些条款被定为“原则”。 |
| The Commission has previously chosen to formulate the output of its work as draft principles, both for provisions that set forth principles of international law and for non-binding declarations intended to contribute to the progressive development of international law and provide appropriate guidance to States. | 委员会以前曾选择将其工作成果制定为原则草案，既包括阐述国际法原则的规定，也包括旨在促进国际法逐渐发展和向各国提供适当指导的不具约束力的宣言。 |
| The present set of draft principles contains provisions of different normative value, including those that can be seen to reflect customary international law, and those of a more recommendatory nature. | 本套原则草案包含具有不同规范意义的条款，包括可被视为反映习惯国际法的条款，以及更具建议性质的条款。 |
| (4) The draft principles were prepared bearing in mind the intersection between the international law relating to the environment and the law of armed conflict. | (4) 编写原则草案时考虑到了与环境有关的国际法和武装冲突法之间互相交织的情况。 |
| (5) As for the use of terms, the Commission will decide at the time of the second reading, whether to use the term “natural environment” or “environment” in those provisions of Part Three that draw on Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions. | (5) 关于用语的使用，委员会将在二读时决定在参照《日内瓦四公约第一附加议定书》的第三部分各项条款中使用“自然环境”还是“环境”一词。 |
| Principle 1 Scope | 原则1 范围 |
| The present draft principles apply to the protection of the environment before, during or after an armed conflict. | 本原则草案适用于武装冲突之前、期间和之后的环境保护。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) This provision defines the scope of the draft principles. | (1) 本条款确定了原则草案的范围。 |
| It provides that they cover three temporal phases: before, during, and after armed conflict. | 本条规定，原则草案的范围涵盖三个时间段：武装冲突之前、期间和之后。 |
| It was viewed as important to signal at the outset that the scope of the draft principles relates to these phases. | 大家认为必须在开始即表明原则草案涉及这三个阶段。 |
| The disjunctive “or” seeks to underline that not all draft principles would be applicable during all phases. | “或”这一反义连接词的目的是重点说明并不是所有原则草案都在所有阶段适用。 |
| However, it is worth emphasizing that there is, at times, a certain degree of overlap between these three phases. | 但值得强调的是，这三个阶段有时有一定程度的重叠。 |
| Furthermore, the formulation builds on discussions within the Commission and in the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly. | 而且，这一提法是在委员会内部和联大第六委员会的讨论基础上提出的。 |
| (2) The division of the principles into the temporal phases described above (albeit without strict dividing lines) sets out the scope ratione temporis of the draft principles. | (2) 将原则分为上述三个时间段(尽管没有严格的分界线)确立了原则草案的属时管辖权范围。 |
| It was considered that addressing the topic from a temporal perspective rather than from the perspective of various areas of international law, such as international environmental law, the law of armed conflict and international human rights law, would make the topic more manageable and easier to delineate. | 大家认为，从时间角度，而不是从国际法不同方面，如国际环境法、武装冲突法和国际人权法的角度处理本专题，可以使专题较容易管理并较容易界定。 |
| The temporal phases would address legal measures taken to protect the environment before, during and after an armed conflict. | 将按时间段规定在武装冲突之前、期间和之后采取的法律措施。 |
| Such an approach allowed the Commission to identify concrete legal issues relating to the topic that arose at the different stages of an armed conflict, which facilitated the development of the draft principles. | 这一方式使委员会可以查明在武装冲突的不同阶段所产生的与本专题有关的法律问题，从而方便了原则草案的发展。 |
| (3) Regarding the scope ratione materiae of the draft principles, reference is made to the term “protection of the environment” as it relates to the term “armed conflicts”. | (3) 关于原则草案的属事管辖权范围，请参考与“武装冲突”有关的“环境保护”这一术语。 |
| No distinction is generally made between international armed conflicts and non-international armed conflicts. | 对于国际武装冲突与非国际性武装冲突一般未作区分。 |
| Principle 2 Purpose | 原则2 宗旨 |
| The present draft principles are aimed at enhancing the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict, including through preventive measures for minimizing damage to the environment during armed conflict and through remedial measures. | 本原则草案旨在通过将武装冲突期间对环境损害减少至最低限度的预防措施以及通过补救措施，加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) This provision outlines the fundamental purpose of the draft principles. It makes it clear that the draft principles aim to enhance the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict and signals the general kinds of measures that would be required to offer the necessary protection. | (1) 本条款列出了原则草案的基本宗旨，表明原则草案的目的是加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护，并表明为提供必要的保护所需采取的措施的一般类型。 |
| Such measures include preventive measures, which aim to minimize damage to the environment during armed conflict and remedial measures, which aim to restore the environment after damage has already been caused as a result of armed conflict. | 这些措施包括旨在最大限度地减少武装冲突期间对环境损害的预防措施和旨在在武装冲突已经造成损害后恢复环境的补救措施。 |
| (2) Similar to the provision on scope, the present provision covers all three temporal phases. | (2) 本条款与关于范围的条款类似，涵盖所有三个时间段。 |
| While it has been recognized both within the Commission and within the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly that the three phases are closely connected, the reference to “preventive measures for minimizing damage” relates primarily to the situation before and during armed conflict, and the reference to “remedial measures” principally concerns the post-conflict phase. | 虽然国际法委员会内部 和联大第六委员会内部 都承认，这三个时间段是密切相连的， 但是，“最大限度地减少…损害的预防措施”的说法主要是指武装冲突之前和武装冲突期间的情况，而“补救措施”的说法则主要是指冲突后阶段。 |
| It should be noted that a State may take remedial measures to restore the environment even before the conflict has ended. | 应该指出，一国可在冲突结束前就采取补救措施恢复环境。 |
| (3) The term “remedial measures” was preferred to the term “restorative measures” as it was viewed as clearer and broader in scope, encompassing any measure of remediation that may be taken to restore the environment. | (3) 大家倾向于用“补救措施”而非“恢复措施”这一术语是因为，“补救措施”被认为更加清楚，范围更广，涵盖任何为恢复环境而可能采取的补救性质的措施。 |
| This might include, inter alia, loss or damage by impairment to the environment, costs of reasonable measures of reinstatement, as well as reasonable costs of clean-up associated with the costs of reasonable response measures. | 这可能还包括损害环境所造成的损失或损害、合理的恢复措施所涉的费用以及与合理反应措施的费用相关的合理清理费用。 |
| Part Two Principles of general application | 第二部分 一般适用原则 |
| Principle 3 Measures to enhance the protection of the environment | 原则3 加强环境保护的措施 |
| 1. States shall, pursuant to their obligations under international law, take effective legislative, administrative, judicial and other measures to enhance the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict. | 1. 各国应依照其国际法义务，采取有效的立法、行政、司法措施和其他措施，加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| 2. In addition, States should take further measures, as appropriate, to enhance the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict. | 2. 此外，各国应当酌情采取进一步措施，加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 3 recognizes that States are required to take effective measures to enhance the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict. | (1) 原则草案3确认，各国须采取有效措施，加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| Paragraph 1 recalls obligations under international law and paragraph 2 encourages States voluntarily to take further effective measures. | 第1段回顾了依国际法具有的义务，第2段鼓励各国自愿采取进一步的有效措施。 |
| The phrase “to enhance the protection of the environment”, included in both paragraphs, corresponds to the purpose of the set of draft principles. | 这两段中均包含的“加强环境保护”一语与本套原则草案的目的相对应。 |
| Similarly, the phrase “in relation to armed conflict”, also inserted in both paragraphs, is intended to underline the connection of environmental protection to armed conflict. | 同样，两段中“与武装冲突有关的”一语是为了强调环境保护与武装冲突的关系。 |
| (2) Paragraph 1 reflects that States have obligations under international law to enhance the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict and addresses the measures that States are obliged to take to this end. | (2) 第1段反映出依照国际法各国有义务加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护，并述及各国为此须采取的措施。 |
| The obligation is denoted by the word “shall”. | 这项义务通过“应”字来体现。 |
| The requirement is qualified by the expression “pursuant to their obligations under international law”, indicating that the provision does not require States to take measures that go beyond their existing obligations. | 该款有一个限定语“依照其国际法义务”，表明该款不要求各国采取超出其现有义务范围的措施。 |
| The specific obligations of a State under this provision will differ according to the relevant obligations under international law by which it is bound. | 一国根据该规定承担的特定义务将有所不同，具体取决于其受国际法下的哪些相关义务约束。 |
| (3) Consequently, paragraph 1 is formulated broadly in order to cover a wide range of measures. | (3) 因此，第1段采用一般性措辞，以涵盖各种措施。 |
| The provision includes examples of the types of measures that can be taken by States, namely, “legislative, administrative, judicial and other measures”. | 该款列出了各国可采取的措施类型，即“立法、行政、司法措施和其他措施”。 |
| The examples are not exhaustive, as indicated by the open category “other measures”. | 如“其他措施”这一开放性类别所示，这些例子并不是详尽无遗的。 |
| Instead, the examples aim to highlight the most relevant types of measures to be taken by States. | 事实上，它们是为了强调各国应采取的最相关的措施类型。 |
| (4) The law of armed conflict imposes several obligations on States that directly or indirectly contribute to the aim of enhancing the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict. | (4) 武装冲突法对直接或间接为加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护这一目标做出贡献的国家规定了一些义务。 |
| The notion “under international law” is nevertheless broader and covers also other relevant treaty-based or customary obligations related to the protection of the environment before, during or after an armed conflict, whether derived from international environmental law, human rights law or other areas of law. | 但“依照国际法”这一概念的范围更广，还涵盖与武装冲突之前、期间或之后的环境保护有关的其他相关条约义务或习惯义务，无论这些义务是源于国际环境法、人权法还是其他法律领域。 |
| (5) As far as the law of armed conflict is concerned, the obligation to disseminate the law of armed conflict to armed forces and, to the extent possible, also to the civilian population contributes to the protection of the environment. | (5) 就武装冲突法而言，向武装部队并尽可能向平民等各方传播武装冲突法的义务有助于保护环境。 |
| A relevant provision to this end is article 83 of Additional Protocol I, which provides that the High Contracting Parties are under the obligation to disseminate information to their forces on, among other provisions, articles 35 and 55. | 这方面的一个相关条款是《第一附加议定书》第八十三条，其中规定缔约方有义务向其部队传播第三十五条和第五十五条 等条款。 |
| This obligation can also be linked to common article 1 of the Geneva Conventions, in which States Parties undertake to respect and ensure respect for the Conventions in all circumstances. | 这项义务还可与日内瓦公约四公约共同的第一条相联系，在该条中，缔约国承诺在所有情况下尊重和确保尊重这些公约。 |
| Such dissemination can take place for instance through the inclusion of relevant information in military manuals, as encouraged by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed Conflict. | 可通过将有关信息纳入军事手册来进行这种传播， 如红十字国际委员会《关于武装冲突中环境保护的军事手册和指南准则》所鼓励的那样。 |
| (6) Common article 1 is also interpreted to require that States, when they are in a position to do so, exert their influence to prevent and stop violations of the Geneva Conventions by parties to an armed conflict. | (6) 共同的第一条还被解释为要求各国在有能力时发挥影响力，防止和制止武装冲突各方违反日内瓦四公约的行为。 |
| As far as the protection of the environment is concerned, this could entail, for instance, sharing of scientific expertise as to the nature of the damage caused to the natural environment by certain types of weapons, or making available technical advice as to how to protect areas of particular ecological importance or fragility. | 就保护环境而言，这些要求可能包括分享某些类型武器对自然环境造成的损害性质方面的科学专业知识，或就如何保护具有特殊生态重要性或脆弱性的地区提出技术建议等。 |
| (7) A further obligation to conduct “a weapons review” is found in article 36 of Additional Protocol I. According to this provision, a High Contracting Party is under an obligation to determine whether the employment of a new weapon would, in some or all circumstances, be prohibited by Additional Protocol I or by any other applicable rule of international law. | (7) 《第一附加议定书》第三十六条还规定了进行“武器审查”的义务。 根据这项规定，缔约方有义务断定，在某些或所有情况下，新武器的使用是否为《第一附加议定书》或适用的任何其他国际法规则所禁止。 |
| It is notable that the obligation covers the study, development, acquisition or adoption of all means or methods of warfare: both weapons and the way in which they can be used. | 值得注意的是，这项义务涵盖一切作战手段或方法的研究、发展、取得或采用：包括武器及其使用方式。 |
| According to the ICRC commentary on the Additional Protocols, article 36 “implies the obligation to establish internal procedures for the purpose of elucidating the issue of legality”. | 根据红十字国际委员会关于各项附加议定书的评注，第三十六条“意味着为阐明合法性问题而建立内部程序的义务”。 |
| A number of States, including States not party to Additional Protocol I, are known to have established such procedures. | 一些国家，包括非《第一附加议定书》缔约国在内，已经建立了这种程序。 |
| (8) The obligation to conduct “a weapons review” binds all High Contracting Parties to Additional Protocol I. The reference to “any other rule of international law” makes it clear that the obligation may go beyond merely studying whether the employment of a certain weapon would be contrary to the law of armed conflict. | (8) 进行“武器审查”的义务对《第一附加议定书》的所有缔约国都有约束力。 “任何其他国际法规则”一语表明，该义务可能不仅仅在于研究某种武器的使用是否会违反武装冲突法。 |
| This means, first, an examination of whether the employment of a new weapon, means or method of warfare would, in some or all circumstances, be prohibited by Additional Protocol I, including articles 35 and 55, which are of direct relevance to the protection of the environment. | 这意味着首先要审查新的武器、作战手段或方法的使用在某些或所有情况下是否为《第一附加议定书》，包括与环境保护直接相关的第三十五条和第五十五条所禁止。 |
| Second, there is a need to go beyond Additional Protocol I and analyse whether any other rules of the law of armed conflict, treaty or customary, or any other areas of international law might prohibit the employment of a new weapon, means or method of warfare. | 其次，有必要超出《第一附加议定书》的范围，分析武装冲突法、无论是条约法还是习惯法的任何其他规则或任何其他国际法领域是否可能禁止使用新的武器、作战手段或方法。 |
| Such examination will include taking into account any applicable international environmental law and human rights obligations. | 这种审查将包括考虑到任何适用的国际环境法和人权义务。 |
| (9) While Additional Protocol I applies only to international armed conflict, the weapons review provided for in article 36 also promotes respect for the law in non-international armed conflicts. | (9) 虽然《第一附加议定书》仅适用于国际性武装冲突，但第三十六条规定的武器审查也可促进在非国际性武装冲突中遵守法律。 |
| Furthermore, the use of weapons that are inherently indiscriminate and the use of means or methods of warfare that are of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering are prohibited under customary international law. | 此外，习惯国际法禁止使用本质上具有滥杀滥伤作用的武器，以及会造成过分伤害或不必要痛苦的作战手段或方法。 |
| These rules are not limited to international armed conflict. | 这些规则不限于国际性武装冲突。 |
| It follows that new weapons as well as methods of warfare are to be reviewed against all applicable international law, including the law governing non-international armed conflicts, in particular as far as the protection of civilians and the principle of distinction are concerned. | 因此，应根据所有适用的国际法，包括有关非国际性武装冲突的法律，审查新的武器和作战方法，特别是在保护平民和区分原则方面。 |
| The obligation not to use inherently indiscriminate weapons, means or methods of warfare has the indirect effect of protecting the environment in a non-international armed conflict. | 不使用本质上具有滥杀滥伤作用的武器、作战手段或方法的义务在非国际性武装冲突中具有保护环境的间接作用。 |
| Furthermore, the special treaty-based prohibitions of certain weapons (such as biological and chemical weapons) that may cause serious environmental harm must be observed. | 另外，必须遵守禁止可能造成严重环境损害的某些武器(如生物和化学武器)的特殊条约规定。 |
| (10) States also have the obligation to effectively exercise jurisdiction and prosecute persons suspected of certain war crimes that have a bearing on the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict, to the extent that such crimes fall within the category of grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions. | (10) 各国还有义务有效行使管辖权，起诉涉嫌犯下与武装冲突中的环境保护有关、严重违反日内瓦四公约的某些战争罪行的人。 |
| Examples of grave breaches, the suppression of which provides indirect protection to certain components of the natural environment, include wilfully causing great suffering or serious injury to body or health and extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out wantonly and unlawfully. | 严重违反的例子包括故意造成重大痛苦或对身体或健康的严重伤害，以及广泛破坏和占用财产，这些行为并非出于军事必要性，而是肆意和非法的，阻止这些行为可为自然环境的某些组成部分提供间接保护。 |
| (11) Yet another treaty-based obligation is for States to record the laying of mines in order to facilitate future clearing of landmines. | (11) 另一项基于条约的义务是各国应记录地雷埋设情况，以便于今后清除地雷。 |
| (12) Paragraph 2 of the draft principle addresses voluntary measures that would further enhance the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict. | (12) 原则草案第2段涉及进一步加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护的自愿措施。 |
| This paragraph is therefore less prescriptive than paragraph 1 and the word “should” is used to reflect this difference. | 因此，该段的规定性比第1段要弱，使用了“应当”一词来反映这种差异。 |
| The phrases “[i]n addition” and “further measures” both serve to indicate that this provision goes beyond the measures that States shall take pursuant to their obligations under international law, which are addressed in paragraph 1. | “此外”和“进一步措施”这两个短语都表明，该段超出了第1段述及的各国应依照国际法义务采取的措施范围。 |
| Like the measures referred to in paragraph 1, the measures taken by States may be of legislative, judicial, administrative or other nature. | 与第1段所述措施一样，各国采取的措施可具有立法、司法、行政性质或其他性质。 |
| Furthermore, they could include special agreements providing additional protection to the natural environment in situations of armed conflict. | 此外还可包括在武装冲突情况下为自然环境提供额外保护的特别协议。 |
| (13) In addition to encouraging States to take voluntary measures to enhance the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict beyond their current obligations under international law, the paragraph captures the recent developments in the practice of States to this end. | (13) 除了鼓励各国采取超出其现有国际法义务范围的自愿措施来加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护外，该段还反映了各国在这方面实践的最新发展情况。 |
| One example of how States can continue this development is through providing more explicit guidelines on environmental protection in their military manuals. | 关于各国如何继续这种发展，一个例子是在其军事手册中规定更加明确的环境保护准则。 |
| Such guidelines may, for instance, aim to ensure training of military personnel involved in peace operations on the environmental aspects of the operation, as well as the conduct of environmental assessments. | 例如，这些准则的目的可以是确保对参与和平行动的军事人员进行关于该行动环境方面和开展环境评估的培训。 |
| Other measures that should be taken by States can aim at enhancing cooperation, as appropriate, with other States, as well as with relevant international organizations. | 各国应当采取的其他措施可酌情以加强与其他国家和有关国际组织的合作为目的。 |
| (14) The overall development that paragraph 2 aims to capture and encourage has its basis also in the practice of international organizations. | (14) 第2段旨在反映和鼓励的总体发展还以国际组织的实践为基础。 |
| One example of such practice is the United Nations initiative “Greening the Blue Helmets”, which aims to function as an environmental, sustainable management programme. | 这种实践的一个例子是旨在作为一个可持续环境管理方案的联合国“绿动蓝盔”倡议。 |
| A further example of this development is the joint environmental policy developed by the United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Services. | 另一个例子是联合国维持和平行动部和外勤支助部制定的联合环境政策。 |
| The policy includes obligations to develop environmental baseline studies and adhere to a number of multilateral environmental agreements. | 该政策包含开展环境基线研究和遵守一些多边环境协议的义务。 |
| References are made to treaties and instruments, including the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Declaration), the World Charter for Nature, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), as standards to be considered when a mission establishes its environmental objectives and procedures. | 其中提到以各种条约和文书，包括《联合国人类环境会议宣言》(《斯德哥尔摩宣言》)、《世界自然宪章》、《濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约》、《生物多样性公约》 和《关于特别是作为水禽栖息地的国际重要湿地公约》(《拉姆萨尔公约》) 作为特派团制定其环境目标和程序时应当考虑的标准。 |
| Principle 4 Designation of protected zones | 原则4 指定受保护区 |
| States should designate, by agreement or otherwise, areas of major environmental and cultural importance as protected zones. | 各国应当以协议或其他方式，指定具有重大环境和文化意义的区域为受保护区。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 4 is entitled “Designation of protected zones” and provides that States should designate, by agreement or otherwise, areas of major environmental and cultural importance as protected zones. | (1) 原则草案4的标题为“指定受保护区”，其中规定，国家应当以协议或其他方式，指定具有重大环境和文化意义的区域为受保护区。 |
| Part Two (“Principles of general application”), where this provision is placed, deals with the pre-conflict stage, when peace is prevailing, but also contains principles of a more general nature that are relevant to more than one temporal phase. | 这项条款所在的第二部分(“一般适用原则”)涉及冲突前阶段，即和平处于主导地位的时期，但也载有与不止一个时间段有关的更具一般性的原则。 |
| Draft principle 4 therefore does not exclude instances in which such areas could be designated either during or soon after an armed conflict. | 因此，原则草案4并不排除在武装冲突期间或在武装冲突后不久指定受保护区的情况。 |
| In addition, draft principle 4 has a corresponding draft principle (draft principle 17) which is placed in Part Three “Principles applicable during armed conflict”. | 而且，原则草案4在第三部分“武装冲突期间适用的原则”中有一条对应的原则草案(原则草案17)。 |
| (2) A State may already be taking the necessary measures to protect the environment in general. | (2) 一国可能已经在采取必要措施保护总体环境。 |
| Such measures may include, in particular, preventive measures in the event that an armed conflict might occur. | 这类措施尤其可能包括在可能发生武装冲突时采取的预防措施。 |
| It is not uncommon that physical areas are assigned a special legal status as a means to protect and preserve a particular area. | 赋予实际地理区域特殊法律地位，以此来保护和保全某个区域，这种做法较常见。 |
| This can be done through international agreements or through national legislation. | 可以通过国际协议或国家立法来达到上述目的。 |
| In some instances such areas are not only protected in peacetime, but are also immune from attack during an armed conflict. | 在某些情况下，这些区域不仅在和平时期受保护，在武装冲突期间也免受攻击。 |
| As a rule, this is the case with demilitarized and neutralized zones. | 通常“非军事区”和“中立区”便是如此。 |
| It should be noted that the term “demilitarized zones” has a special meaning in the context of the law of armed conflict. | 应当指出，“非军事区”一词在武装冲突法范畴内具有特殊含义。 |
| Demilitarized zones are established by the parties to a conflict and imply that the parties are prohibited from extending their military operations to that zone if such an extension is contrary to the terms of their agreement. | 非军事区是冲突各方建立的，这意味着，若将其军事活动扩展至该地区会违反协议规定，则这种扩展便是禁止的。 |
| Demilitarized zones can also be established and implemented in peacetime. | 在和平时期也可以建立非军事区。 |
| Such zones can cover various degrees of demilitarization, ranging from areas that are fully demilitarized to ones which are partially demilitarized, such as nuclear weapon-free zones. | 这类区域的非军事化程度可以不同，它们可以是完全非军事化的区域，也可以是部分非军事化的区域，如无核武器区。 |
| (3) When designating protected zones under this draft principle, particular weight should be given to the protection of areas of major environmental importance that are susceptible to the adverse consequences of hostilities. | (3) 在指定本项原则草案所指的受保护区时，应特别着重考虑对具有重大环境意义的区域的保护，这些区域很容易遭受敌对行动的不良后果。 |
| Granting special protection to areas of major ecological importance was suggested at the time of the drafting of the Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions. While the proposal was not adopted, it should be recognized that it was put forward at a relatively early stage in the development of international environmental law. | 在起草日内瓦四公约附加议定书时就已建议对具有重大生态意义的区域给予特别保护， 虽然这项提案没有获得通过，但应当承认，这是在国际环境法发展相对较早阶段提出的。 |
| Other types of zones are also relevant in this context, and will be discussed below. | 与此相关的还有其他类型的一些地区，下文将再作讨论。 |
| (4) The areas referred to in this draft principle may be designated by agreement or otherwise. | (4) 本项原则草案所涉的区域可以以协议或其他方式指定。 |
| The reference to “agreement or otherwise” is intended to introduce some flexibility. | “以协议或其他方式”的说法是为了具有一定的灵活性。 |
| The types of situations foreseen may include, inter alia, an agreement concluded verbally or in writing, reciprocal and concordant declarations, as well as those created through a unilateral declaration or designation through an international organization. | 可能预见到的情况有：口头协议或书面协议，相互而一致的声明，以及通过单方宣告或通过国际组织指定设立的保护区。 |
| It should be noted that the reference to the word “State” does not preclude the possibility of agreements being concluded with non-State actors. | 应当指出，采用“国家”一词并不排除非国家行为体订立协议的可能性。 |
| The area declared has to be of “major environmental and cultural importance”. | 宣布的区域必须“具有重大环境和文化意义”。 |
| The formulation leaves open the precise meaning of this requirement on purpose, to allow room for development. | 这一措辞故意不设定这项规定的确切含义，以便留有发展余地。 |
| While the designation of protected zones could take place at any time, it should preferably be before or at least at the outset of an armed conflict. | 尽管任何时候都可以指定保护区，但最好在武装冲突之前或至少在武装冲突一开始就指定保护区。 |
| (5) It goes without saying that under international law, an agreement cannot, in principle, bind a third party without its consent. | (5) 毫无疑问，根据国际法，原则上，不经第三方同意，任何协议都不能对其有约束力。 |
| Thus two States cannot designate a protected area in a third State. | 因此，两个国家不能在第三国指定受保护区。 |
| The fact that States cannot regulate areas outside their sovereignty or jurisdiction in a manner that is binding on third States, whether through agreements or otherwise, was also outlined in the second report of the Special Rapporteur. | 不论是以协议还是以其他方式，国家均不能以对第三国具约束力的方式管制其主权或管辖以外的区域，这一点在特别报告员的第二次报告中也有说明。 |
| (6) Different views were initially expressed as to whether or not the word “cultural” should be included. | (6) 最初对于是否应列入“文化”一词有不同观点。 |
| Ultimately, the Commission opted for the inclusion of the term. | 最后，委员会决定列入该词。 |
| It was noted that it is sometimes difficult to draw a clear line between areas which are of environmental importance and areas which are of cultural importance. | 有人指出，有时难以对具有重大环境意义和具有重大文化意义的区域作严格区分。 |
| This is also recognized in the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (hereinafter the World Heritage Convention). | 《保护世界文化和自然遗产公约》(下称《世界遗产公约》) 中也承认了这一点。 |
| The fact that the heritage sites under this Convention are selected on the basis of a set of ten criteria, including both cultural and natural (without differentiating between them) illustrates this point. | 该公约下的遗址是按10项标准选择的，其中既包括文化标准，也包括自然标准(但对其不作区分)，这便说明了这一点。 |
| (7) It should be recalled that prior to an armed conflict, States parties to the 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (hereinafter the 1954 Hague Convention) and its Protocols, are under the obligation to establish inventories of cultural property items that they wish to enjoy protection in the case of an armed conflict, in accordance with article 11, paragraph 1, of the 1999 Protocol to the Convention. | (7) 应当指出，根据1954年《关于发生武装冲突时保护文化财产的公约》 (下称1954年《海牙公约》)1999年《议定书》第11条第1款的规定，在武装冲突之前，《公约》及其《议定书》的缔约国有义务建立一份它们希望在武装冲突时享有保护资格的文化财产目录。 |
| In peacetime, State parties are required to take other measures that they find appropriate to protect their cultural property from anticipated adverse impacts of armed conflicts, in accordance with article 3 of the Convention. | 根据《公约》第三条，在和平时期，缔约国必须采取其认为适当的其他措施，以保护其文化财产免受武装冲突可预见的不利影响。 |
| (8) The purpose of the present draft principle is not to affect the regime of the 1954 Hague Convention, which is separate in its scope and purpose. | (8) 本项原则草案的目的不是要影响1954年《海牙公约》所规定的制度，因为其范围和宗旨均不相同。 |
| The Commission underlines that the 1954 Hague Convention and its Protocols are the special regime that governs the protection of cultural property both in times of peace, and during armed conflict. | 委员会着重指出，1954年《海牙公约》及其各项《议定书》是为在和平时期和武装冲突期间保护文化财产而设的专门制度。 |
| It is not the intention of the present draft principle to replicate that regime. | 本项原则草案无意复制这项制度。 |
| The idea here is to protect areas of major “environmental importance”. | 其目的是保护具有重大“环境意义”的区域。 |
| The term “cultural” is used in this context to indicate the existence of a close linkage to the environment. | 在这里使用“文化”一词是为了表明与环境存在的密切联系。 |
| The draft principle does not extend to cultural objects per se. | 原则草案的范围不延伸至文物本身。 |
| The term would nevertheless include, for example, ancestral lands of indigenous peoples, who depend on the environment for their sustenance and livelihood. | 不过，举例而言，这一用语包括土著人民的祖传土地，因为他们依赖环境维持饮食和生计。 |
| (9) The designation of the areas foreseen by this draft principle can be related to the rights of indigenous peoples, particularly if the protected area also serves as a sacred area which warrants special protection. | (9) 指定本项原则草案设想的区域的工作可能与土著人民的权利相关，尤其是如果保护区也是需要特别保护的一块圣地。 |
| In some cases, the protected area may also serve to conserve the particular culture, knowledge and way of life of the indigenous populations living inside the area concerned. | 在某些情况下，保护区也可以用来保护住在里面的土著居民的特定文化、知识和生活方式。 |
| The importance of preserving indigenous culture and knowledge has now been formally recognised in international law under the Convention on Biological Diversity. | 根据《生物多样性公约》，保存土著文化和知识的重要性现已在国际法中得到正式承认。 |
| Article 8 (j) states that each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate: “Subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices”. | 第8条(j)款规定，每一缔约国应尽可能并酌情：“依照国家立法，尊重、保存和维持土著和地方社区体现传统生活方式而与生物多样性的保护和持久使用相关的知识、创新和做法并促进其广泛应用，由此等知识、创新和做法的拥有者认可和参与其事并鼓励公平地分享因利用此等知识、创新和做法而获得的惠益”。 |
| In addition, the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, although not a binding instrument, refers to the right to manage, access and protect religious and cultural sites. | 此外，《联合国土著人民权利宣言》 虽不是一项有约束力的文书，但其中提到了管理、进出和保护宗教和文化场所的权利。 |
| (10) The protection of the environment as such and the protection of sites of cultural and natural importance sometimes correspond or overlap. | (10) 保护自然环境本身与保护具有文化和自然意义的场所两者有时相互呼应，有时又相互重叠。 |
| The term “cultural importance”, which is also used in draft principle 17, builds on the recognition of the close connection between the natural environment, cultural objects and characteristics in the landscape in environmental protection instruments such as the 1993 Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Resulting from Activities Dangerous to the Environment. | 原则草案17也采用了“文化意义”一语，其根据是1993年《关于危害环境的活动造成损害的民事责任公约》等环境保护文书中对自然环境、文物和地貌景观之间密切联系的认识。 |
| Article 2, paragraph 10, defines the term “environment” for the purpose of the Convention to include: “natural resources both abiotic and biotic, such as air, water, soil, fauna and flora and the interaction between the same factors; | 第2条第10款为《公约》之目的规定，“环境”一词的定义包括“生物性和非生物性自然资源，例如空气、水、土壤、动物和植物等以及这些因素之间的相互作用； |
| property which forms part of cultural heritage; | 作为文化遗产的财产； |
| and characteristic aspects of the landscape”. | 以及景观的特征部分”。 |
| In addition, article 1, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes stipulates that “effects on the environment include effects on human health and safety, flora, fauna, soil, air, water, climate, landscape and historical monuments or other physical structures or the interaction among these factors; | 此外，《跨界水道和国际湖泊保护和利用公约》第1条第2款规定，“对环境的影响包括对人类健康和安全、植物、动物、土壤、空气、水、气候、地貌和历史纪念物或其他物理结构影响或这些因素之间的互动； |
| they also include effects on the cultural heritage or socio-economic conditions resulting from alterations to those factors”. | 它们也包括上述因素的变化对于文化遗产或社会经济状况而产生的影响。 ” |
| (11) Moreover, the Convention on Biological Diversity speaks to the cultural value of biodiversity. | (11) 此外，《生物多样性公约》还涉及生物多样性的文化价值问题。 |
| The preamble of the Convention on Biological Diversity reaffirms that the parties are: “Conscious of the intrinsic value of biological diversity and of the ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values of biological diversity and its components. | 《生物多样性公约》序言重申，缔约国：“意识到生物多样性的内在价值，和生物多样性及其组成部分的生态、遗传、社会、经济、科学、教育、文化、娱乐和美学价值”。 |
| ” Similarly, the first paragraph of annex I to the Convention on Biological Diversity highlights the importance of ensuring protection for ecosystems and habitats “containing high diversity, large numbers of endemic or threatened species, or wilderness; | 同样，《生物多样性公约》附件1第1款重点指出必须确保以下生态系统和生境得到保护：“内有高度多样性，大量地方特有物种或威胁物种或原野； |
| required by migratory species; | 为移栖物种所需； |
| of social, economic, cultural or scientific importance; or, which are representative, unique or associated with key evolutionary or other biological processes”. | 具有社会、经济、文化或科学重要性，或具有代表性、独特性或涉及关键进化过程或其他生物进程”。 |
| (12) In addition to these binding instruments, a number of non-binding instruments use a lens of cultural importance and value to define protected areas. | (12) 除了这些有约束力的文书之外，一些不具约束力的文书也采用文化重要性和价值的视角来确定保护区。 |
| For instance, the draft convention on the prohibition of hostile military activities in internationally protected areas (prepared by the IUCN Commission on Environmental Law and the International Council of Environmental Law) defines the term “protected areas” as follows: “natural or cultural area [sic] of outstanding international significance from the points of view of ecology, history, art, science, ethnology, anthropology, or natural beauty, which may include, inter alia, areas designated under any international agreement or intergovernmental programme which meet these criteria”. | 例如，由国际自然及自然资源保护联盟环境法委员会和国际环境法理事会编写的禁止在国际保护区开展敌对军事活动公约草案对“保护区”一语的定义如下：“从生态、历史、艺术、科学、人种学、人类学或自然风光的角度看具有突出国际意义的自然或文化区[原文如此]，可包括根据任何国际协定或政府间方案指定的满足这些标准的区域”。 |
| (13) A few examples of domestic legislation referring to the protection of both cultural and environmental areas can also be mentioned in this context. | (13) 在此，还可以提到国内立法提及保护文化和环境区的几个例子。 |
| For example, the Act on the Protection of Cultural Property of 29 August 1950 of Japan, provides for animals and plants which have a high scientific value to be listed as “protected cultural property”. | 例如，日本1950年8月29日《文化财产保护法》规定，将有高度科学价值的动植物列为“受保护的文化财产”。 |
| The National Parks and Wildlife Act of 1974 of New South Wales in Australia may apply to any area of natural, scientific or cultural significance. | 澳大利亚新南威尔士州1974年《国家公园和野生生物法》可适用于任何具有自然、科学或文化意义的区域。 |
| Finally, the Italian Protected Areas Act of 6 December 1991 defines “nature parks” as areas of natural and environmental value constituting homogeneous systems characterised by their natural components, their landscape and aesthetic values and the cultural tradition of the local populations. | 最后，意大利1991年12月6日《保护区法》对“自然公园”的定义为：由以自然元素、地貌景观和审美价值以及当地居民的文化传统为特征的同质系统组成的具有自然和环境价值的区域。 |
| Principle 5 Protection of the environment of indigenous peoples | 原则5 保护土著人民的环境 |
| 1. States should take appropriate measures, in the event of an armed conflict, to protect the environment of the territories that indigenous peoples inhabit. | 1. 各国应当采取适当措施，在发生武装冲突时保护土著人民所居住领土的环境。 |
| 2. After an armed conflict that has adversely affected the environment of the territories that indigenous peoples inhabit, States should undertake effective consultations and cooperation with the indigenous peoples concerned, through appropriate procedures and in particular through their own representative institutions, for the purpose of taking remedial measures. | 2. 如武装冲突对土著人民所居住领土的环境造成有害影响，各国应当在冲突结束后借助适当程序，特别是通过土著人民自己的代表机构，与有关土著人民开展有效的协商与合作，以便采取补救措施。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 5 recognizes that States should, due to the special relationship between indigenous peoples and their environment, take appropriate measures to protect such an environment in relation to an armed conflict. | (1) 原则草案5确认，由于土著人民与其环境之间的特殊关系，各国应当采取适当措施，在武装冲突中保护这种环境。 |
| It further recognizes that where armed conflict has adversely affected the environment of indigenous peoples’ territories, States should attempt to undertake remedial measures. | 该原则进一步确认，如武装冲突对土著人民领土的环境造成有害影响，各国应当努力采取补救措施。 |
| In the light of the special relationship between indigenous peoples and their environment, these steps should be taken in a manner that consults and cooperates with such peoples, respecting their relationship and through their own leadership and representative structures. | 鉴于土著人民与其环境之间的特殊关系，采取这些措施时应当通过土著人民自己的领导机构和代表机构与之进行协商与合作，从而尊重这种关系。 |
| (2) The special relationship between indigenous peoples and their environment has been recognized, protected and upheld by international instruments such as the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169) of the International Labour Organization and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, as well as in the practice of States and in the jurisprudence of international courts and tribunals. | (2) 土著人民与其环境之间的特殊关系在国际文书，如国际劳工组织1989年《土著和部落人民公约》(第169号)和《联合国土著人民权利宣言》 以及各国的实践和国际性法院和法庭的判例中得到承认、保护和支持。 |
| To this end, the land of indigenous peoples has been recognized as having a “fundamental importance for their collective physical and cultural survival as peoples”. | 为此，土著人民的土地被认为“对他们作为人民的集体实际生存和文化生存具有根本重要性”。 |
| (3) Paragraph 1 is based, in particular, on article 29, paragraph 1, of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which expresses the right of indigenous peoples to “the conservation and protection of the environment and the productive capacity of their lands or territories and resources”, and article 7, paragraph 4, of ILO Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169), which recognizes that “Governments shall take measures, in co-operation with the peoples concerned, to protect and preserve the environment of the territories they inhabit”. | (3) 第1段特别基于《联合国土著人民权利宣言》第29条第1款，其中指出土著人民有权“养护和保护其土地或领土和资源的环境和生产能力”， 以及劳工组织1989年《土著和部落人民公约》(第169号)第七条第4款，该条确认“各政府应与有关民族合作，采取措施保护并保持他们居住领土的环境”。 |
| (4) The specific rights of indigenous peoples over certain lands or territories may be the subject of different legal regimes in different States. | (4) 土著人民对某些土地或领土的特定权利在不同国家可能是不同法律制度的主题。 |
| Further, in international instruments concerning the rights of indigenous peoples, various formulations are used to refer to the lands or territories connected to indigenous peoples, and over which they have various rights and protective status. | 此外，在关于土著人民权利的国际文书中，采用了不同措辞来阐述与土著人民有关联的土地或领土，他们对这些土地或领土拥有各种权利和保护地位。 |
| (5) Armed conflict may have the effect of increasing existing vulnerabilities to environmental harm or creating new types of environmental harm on the territories concerned and thereby affecting the survival and well-being of the peoples connected to it. | (5) 武装冲突可能会增加有关领土易受环境危害影响的现有脆弱性，或造成新的环境危害，从而影响到与之有关联的人民的生存和福祉。 |
| Under paragraph 1, in the event of an armed conflict, States should take appropriate measures to protect the relationship that indigenous peoples have with their ancestral lands. | 根据第1段，在发生武装冲突时，各国应当采取适当措施，保护土著人民与其祖传土地之间关系。 |
| The appropriate protective measures referred to in paragraph 1 may be taken, in particular, before or during an armed conflict. | 可采取第1段所述的适当保护措施，特别是在武装冲突之前或期间。 |
| The wording of the paragraph is broad enough to allow for the measures to be adjusted according to the circumstances. | 该段的措辞足够宽泛，从而可根据具体情况调整相关措施。 |
| (6) For example, the concerned State should take steps to ensure that military activities do not take place in the lands or territories of indigenous peoples unless justified by a relevant public interest or otherwise freely agreed with or requested by the indigenous people concerned. | (6) 例如，有关国家应当采取步骤，确保不在土著人民的土地或领土上进行军事活动，除非是基于相关公共利益有理由这样做，或经有关的土著人民自由同意，或应其要求这样做。 |
| This could be achieved through avoiding placing military installations in indigenous peoples’ lands or territories, and by designating their territories as protected areas, as set out in draft principle 4. | 这一要求可以通过避免在土著人民的土地或领土上安装军事设施，以及如原则草案4所规定的那样将其领土划为保护区来实现。 |
| In general, the concerned State should consult effectively with the indigenous peoples concerned prior to using their lands or territories for military activities. | 总的来说，有关国家应当在使用有关土著人民的土地或领土进行军事活动前与他们进行有效协商。 |
| During an armed conflict, the rights, lands and territories of indigenous peoples also enjoy the protections provided by the law of armed conflict and applicable human rights law. | 在武装冲突期间，土著人民的权利、土地和领土还享有武装冲突法和适用的人权法所提供的保护。 |
| (7) Paragraph 2 focuses on the phase after an armed conflict has ended. | (7) 第2段侧重于武装冲突结束后的阶段。 |
| The purpose of this provision is to facilitate the taking of remedial measures in the event that an armed conflict has adversely affected the environment of the territories that indigenous peoples inhabit. | 这项规定的目的是为了便利在武装冲突对土著人民所居住领土的环境产生不利影响的情况下采取补救措施。 |
| In doing so, it seeks to ensure the participatory rights of indigenous peoples in issues relating to their territories in a post-conflict context, while focusing on States as the subjects of the paragraph. | 该段通过这一点，力求确保土著人民在冲突后环境下，在与其领土有关的问题上享有参与权，同时重点将国家作为该段的主要对象。 |
| (8) In such instance, the concerned States should undertake effective consultations and cooperation with the indigenous peoples concerned, through appropriate procedures and, in particular, through their own representative institutions. | (8) 在这种情况下，有关国家应当借助适当程序，特别是通过土著人民自己的代表机构，与有关土著人民进行有效的磋商与合作。 |
| In doing so, States should consider the special nature of the relationship between indigenous peoples and their territories – in its social, political, spiritual, cultural and other aspects. | 在此过程中，各国应当考虑土著人民与其领土之间关系的特殊性――在社会、政治、精神、文化等方面。 |
| Further, States should consider that this relationship is often of a “collective” nature. | 此外，各国还应当考虑到，这种关系往往具有“集体”性质。 |
| (9) The need to proceed through appropriate procedures and representative institutions of indigenous peoples has been included to acknowledge the diversity of the existing procedures within different States that allow for effective consultation and cooperation with indigenous peoples, and the diversity of their modes of representation in order to obtain their free, prior and informed consent before adopting measures that may affect them. | (9) 列入借助适当程序和通过土著人民代表机构的必要性，是为了确认不同国家可藉以与土著人民进行有效磋商与合作的现有程序的多样性，以及土著人民代表模式的多样性，以便在采取可能影响到他们的措施之前，事先征得他们的自由知情同意。 |
| Principle 6 Agreements concerning the presence of military forces in relation to armed conflict | 原则6 与武装冲突有关的驻军协议 |
| States and international organizations should, as appropriate, include provisions on environmental protection in agreements concerning the presence of military forces in relation to armed conflict. | 各国和国际组织应当酌情将环境保护条款纳入与武装冲突有关的驻军协议。 |
| Such provisions may include preventive measures, impact assessments, restoration and clean-up measures. | 此种条款可包括预防措施、影响评估、恢复以及清理措施。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 6 addresses agreements concluded by States among themselves and between States and international organizations, concerning the presence of military forces in relation to armed conflict. | (1) 原则草案6涉及各国之间以及国家和国际组织之间订立的与武装冲突有关的驻军协议。 |
| The phrase “in relation to armed conflict” reflects the purpose of the draft principles: to enhance the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict. | “与武装冲突有关的”一语反映了本套原则草案的目的，即加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| Consequently, the provision does not refer to situations in which military forces are being deployed without any relation to an armed conflict, since such situations are outside the scope of the topic. | 因此，这项规定没有提到武装部队的部署同武装冲突没有任何关系的情况，因为这种情况超出了本专题的范围。 |
| (2) The draft principle is cast in general terms to refer to “agreements concerning the presence of military forces in relation to armed conflict”. | (2) 本项原则草案采用了“与武装冲突有关的驻军协议”这种一般性措辞。 |
| The specific designation and purpose of such agreements can vary, and may, depending on the particular circumstances, include status-of-forces and status-of-mission agreements. | 这些协议的具体名称和目的可能会有所不同，根据具体情况，可包括部队地位协议和特派团地位协议。 |
| The purpose of the draft principle is to reflect recent developments whereby States and international organizations have begun addressing matters relating to environmental protection in agreements concerning the presence of military forces concluded with host States. | 本项原则草案的目的是反映最新动态，即各国和国际组织已开始在与东道国缔结的驻军协议中处理与环境保护有关的事项。 |
| The word “should” indicates that this provision is not mandatory in nature, but rather aims at acknowledging and encouraging this development. | “应当”一词，表明这一规定不是强制性的，而是为了认可和鼓励这一动态。 |
| (3) Examples of environmental provisions in agreements concerning the presence of military forces in relation to armed conflict include the United States-Iraq agreement on the withdrawal from and temporary presence of United States forces in Iraq, which contains an explicit provision on the protection of the environment. | (3) 在驻军协议中列入环境条款的例子包括美国与伊拉克之间关于美国部队撤出伊拉克和在伊拉克暂时驻留的协议，其中包含关于环境保护的明确规定。 |
| Another example is the status-of-forces agreement between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Afghanistan, in which the parties agree to pursue a preventative approach to environmental protection. | 另一个例子是北大西洋公约组织(北约)与阿富汗之间的部队地位协议，其中双方同意采取预防性做法来保护环境。 |
| The status-of-mission agreement under the European Security and Defence Policy also makes several references to environmental obligations. | 欧洲安全和防卫政策下的特派团地位协议也多次提到环境义务。 |
| Relevant treaty practice includes also the agreement between Germany and other NATO States, which states that potential environmental effects shall be identified, analysed and evaluated, in order to avoid environmental burden. | 有关的条约实践还包括德国与北约其他国家之间的协议，其中规定应对潜在的环境影响进行识别、分析和评估，以免造成环境负担。 |
| Moreover, the Memorandum of Special Understanding between the United States and the Republic of Korea contains provisions on environmental protection. | 此外，美国与大韩民国《特别谅解备忘录》载有关于环境保护的规定。 |
| Reference can further be made to arrangements applicable to short-term presence of foreign armed forces in a country for the purpose of exercises, transit by land or training. | 还可参考适用于在一个国家短期驻扎的外国军队进行演习、陆上过境或训练的安排。 |
| (4) Reference can also be made to other agreements, including those concerning the presence of military forces with a less clear relation to armed conflict, such as the status-of-forces agreement between the United States and Australia, which contains a relevant provision on damage claims, and the Enhanced Defence Cooperation Agreement between the United States and the Philippines, which contains provisions seeking to prevent environmental damage and provides for a review process. | (4) 还可参考其他协议，包括与武装冲突的关系不太清楚的驻军协议，例如美国与澳大利亚的部队地位协议(其中载有关于损害索赔的相关规定)， 以及美国与菲律宾《加强防务合作协议》，其中包含旨在防止损害环境的条款，并规定了审查程序。 |
| (5) The draft principle also provides a non-exhaustive list of provisions on environmental protection that may be included in agreements concerning the presence of military forces in relation to armed conflict. | (5) 本项原则草案还提供了一份非详尽无遗的清单，其中列出了可纳入与武装冲突有关的驻军协议的环境保护条款。 |
| Thus the second sentence of the draft principle mentions “preventive measures, impact assessments, restoration and clean-up measures” as examples of what provisions of environmental protection may address. | 因此第二句提到“预防措施、影响评估、恢复以及清理措施”，作为环境保护条款可涉内容的例子。 |
| The presence of military forces may risk having an adverse impact on the environment. | 驻军可能会给环境造成不利影响。 |
| In order to avoid such adverse impact to the extent possible, measures of a preventive nature are of a great importance. | 为了尽可能避免这种不利影响，预防性措施非常重要。 |
| Impact assessments are necessary to determine the kind of restoration and clean-up measures that may be needed at the conclusion of the presence of military forces. | 影响评估是确定驻军结束时可能需要采取的恢复和清理措施所必要的。 |
| (6) The measures referred to in the draft principle may address a variety of relevant aspects. | (6) 本项原则草案中提到的措施可能涉及各种相关方面。 |
| Some precise examples that deserve specific mention as reflected in treaty practice are: the recognition of the importance of environmental protection, including the prevention of pollution from facilities and areas granted to the deploying State; | 条约实践中所反映的、应特别提及的一些具体例子有：承认环境保护的重要性，包括防止来自准许部署国使用的设施和区域的污染； |
| an understanding that the agreement will be implemented in a manner consistent with protecting the environment; | 达成谅解，以与保护环境相一致的方式执行协议； |
| cooperation and sharing of information between the host State and the sending State regarding issues that could affect the health and environment for citizens; | 东道国与派遣国之间就可能影响公民健康和环境的问题进行的合作和信息共享； |
| measures to prevent environmental damage; | 防止环境损害的措施； |
| periodic environmental performance assessments; | 定期的环境绩效评估； |
| review processes; | 审查程序； |
| application of the environmental laws of the host State or, similarly, a commitment by the deploying State to respect the host State’s environmental laws, regulations and standards; | 适用东道国的环境法； 或与此相类似，部署国承诺遵守东道国的环境法律、法规和标准； |
| a duty to respect international norms regarding the sustainable use of natural resources; | 遵守关于可持续利用自然资源的国际准则的义务； |
| the taking of restorative measures where detrimental effects are unavoidable; | 在不利影响不可避免的情况下采取恢复措施； |
| and the regulation of environmental damage claims. | 以及就环境损害索赔作出规定等。 |
| (7) The phrase “as appropriate” signals two different considerations. | (7) “酌情”一词显示了两个不同的考虑。 |
| First, agreements on the presence of military forces in relation to armed conflict are sometimes concluded under urgent circumstances in which it may not be possible to address issues of environmental protection. | 首先，与武装冲突有关的驻军协议有时是在紧急情况下订立的，可能无法述及环境保护问题。 |
| Second, sometimes it may be especially important that the agreement contains provisions on environmental protection. | 其次，在协议中包含环境保护条款有时可能特别重要。 |
| One such example is provided by a protected zone at risk of being affected by the presence of military forces. | 其中一个例子是可能会受到驻军影响的保护区。 |
| The phrase “as appropriate” therefore provides nuance to this provision and allows it to capture different situations. | 因此，“酌情”一词为本条文平添了几分微妙性，使其能够反映不同情形。 |
| Principle 7 Peace operations | 原则7 和平行动 |
| States and international organizations involved in peace operations in relation to armed conflict shall consider the impact of such operations on the environment and take appropriate measures to prevent, mitigate and remediate the negative environmental consequences thereof. | 参加与武装冲突有关的和平行动的各国和国际组织应考虑此种行动对环境的影响，并采取适当措施，防止、减轻和补救其负面的环境后果。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Peace operations can relate to armed conflict in multiple ways. | (1) 和平行动可以多种方式与武装冲突有关。 |
| Previously, many peace operations were deployed following the end of hostilities and the signing of a peace agreement. | 以前，许多和平行动是在敌对行动结束和签署和平协议后部署的。 |
| As the High-level Independent Panel on Peace Operations noted, today many missions operate in environments where no such political agreements exist, or where efforts to establish one have failed. | 如和平行动问题高级别独立小组所指出的，如今许多特派团是在没有这种政治协议的环境中，或在订立这种协议的努力失败的环境中开展活动。 |
| Moreover, modern United Nations peacekeeping missions are multidimensional and address a range of peacebuilding activities, from providing secure environments to monitoring human rights, or rebuilding the capacity of a State. | 此外，现代联合国维和特派团是多层面的，涉及一系列的建设和平活动，从提供安全环境到监测人权，或重建一个国家的能力。 |
| Mandates also include the protection of civilians. | 其任务还包括保护平民。 |
| Draft principle 7 intends to cover all such peace operations that may relate to multifarious parts or aspects of an armed conflict, and may vary in temporal nature. | 原则草案7意在涵盖可能涉及武装冲突的多个部分或方面并可能发生在不同时间段的所有此类和平行动。 |
| (2) The words “in relation to armed conflict” delineate the scope of the draft principle. | (2) “与武装冲突有关的”一语确定了本项原则草案的范围。 |
| They make clear the connection to armed conflict so as to ensure that the obligations are not to be interpreted too broadly (i.e. as potentially applying to every action of an international organization related to the promotion of peace). | 它明确指出了与武装冲突的联系，以确保对这些义务的解释不会过于宽泛(即可适用于国际组织与促进和平有关的每一项行动)。 |
| While the term is to be understood from a broad perspective in the context of the draft principle, it is recognized that not all such operations have a direct link to armed conflict. | 虽然应结合本项原则草案的内容从广泛角度理解该短语，但应当认识到，并非所有此类行动都与武装冲突有直接联系。 |
| (3) The present draft principle covers operations where States and international organizations are involved in peace operations related to armed conflict and where multiple actors may be present. | (3) 本项原则草案涵盖国家和国际组织参加的与武装冲突有关、可能有多个行为体参与的和平行动。 |
| All these actors will have some effect on the environment. | 所有这些行为体都会对环境产生一些影响。 |
| For example, the Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department of Field Support recognize the potential damage by peacekeeping operations to the local environment. | 例如，维持和平行动部和外勤支助部承认维持和平行动可能对当地环境造成的损害。 |
| (4) The environmental impact of a peace operation may stretch from the planning phase through its operational part, to the post-operation phase. | (4) 和平行动对环境的影响可能从规划阶段一直延伸到行动的执行阶段，再到行动后阶段。 |
| The desired goal is that peace operations should undertake their activities in such a manner that the impact of their activities on the environment is minimized. | 预期目标是和平行动应当尽可能减小其活动对环境的影响。 |
| The draft principle thus focuses on activities to be undertaken in situations where the environment would be negatively affected by a peace operation. | 因此，本项原则草案侧重于在环境会受到和平行动不利影响的情况下开展的活动。 |
| At the same time, it is understood that “appropriate” measures to be taken may differ in relation to the context of the operation. | 同时，应采取的“适当”措施被理解为可根据行动背景而有所不同。 |
| The relevant considerations may include, in particular, whether such measures relate to the pre-, in-, or post- armed conflict phase, and what measures are feasible under the circumstances. | 相关考虑可特别包括：这类措施是与武装冲突前、冲突期间还是冲突后阶段有关，以及在具体情况下哪些措施可行。 |
| (5) The draft principle reflects the stronger recognition on the part of States and international organizations such as the United Nations, the European Union, and NATO, of the environmental impact of peace operations and the need to take necessary measures to prevent, mitigate and remediate negative impacts. | (5) 本项原则草案反映出各国以及联合国、欧洲联盟 和北约 等国际组织更强烈地认识到和平行动对环境的影响，以及采取必要措施预防、减轻和补救其负面影响的必要性。 |
| For example, some United Nations field missions have dedicated environmental units to develop and implement mission-specific environmental policies and oversee environmental compliance. | 例如，一些联合国外地特派团有专门的环境部门来制定和执行具体特派团的环境政策并监督环境合规情况。 |
| (6) There is no clear or definitive definition for “peace operation” or “peacekeeping” in existing international law. | (6) 现行国际法中没有“和平行动”或“维持和平”的明确或确切定义。 |
| The current draft principle is intended to cover broadly all such peace operations that relate to armed conflict. | 本项原则草案意在广泛涵盖与武装冲突有关的所有此类和平行动。 |
| The Agenda for Peace highlighted that “peacemaking” was action to bring hostile parties to agreement, especially through peaceful means; | 《和平纲领》强调，“建立和平”是采取行动，特别是通过和平手段，使敌对两方达成协议； |
| “peacekeeping” was the deployment of a United Nations presence in the field, involving military and/or police personnel, and frequently civilians as well; | “维持和平”是实地部署联合国人员，通常是联合国军事人员和/或警察人员，往往也包括文职人员； |
| while “peacebuilding” was to take the form of cooperative projects in a mutually beneficial undertaking to enhance the confidence fundamental to peace. | 而“建设和平”则是以合作项目的形式从事互利的事业，以加强和平所必不可少的互信。 |
| The report of the High-level Independent Panel on Peace Operations includes, for its purposes, “a broad suite of tools … from special envoys and mediators; | 和平行动问题高级别独立小组的报告涵盖“一系列广泛手段…包括：特使和调解人； |
| political missions, including peacebuilding missions; | 政治特派团，包括建设和平特派团； |
| regional preventive diplomacy offices; | 区域预防外交办事处； |
| observation missions, including both ceasefire and electoral missions; | 观察团，包括停火观察团和选举观察团； |
| to small, technical-specialist missions such as electoral support missions; | 小型技术专家特派团，例如选举支助团； |
| multidisciplinary operations”. | 复合特派团”。 |
| The term “peace operations” aims to cover all these types of operations, and operations broader than United Nations peacekeeping operations, including peace enforcement operations and operations by regional organizations. | “和平行动”这一用语旨在涵盖所有这些类型的行动以及比联合国维和行动更广泛的行动，包括执行和平行动和区域组织的行动。 |
| There is no reference in the text to “multilateral” peace operations, as it was considered unnecessary to address this expressly in the draft principle. | 案文中没有提到“多边”和平行动，因为认为没必要在本项原则草案中明确涉及这一问题。 |
| The general understanding of the term “peace operations” is nevertheless that it concerns multilateral operations. | 但对“和平行动”一词的一般理解是它涉及多边行动。 |
| (7) “Prevent” has been used in acknowledgement of the fact that peace operations are not isolated in nature, and that in planning their actions, States and international organizations should plan or aim to minimize negative environmental consequences. | (7) “预防”一词的使用确认了一个事实，即和平行动本质上不是孤立的，各国和各国际组织在规划行动时，应当计划或着眼于尽量减少对环境的负面后果。 |
| While the prevention obligation requires action to be taken at an early stage, the notion of “mitigation” refers to reduction of harm that has already occurred. | 预防义务要求在早期阶段采取行动，“减轻”的概念则是指减少已经发生的危害。 |
| The notion of “remediation”, in turn, has been used in the same sense as “remedial measures” in draft principle 2, encompassing any measure that may be taken to restore the environment. | “补救”的概念与原则草案2中的“补救措施”意义相同，包括可能为恢复环境采取的任何措施。 |
| (8) Draft principle 7 is distinct in character from draft principle 6. | (8) 原则草案7的性质与原则草案6明显有别。 |
| Peace operations, unlike agreements concerning the presence of military forces in relation to armed conflict, do not necessarily involve armed forces or military personnel. | 和平行动不同于与武装冲突有关的驻军协议，不一定涉及武装部队或军事人员。 |
| Other types of actors such as civilian personnel and various types of specialists may also be present and covered by such operations. | 此类行动还可能包括其他类型的行为体，如文职人员和各类专家。 |
| Draft principle 7 is also intended to be broader and more general in scope, and to direct focus on the activities of such peace operations. | 原则草案7还希望范围更广、更具一般性，并把重点放在这类和平行动的活动上。 |
| (9) It is understood that the draft principle also encompasses reviews of concluded operations that would identify, analyse and evaluate any detrimental effects of those operations on the environment. | (9) 本项原则草案还被理解为包括审查已完成的行动，以确定、分析和评估这些行动的任何负面影响。 |
| This would be a “lessons learned” type of exercise to seek to avoid or minimize the negative effects of future peace operations on the environment and ensure that mistakes are not repeated. | 这是一种“吸取经验教训”的做法，旨在避免未来和平行动对环境的负面影响或将这种负面影响减少至最低限度，并确保不再重犯错误。 |
| Principle 8 Human displacement | 原则8 人员流离失所 |
| States, international organizations and other relevant actors should take appropriate measures to prevent and mitigate environmental degradation in areas where persons displaced by armed conflict are located, while providing relief and assistance for such persons and local communities. | 各国、国际组织和其他有关行为体应当采取适当措施，防止和减轻因武装冲突而流离失所者所在地区的环境退化，同时向这些人员和地方社区提供救济和援助。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 8 addresses the inadvertent environmental effects of conflict-related human displacement. | (1) 原则草案8涉及与冲突有关的人员流离失所无意间对环境造成的影响。 |
| The draft principle recognizes the interconnectedness of providing relief for those displaced by armed conflict and reducing the impact of displacement on the environment. | 原则草案承认向因武装冲突而流离失所的人提供救济与减少流离失所对环境的影响是相互关联的。 |
| The draft principle covers both international and internal displacement. | 本项原则草案既涵盖国际流离失所，也涵盖境内流离失所。 |
| (2) Population displacement typically follows the outbreak of an armed conflict, giving rise to significant human suffering as well as environmental damage. | (2) 人口流离失所通常发生在武装冲突爆发之后，会造成严重的人类苦难和环境破坏。 |
| The United Nations Environment Programme has reported on “the massive movement of refugees and internally displaced people … across the country” as perhaps “the most immediate consequence of the conflict [in Liberia]”, as well as of “clear and significant” “links between displacement and the environment” in the Sudan. | 联合国环境规划署报告称，“难民和境内流离失所者…在全国各地的大规模流动”可能是[利比里亚]“冲突的最直接后果”， 在苏丹，“流离失所与环境之间存在明确而重要的联系”。 |
| In Rwanda, the population displacement and resettlement related to the 1990–1994 conflict and genocide “had a major impact on the environment, substantially altering land cover and land use in many parts of the country”, as well as causing extensive environmental damage in the neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo. | 在卢旺达，与1990-1994年的冲突和种族灭绝有关的人口流离失所和重新安置“对环境造成了重大影响，大大改变了该国许多地区的土地覆盖和土地使用情况”， 并对邻国刚果民主共和国的环境造成了巨大破坏。 |
| (3) Reference can also be made to a 2014 study on the protection of the environment during armed conflict, which emphasizes the humanitarian and environmental impacts of displacement in various conflicts. | (3) 还可参考2014年关于武装冲突期间环境保护的研究报告，该报告强调指出了各种冲突中的流离失所对人道主义和环境造成的影响。 |
| The study notes with reference to the Democratic Republic of the Congo that “massive conflict-induced displacement of civilian populations associated with protracted conflict may have even more destructive effects [on] the environment than actual combat operations”. | 研究报告提及刚果民主共和国时指出，“与旷日持久的冲突有关的大规模冲突造成的平民流离失所可能比实际战斗行动对环境造成了更大的破坏性影响”。 |
| Non-international armed conflicts, in particular, have caused important effects in terms of displacement, including the environmental strain in the affected areas. | 特别是非国际性武装冲突在流离失所方面造成了重大影响，包括给受影响地区带来环境负担。 |
| In a similar manner, research based on the post-conflict environmental assessments conducted since the 1990s by the United Nations Environment Programme, the United Nations Development Programme and the World Bank has identified human displacement as one of the six principal pathways for direct environmental damage in conflict. | 与此相似，联合国环境规划署、联合国开发计划署和世界银行自1990年代以来基于冲突后环境评估所开展的研究将人员流离失所确定为冲突造成直接环境损害的六个主要途径之一。 |
| (4) As the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has pointed out, considerations relating to access to water, the location of refugee camps and settlements, as well as food assistance by relief and development agencies, “all have a direct bearing on the environment”. | (4) 正如联合国难民事务高级专员公署(难民署)指出的那样，与获得水、难民营和定居点的位置以及救济和发展机构提供的粮食援助相关的考虑因素“都对环境有直接影响”。 |
| Uninformed decisions concerning the siting of a refugee camp in or near a fragile or internationally protected area may result in irreversible – local and distant – impacts on the environment. | 就难民营设在脆弱保护区还是国际保护区、区域内还是区域附近做出的不知情决定，都可能会对环境造成不可逆转的(局部和远距离)影响。 |
| Areas of high environmental value suffer particularly serious impacts that may be related to the area’s biological diversity, its function as a haven for endangered species or for the ecosystem services these provide. | 环境价值高的地区受到的影响尤为严重，而这些影响可能与该地区的生物多样性、其作为濒危物种避难所的功能或其提供的生态系统服务有关。 |
| The United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Environmental Assembly have similarly drawn attention to the environmental impact of displacement. | 联合国环境规划署 和联合国环境大会也同样提请注意流离失所对环境的影响。 |
| (5) The African Union Convention for the Protection of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa, also known as the Kampala Convention, stipulates that State Parties shall “[t]ake necessary measures to safeguard against environmental degradation in areas where internally displaced persons are located, either within the jurisdiction of the State Parties, or in areas under their effective control”. | (5) 《非洲联盟保护和援助非洲境内流离失所者公约》(又称《坎帕拉公约》)规定，缔约国应“采取必要措施，防止缔约国管辖范围内或其有效控制地区内的境内流离失所者所在地的环境退化”。 |
| The Kampala Convention applies to internal displacement “in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situation of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters”. | 《坎帕拉公约》适用于“特别是由于武装冲突、普遍暴力情况、侵犯人权行为或天灾人祸等情况或为了避免这些情况的影响而造成的国内流离失所”。 |
| (6) Other recent developments related to displacement and the environment include the Task Force on Displacement, which was set up at the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and mandated to produce recommendations on integrated approaches to avert, minimize and address displacement related to the adverse impacts of climate change. | (6) 与流离失所和环境有关的其他最新动态包括流离失所问题工作队，该工作队是在联合国气候变化框架公约缔约方会议上设立的，其任务是就避免、尽量减少和解决与气候变化不利影响相关的流离失所问题的综合办法提出建议。 |
| In 2015, States adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, which calls, inter alia, for the promotion of transboundary cooperation to build resilience and reduce the risk of disasters and the risk of displacement. | 2015年，各国通过了《仙台减少灾害风险框架》，除其他外，该框架呼吁促进跨界合作，以建设抗灾能力并减少灾害风险和流离失所风险。 |
| The more recent Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration likewise includes a section on the relationship between migration and environmental degradation. | 最近的《安全、有序和正常移民全球契约》也包含了关于移民与环境退化之间关系的一节。 |
| Although these developments focus on the environmental reasons for – rather than the environmental effects of – displacement, they are indicative of a recognition among States of the nexus between environment and displacement, and the need to foster cooperation and regulation in that field. | 尽管这些动态侧重于流离失所问题的环境原因，而不是其对环境的影响，但它们表明各国承认环境与流离失所之间的联系以及促进这一领域合作和监管的必要性。 |
| (7) Draft principle 8 addresses States, international organizations and other relevant actors. | (7) 原则8草案涉及国家、国际组织和其他相关行为体。 |
| International organizations involved in the protection of displaced people, and the environment, in conflict-affected areas include UNHCR, the United Nations Environment Programme and other United Nations agencies, as well as the European Union, the African Union, and NATO. | 在受冲突影响地区参与保护流离失所者和环境的国际组织包括难民署、联合国环境规划署和联合国其他机构以及欧洲联盟、非洲联盟和北约。 |
| “Other relevant actors” referred to in the draft principle may include, inter alia, international donors, ICRC, and international non-governmental organizations. | 本项原则草案中提到的“其他相关行为体”可能包括国际捐助方、红十字国际委员会和国际非政府组织等行为体。 |
| All these actors are to take appropriate measures to prevent and mitigate environmental degradation in areas where persons displaced by armed conflict are located, while providing relief and assistance for such persons and local communities. | 这些行为体都要采取适当措施，防止和减轻因武装冲突而流离失所者所在地区的环境退化，同时向这些人员和地方社区提供救济和援助。 |
| The terms “relief and assistance” refer generally to the kind of assistance involved where human displacement occurs. | “救济和援助”一语泛指发生人口流离失所时所需要的援助种类。 |
| These terms are not intended to convey any different meaning from how these terms are understood in humanitarian work. | 使用这些术语并不是为了表达与人道主义工作中对这些术语的理解不同的任何含义。 |
| (8) Draft principle 8 includes a reference to relief for displaced persons and local communities. | (8) 原则草案8提及向这些人员和地方社区提供救济和援助。 |
| The UNHCR Environmental Guidelines note in this regard that the “state of the environment … will have a direct bearing on the welfare and well-being of people living in that vicinity, whether refugees, returnees or local communities”. | 《难民署环境准则》在这方面指出，“环境状况将直接影响到居住在该地区附近的人们的福利和福祉，无论是难民、回返者还是当地社区”。 |
| Providing livelihoods for displaced people is intimately connected to preserving and protecting the environment in which local and host communities are located. | 为流离失所者提供生计，与维护和保护当地社区和收容社区所处的环境密切相关。 |
| Better environmental governance increases resilience for host communities, displaced persons, and the environment as such. | 更好的环境治理可提高收容社区、流离失所者和环境本身的复原力。 |
| (9) Similarly, the International Organization for Migration has highlighted the importance of “reducing the vulnerability of displaced persons as well as their impacts on the receiving society and ecosystem” as an emerging issue that requires addressing, and has developed an Atlas of Environmental Migration. | (9) 同样，国际移民组织强调，“降低流离失所者的脆弱性及其对接纳地社会和生态系统的影响”是一个正在出现的重要问题，需要加以解决， 并编制了一份《环境移民地图集》。 |
| The World Bank, furthermore, has drawn attention to the issue in its 2009 report “Forced displacement – The development challenge”. | 此外，世界银行2009年在题为“被迫流离失所――发展挑战”的报告 中曾提请注意这一问题。 |
| The report highlights the development impacts that displacement can have on environmental sustainability and development, including through environmental degradation. | 该报告强调了流离失所对环境可持续性和发展可能造成的发展影响，包括环境退化造成的影响。 |
| Reference can also be made to the Draft International Covenant on Environment and Development of the International Union for Conservation of Nature, which includes a paragraph on displacement reading as follows: “Parties shall take all necessary measures to provide relief for those displaced by armed conflict, including internally displaced persons, with due regard to environmental obligations”. | 还可参考国际自然保护联盟《环境和发展国际盟约草案》，其中包括一个关于流离失所的段落，内容如下：“各方应采取一切必要措施，向包括境内流离失所者在内的因武装冲突而流离失所的人提供救济，同时适当考虑到环境义务”。 |
| (10) The reference to “providing relief” to persons displaced by conflict and to local communities in draft principle 8 should also be read in the light of the Commission’s previous work on the topic “Protection of persons in the event of disasters”. | (10) 原则草案8中关于向因冲突而流离失所者和当地社区“提供救济”的内容，还应当参照委员会以前关于“发生灾害时的人员保护”专题的工作 来解读。 |
| As explained in the relevant commentary, the draft articles would apply in situations of displacement that, because of their magnitude, can be viewed as “complex emergencies”, including where a disaster occurs in an area where there is an armed conflict. | 正如相关评注中所解释的那样，条款草案将适用于规模可被视为“复杂紧急情况”的流离失所情况，包括武装冲突地区发生灾害的情况。 |
| (11) Draft principle 8 is located in Part Two given that conflict-related human displacement is a phenomenon that may have to be addressed both during and after an armed conflict. | (11) 考虑到与冲突有关的人员流离失所可能是在武装冲突期间和之后必须处理的一个现象，原则8草案被列入第二部分。 |
| Principle 9 State responsibility | 原则9 国家责任 |
| 1. An internationally wrongful act of a State, in relation to an armed conflict, that causes damage to the environment entails the international responsibility of that State, which is under an obligation to make full reparation for such damage, including damage to the environment in and of itself. | 1. 一国与武装冲突有关的国际不法行为如对环境造成损害，则引起该国的国际责任，该国有义务对此种损害，包括单纯对环境本身的损害，作出充分赔偿。 |
| 2. The present draft principles are without prejudice to the rules on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 2. 本原则草案不妨碍关于国家对国际不法行为的责任的规则。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 9 concerns the international responsibility of States for damage caused to the environment in relation to armed conflicts. | (1) 原则草案9涉及国家对与武装冲突有关的环境损害的国际责任。 |
| Paragraph 1 restates the general rule that every internationally wrongful act of a State entails its international responsibility and gives rise to an obligation to make full reparation for the damage that may be caused by the act. | 第1段重申一般规则，即一国的每一国际不法行为均引起该国的国际责任，并产生对该行为可能造成的损害提供充分赔偿的义务。 |
| The paragraph furthermore reaffirms the applicability of this principle to internationally wrongful acts in relation to armed conflict as well as to environmental damage, including damage caused to the environment in and of itself. | 该段还重申，这一原则适用于与武装冲突有关的国际不法行为以及环境损害，包括单纯对环境本身造成的损害。 |
| (2) Paragraph 1 has been modelled on articles 1 and 31, paragraph 1, of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | (2) 第1段以《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第1条和第31条第1款为范本。 |
| Although no reference is made to other articles, the draft principle shall be applied in accordance with the rules on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, including those specifying the conditions for internationally wrongful acts. | 虽然未提及其他条款，但本项原则草案应按照关于国家对国际不法行为的责任的规则，包括具体说明国际不法行为条件的规则适用。 |
| This means, inter alia, that conduct amounting to an internationally wrongful act may consist of action or omission. | 除其他外，这意味着构成国际不法行为的行为可能包括作为或不作为。 |
| Furthermore, for the international responsibility of a State to arise in relation to armed conflict, the act or omission must be attributable to that State and amount to a violation of its international obligation. | 此外，要引起一国与武装冲突有关的国际责任，这种作为或不作为必须可归于该国，且必须等同于违反其国际义务。 |
| (3) An act or omission attributable to a State that causes harm to the environment in relation to an armed conflict is wrongful if two conditions are met. | (3) 如果满足两个条件，可归于一国的造成与武装冲突有关的环境损害的作为或不作为即为不法行为。 |
| First, the act or omission in question violates one or more of the substantive rules of the law of armed conflict providing protection to the environment, or other rules of international law applicable in the situation, including but not limited to the law of the use of force (jus ad bellum) and international human rights law. | 首先，有关作为或不作为违反了武装冲突法中规定保护环境的一项或多项实质性规则， 或其他适用于这种情况的国际法规则，包括但不限于使用武力(诉诸战争权)法和国际人权法。 |
| Second, such a rule, or rules, are binding on the State. | 其次，这样一项或多项规则对国家具有约束力。 |
| The scope of the responsibility of the State as well as the threshold for compensable environmental harm depend on the applicable primary rules. | 国家责任的范围以及可赔偿的环境损害的门槛取决于适用的主要规则。 |
| (4) The rules of the law of armed conflict concerning the responsibility of States are clear and well-established. | (4) 武装冲突法对国家责任有明确和既定的规则。 |
| As lex specialis in armed conflict, the law of armed conflict extends the responsibility of a State party to an armed conflict to “all acts committed by persons forming part of its armed forces”, including their private acts. | 作为武装冲突中的特别法，武装冲突法将武装冲突当事国的责任扩大到“自己军队的组成人员做出的一切行为”，包括他们的私人行为。 |
| As far as the law of the use of force is concerned, a violation of Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter of the United Nations entails responsibility for damage caused by that violation, whether or not resulting from a violation of the law of armed conflict. | 就使用武力的法律而言，违反《联合国宪章》第二条第四款的情况引起对该侵犯行为所造成损害的责任，无论损害是否是因违反武装冲突法造成。 |
| A further basis for responsibility for conflict-related environmental harm – in particular but not exclusively – in situations of occupation may be found in international human rights obligations. | 与冲突有关的环境损害责任的另一个依据体现于国际人权义务，特别是但不完全是在占领情况下。 |
| Degradation of environmental conditions may violate a number of specific human rights, including the right to life, the right to health and the right to food, as has been established in the jurisprudence of regional human rights courts and human rights treaty bodies. | 环境条件恶化可能会侵犯一系列具体人权，包括生命权、健康权和食物权，正如区域人权法庭和人权条约机构的判例所确立的。 |
| (5) Environmental damage caused in armed conflict was first recognized as compensable under international law by the United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC), which was established by the Security Council in 1991 to deal with claims concerning the Iraqi invasion and occupation of Kuwait. | (5) 联合国安全理事会于1991年设立了联合国赔偿委员会负责处理对伊拉克入侵和占领科威特索赔的问题， 该委员会首次确认，根据国际法，在武装冲突中造成的环境损害可获得赔偿。 |
| The UNCC jurisdiction was based on Security Council resolution 687 (1991), which reaffirmed the responsibility of Iraq under international law “for any direct loss or damage – including environmental damage and the depletion of natural resources, or injury to foreign Governments, nationals and corporations as a result of its unlawful invasion and occupation of Kuwait”. | 联合国赔偿委员会以联合国安全理事会第687 (1991)号决议为管辖依据，该决议重申，伊拉克按照国际法，应负责赔偿“因其非法入侵和占领科威特而对外国政府、国民和公司造成的任何直接损失、损害(包括环境的损害和自然资源的损耗)和伤害。 ” |
| (6) The experience of UNCC in dealing with environmental claims has been groundbreaking in the area of reparations for wartime environmental harm, and an important point of reference beyond armed conflicts. | (6) 联合国赔偿委员会处理环境索赔的经验在战时环境损害赔偿方面具有开创性意义，是武装冲突范围之外的一个重要参照点。 |
| One example is related to how environmental damage can be quantified. | 一个实例涉及如何对环境损害进行定量。 |
| UNCC did not attempt to define the concepts of “direct environmental damage” and “depletion of natural resources” in Security Council resolution 687 (1991) but put forward a non-exhaustive list of compensable losses or expenses resulting from: | 联合国赔偿委员会没有试图界定安全理事会第687 (1991)号决议中的“直接环境损害”和“自然资源损耗”的概念，而是提出了一份由以下原因导致的可予补偿的损失或费用的非详尽清单： |
| (a) Abatement and prevention of environmental damage, including expenses directly relating to fighting oil fires and stemming from the flow of oil in coastal and international waters; | (a) 减轻和防止环境损害，其中包括与油田灭火和国际水域石油流泄直接有关的费用； |
| (b) Reasonable measures already taken to clean and restore the environment or future measures which can be documented as reasonably necessary to clean and restore the environment; | (b) 为清洁和恢复环境已经采取的合理措施，以及有文件可以证明为清洁和恢复环境合理需要的未来措施； |
| (c) Reasonable monitoring and assessment of the environmental damage for the purposes of evaluating and abating the harm and restoring the environment; | (c) 为了评估和消除损害和恢复环境而对环境损害进行合理的监测和评估； |
| (d) Reasonable monitoring of public health and performing medical screenings for the purposes of investigation and combating increased health risks as a result of the environmental damage; | (d) 为了调查和克服因环境损害引起的健康危险而合理监测公众健康状况和开展医疗普查； |
| and (e) Depletion of or damage to natural resources. | (e) 对自然资源的损耗或破坏。 |
| (7) Paragraph 1 of draft principle 9 reaffirms the compensability under international law of damage to the environment per se. | (7) 原则草案9第1段重申，根据国际法对环境本身的损害可予补偿。 |
| This statement is in line with the Commission’s earlier work on State responsibility as well as on the allocation of loss in the case of transboundary harm arising out of hazardous activities. | 这一陈述与委员会以前关于国家责任的工作 和关于危险活动所致跨界损害的损失分配的工作 相一致。 |
| Reference can also be made to the statement of UNCC that “there is no justification for the contention that general international law precludes compensation for pure environmental damage”. | 还可参考联合国赔偿委员会的陈述，即“没有任何理由主张一般国际法排除补偿纯环境损害”。 |
| Paragraph 1 of the draft principle is furthermore inspired by the judgment of the International Court of Justice in the Certain Activities (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) case, in which the Court found that “it is consistent with the principles of international law governing the consequences of internationally wrongful acts, including the principle of full reparation, to hold that compensation is due for damage caused to the environment, in and of itself”. | 本项原则草案第1段还受到国际法院关于某些活动(哥斯达黎加诉尼加拉瓜)案的判决的启发，法院在该判决中认为，“裁定单纯对环境本身造成的损害应予补偿符合关于国际不法行为后果的国际法原则，包括充分赔偿原则。 |
| (8) The notion of “the environment in and of itself” has been explained to refer to “pure environmental damage”. | ” (8) “单纯对环境本身的损害”的概念被解释为指“纯环境损害”。 |
| The latter term was used by UNCC in the above citation. | 联合国赔偿委员会在上述引用中使用了后一术语。 |
| Both concepts, as well as the notion of “harm to the environment per se” that the Commission used in the principles on the allocation of loss in the case of transboundary harm arising out of hazardous activities have the same meaning. | 这两个概念以及委员会在危险活动所致跨界损害的损失分配原则中使用的“对环境本身的损害”概念具有相同的含义。 |
| They refer to harm to the environment that does not, or not only, cause material damage but leads to the impairment or loss of the ability of the environment to provide ecosystem services such as sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere, air quality services and biodiversity. | 它们指的是不造成(或不止造成)物质损害，但导致环境提供生态系统服务(例如大气层碳固存、空气质量服务和生物多样性)的能力遭受损害或损失。 |
| (9) Paragraph 2 of draft principle 9 clarifies that the draft principles are without prejudice to the rules on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | (9) 原则草案9第2段说明，原则草案不妨碍关于国家对国际不法行为的责任的规则。 |
| (10) Draft principle 9 is located in Part Two containing draft principles related to the phase before armed conflict, and draft principles that are applicable to more than one phase, including provisions of general applicability. | (10) 原则草案9被列入第二部分，这一部分载有与武装冲突前阶段有关的原则草案，以及适用于一个以上阶段的原则草案，包括一般适用的规定。 |
| Draft principle 9 belongs to the latter category. | 原则草案9属于后一类。 |
| Principle 10 Corporate due diligence | 原则10 公司应尽职责 |
| States should take appropriate legislative and other measures aimed at ensuring that corporations and other business enterprises operating in or from their territories exercise due diligence with respect to the protection of the environment, including in relation to human health, when acting in an area of armed conflict or in a post-armed conflict situation. | 各国应当采取适当的立法措施和其他措施，以确保在其领土内或从其领土上开展活动的公司和其他工商企业，在武装冲突地区或冲突后局势中开展活动时就保护环境，包括保护人员健康履行应尽职责。 |
| Such measures include those aimed at ensuring that natural resources are purchased or obtained in an environmentally sustainable manner. | 此种措施包括旨在确保以环境上可持续的方式采购和获取自然资源的措施。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 10 recommends that States take appropriate legislative and other measures to ensure that corporations operating in or from their territories exercise due diligence with respect to the protection of the environment, including in relation to human health, in areas of armed conflict or in post-conflict situations. | (1) 原则草案10建议各国采取适当的立法措施和其他措施，以确保在其领土内或从其领土上开展活动的公司，在武装冲突地区或冲突后局势中开展活动时就保护环境，包括保护人员健康履行应尽职责。 |
| The second sentence of draft principle 10 specifies that such measures include those aimed at ensuring that natural resources are purchased or obtained in an environmentally sustainable manner. | 原则草案10第2句话具体说明，此种措施包括旨在确保以环境上可持续的方式采购和获取自然资源的措施。 |
| The draft principle does not reflect a generally binding legal obligation and has been phrased accordingly as a recommendation. | 原则草案不反映一项具有普遍约束力的法律义务，并相应的采用了建议式的措辞。 |
| (2) The concept of “corporate due diligence” refers to a wide network of normative frameworks that seek to promote responsible business practices, including respect for human rights and international environmental standards. | (2) “公司应尽职责”这一概念指的是一个广泛的规范框架网络，这些规范框架旨在促进负责任的企业做法，包括尊重人权和国际环境标准。 |
| Such frameworks include non-binding guidelines as well as binding regulation at the national or regional level, and extend to codes of conduct created by the businesses themselves. | 这种框架包括不具约束力的准则以及具有约束力的国家或区域一级法规，并延伸到企业自己制定的行为守则。 |
| Draft principle 10 builds on and seeks to complement the existing regulatory frameworks which do not always display a clear environmental focus, or a focus on areas of armed conflict and post-armed conflict situations. | 原则草案10建立在现有监管框架的基础之上，并寻求为这些框架提供补充，这些框架并不总是表现出明确的环境重点，也不总是侧重武装冲突地区和武装冲突后局势。 |
| (3) The United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights are based on the obligations of States to respect, protect and fulfil human rights and fundamental freedoms, and their implementation largely relies on State action. | (3) 联合国《工商企业与人权指导原则》 以各国尊重、保护及落实人权和基本自由的义务为基础，其实施工作在很大程度上取决于国家行动。 |
| The Guiding Principles propose a number of measures that States can take to ensure that business enterprises operating in conflict-affected areas are not involved with gross human rights abuses. | 《工商企业与人权指导原则》提出了国家可采取的多项措施，确保在受冲突影响地区开展业务的企业不会卷入严重侵犯人权的行为。 |
| This includes “[e]nsuring that their current policies, legislation, regulations and enforcement measures are effective in addressing the risk of business involvement in gross human rights abuses”. | 这包括“确保其目前的政策、立法、条例和执行措施可有效应对工商企业参与严重侵犯人权的风险”。 |
| (4) The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises expressly address environmental concerns, recommending that enterprises “take due account of the need to protect the environment, public health and safety, and generally to conduct their activities in a manner contributing to the wider goal of sustainable development”. | (4) 《经济合作与发展组织(经合组织)跨国企业准则》 明确涉及环境问题，建议企业“适当考虑保护环境、公共卫生和安全的需要，以及在通常情况下以有助于实现更广泛的可持续发展目标的方式开展活动的需要”。 |
| The OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas of 2016, inter alia, encourage companies operating in or sourcing minerals from conflict-affected and high-risk areas to assess and avoid the risk of being involved in serious human rights violations. | 2016年《经合组织关于受冲突影响地区和高风险地区负责任矿产供应链的尽责准则》 尤其鼓励在受冲突影响和高风险地区经营或采购矿物的企业评估并避免卷入严重侵犯人权行为的风险。 |
| Regulatory frameworks more specifically related to natural resources and areas of armed conflict also include the Certification Mechanism of the International Conference of the Great Lakes Region and the Chinese Due Diligence Guidelines for Responsible Mineral Supply Chains. | 与自然资源和武装冲突地区更具体相关的监管框架还包括大湖区问题国际会议认证机制 和《中国负责任矿产供应链尽责管理指南》 。 |
| Due diligence frameworks have also been created for specific businesses, including extractive industries, in cooperation between States, businesses and civil society. | 还在与国家、企业和民间社会的合作下，为包括采掘业在内的具体企业建立了应尽职责框架。 |
| (5) In some cases, such initiatives have provided the impetus for States to incorporate similar standards into their national legislation, making them binding on corporations subject to their jurisdiction that operate in or deal with conflict-affected areas. | (5) 在一些情况下，这些举措推动各国将类似标准纳入其国家立法，使它们对受其管辖且在受冲突影响区内经营或有生意来往的公司产生约束力。 |
| Legally binding instruments have also been developed at the regional level. | 区域一级也制定了具有法律约束力的文书。 |
| Examples of such legally binding frameworks, either at the regional or national level, include the US Dodd-Frank Act of 2010, The Lusaka Protocol of the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region, the regulation of the European Union on conflict minerals and the European Union timber regulation. | 这种具有法律约束力的区域一级或国家一级框架的例子包括美国2010年《多德－弗兰克法》、大湖区问题国际会议《卢萨卡议定书》、欧洲联盟冲突矿产条例 以及欧洲联盟木材条例。 |
| (6) The language of draft principle 10 builds on the existing frameworks of corporate due diligence, inter alia regarding how natural resources are purchased and obtained. | (6) 原则草案10的措辞建立在关于公司应尽职责的现有框架，特别是关于如何采购和获取自然资源的框架基础之上。 |
| At the same time, in accordance with the scope of the topic, it specifically focuses on the protection of the environment in areas of armed conflict as well as in post-armed conflict situations. | 同时，根据本专题的范围，原则草案10特别侧重在武装冲突地区以及武装冲突后局势中保护环境。 |
| Reference can in this regard be made to the concept of “conflict-affected and high-risk areas” used in the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals, as well as in the conflict minerals regulation of the European Union. | 在这方面，可以参考经合组织《负责任矿产供应链尽责准则》和欧洲联盟《冲突矿产条例》中使用的“受冲突影响和高风险地区”的概念。 |
| The OECD Due Diligence Guidance defines this concept in terms of “the presence of armed conflict, widespread violence or other risks of harm to people”. | 经合组织《尽责准则》对这一概念的定义采用了“存在武装冲突、普遍暴力或对人员造成伤害的其他风险”的措辞。 |
| The European Union conflict minerals regulation gives the following definition: “areas in a state of armed conflict or fragile post-conflict as well as areas witnessing weak or non-existent governance and security, such as failed states, and widespread and systematic violations of international law, including human rights abuses”. | 欧洲联盟《冲突矿产条例》给出了以下定义：“处于武装冲突或脆弱的冲突后状态的地区，以及治理和安保薄弱或不存在的地区，如陷于崩溃的国家，以及存在广泛和有系统的违反国际法的情况，包括侵犯人权情况的地区”。 |
| The relevance of the notion of “conflict-affected and high-risk areas” for draft principle 10 was acknowledged. | “受冲突影响和高风险地区”这一概念与原则10草案的相关性得到了承认。 |
| The Commission nevertheless chose to refer to “area of armed conflict” and “post-armed conflict situation” as these terms are more closely aligned to the terminology used in the draft principles. | 然而，委员会选择使用“武装冲突地区”和“武装冲突后局势”，因为这些术语与原则草案中使用的术语更加一致。 |
| They should be understood in the sense of the concepts of “armed conflict” and “post-armed conflict” as used in the draft principles. | 应当按照原则草案中使用的“武装冲突” 和“武装冲突后” 概念的含义来理解这些术语。 |
| (7) The first sentence of draft principle 10 refers to “legislative and other measures”. | (7) 原则草案10的第一句提到“立法措施和其他措施”。 |
| It is usual that international instruments relying on implementation at the national level refer explicitly to legislative measures, and seeking to ensure corporate due diligence would usually require legislative action. | 依赖国家一级执行的国际文书通常明确提到立法措施， 而且，寻求确保公司应尽职责通常需要立法行动。 |
| “[O]ther measures” may be wide ranging and include, inter alia, judicial and administrative measures. | “其他措施”可能范围很广，除其他外，包括司法措施和行政措施。 |
| A further qualification, “appropriate”, indicates that the measures taken at the national level may differ from one country to another. | 另一个限定词“适当”表明，各国在国家一级采取的措施可能有所。 |
| Such measures should in any event be aimed at ensuring that corporations and other business enterprises operating in or from the country in question exercise due diligence with respect to the protection of the environment when acting in an area of armed conflict or in a post-armed conflict situation. | 无论如何，此类措施应旨在确保在有关国家领土内或从其领土上开展活动的公司和其他工商企业在武装冲突地区或冲突后局势中开展活动时就保护环境履行应尽职责。 |
| (8) There is no uniform practice on how to refer to the business entities for which the due diligence guidance is addressed. | (8) 应尽职责指南对于所针对的工商业实体没有统一的称谓。 |
| The different regulatory frameworks use terms ranging from “transnational corporations” to “multinational enterprises”, “business enterprises” or “companies”. | 不同的监管框架使用的术语包括“跨国公司”、“跨国企业”、“工商企业” 或“公司” 。 |
| The reference to “corporations and other business enterprises” was chosen for the draft principle as a broad notion that would not be unnecessarily limitative. | 原则草案选择的“公司和其他工商企业”是一个宽泛的概念，不会受到不必要的限制。 |
| How this notion is interpreted would primarily depend on the national law of each State. | 如何解释这一概念将主要取决于每个国家的国内法。 |
| There are similarly several ways to describe the connection between a corporation or other business enterprise and a State. | 同样，描述一家公司或其他工商企业与一个国家之间的联系也有几种方式。 |
| The phrase “operating in or from their territories” is the standard phrase in the OECD Due Diligence Guidance. | “在其领土内或从其领土上开展活动”这一短语是《经合组织尽责准则》 中的标准措辞。 |
| (9) The notion of “due diligence” as used in the draft principle refers to due diligence expected of corporations and other business entities when acting in areas of armed conflict or in post-armed conflict situations. | (9) 原则草案中使用的“应尽职责”概念是指公司和其他工商实体在武装冲突地区或武装冲突后局势中采取行动时预期应履行的应尽职责。 |
| This notion is not used differently from the due diligence frameworks referred to in paragraphs (2) to (4) above. | 这一概念的使用与上文第(2)至第(4)段所指的应尽职责框架并无不同。 |
| As for its content, reference can be made to the parameters of “human rights due diligence” as explained in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: | 其内容可参考《工商企业与人权指导原则》中解释的“人权尽责”的范围： |
| Human rights due diligence: | 人权尽责： |
| (a) Should cover adverse human rights impacts that the business enterprise may cause or contribute to through its own activities, or which may be directly linked to its operations, products or services by its business relationships; | (a) 应涵盖工商企业通过其自身活动可能造成或加剧或因商业关系而与其业务、产品或服务直接相关的负面人权影响； |
| (b) Will vary in complexity with the size of the business enterprise, the risk of severe human rights impacts, and the nature and context of its operations; | (b) 随工商企业的规模、产生严重人权影响的风险以及业务性质和背景的不同而在复杂性上有所不同； |
| (c) Should be ongoing, recognizing that the human rights risks may change over time as the business enterprise’s operations and operating context evolve. | (c) 应是持续的，承认人权风险可能随时会因工商企业的业务和经营背景的变化而其变化。 |
| The European Union conflict minerals regulation defines supply chain due diligence in similar terms as “an ongoing, proactive and reactive process through which economic operators monitor and administer their purchases and sales with a view to ensuring that they do not contribute to conflict or the adverse impacts thereof”. | 欧洲联盟冲突矿产条例使用类似的术语，将供应链尽责调查定义为“一个持续、主动和反应性的过程，经济从业者通过该过程监测和管理其采购和销售，以确保它们不会加剧冲突或其不利影响”。 |
| Furthermore, the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and the related documentation include detailed guidance on international environmental standards. | 此外，经合组织《跨国企业准则》和相关文件包括关于国际环境标准的详细准则。 |
| (10) The phrase “including in relation to human health” underlines the close link between environmental degradation and human health as affirmed by international environmental instruments, regional treaties and case law, the work of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, as well as of the Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment. | (10) “包括保护人员健康”一语强调了环境退化与人员健康之间的密切联系，国际环境文书、区域条约和判例、经济、社会及文化权利委员会的工作 以及人权与环境问题特别报告员的工作 均确认了这种联系。 |
| The phrase thus refers to “human health” in the context of the protection of the environment. | 因此，该短语指的是环境保护背景下的“人员健康”。 |
| (11) According to the second sentence of draft principle 10, the measures to be taken include those aimed at ensuring that natural resources are purchased or obtained in an environmentally sustainable manner. | (11) 原则草案10的第二句指出，要采取的措施包括旨在确保以环境上可持续的方式采购和获取自然资源的措施。 |
| The requirement of responsible sourcing is included in a number of documents referred to above. | 上述许多文件中都包括负责任采购的要求。 |
| The OECD Guidance, for instance, recommends that States promote the observance of the Guidance by companies operating from their territories and sourcing minerals from conflict-affected and high-risk areas “with the aim of ensuring that they respect human rights, avoid contributing to conflict and successfully contribute to sustainable, equitable and effective development”. | 例如，《经合组织准则》建议各国促进在其境内经营以及从受冲突影响和高风险地区采购矿物的企业遵守该准则，“以确保它们尊重人权、避免助长冲突，并成功促进可持续、公平和有效的发展”。 |
| The Chinese guidelines require that companies identify and assess the risks of contributing to conflict and serious human rights abuses associated with extracting, trading, processing, and exporting resources from conflict-affected and high-risk areas, as well as risks associated with serious misconduct in environmental, social and ethical issues. | 中国的指南要求企业识别和评估与从受冲突影响及高风险地区采掘、交易、加工及出口资源相关的加剧冲突和严重侵犯人权的风险， 以及与环境、社会及道德问题上的严重过失相关的风险。 |
| The European Union conflict minerals regulation defines “supply chain due diligence” as meaning “the obligations of Union importers … in relation to their management systems, risk management, independent third-party audits and disclosure of information with a view to identifying and addressing actual and potential risks linked to conflict-affected and high-risk areas to prevent or mitigate adverse impacts associated with their sourcing activities”. | 欧洲联盟《冲突矿产条例》将“供应链尽责调查”定义为“欧盟进口商在其管理系统、风险管理、独立第三方审计和信息披露方面的义务，目的是识别和应对与受冲突影响和高风险地区相关的实际和潜在风险，以防止或减轻与其采购活动相关的不利影响”。 |
| (12) A view was expressed that the second sentence of draft principle 10 should recommend that natural resources be purchased or obtained “equitably” and in an environmentally sustainable manner. | (12) 有人认为，原则草案10第二句应建议“以公平”和环境上可持续的方式采购和获取自然资源。 |
| While the established understanding of the concept of sustainability as encompassing environmental, economic and social aspects, or the importance of all these aspects for corporate due diligence was not questioned, the Commission did not include the word “equitably” as it was felt that it could create confusion in the context of draft principle 10. | 委员会不质疑对可持续性概念的既定理解包括环境、经济和社会方面，也不质疑所有这些方面对公司应尽职责的重要性，但委员会未加入“公平”一词，因为委员会感觉该词在原则草案10中可能会造成含义不明。 |
| (13) Draft principle 10 refers to corporate activities in areas of armed conflict or in post-armed conflict situations but addresses what are essentially preventive measures. | (13) 原则草案10涉及武装冲突地区或武装冲突后局势中的公司活动，但阐述的本质上是预防性措施。 |
| The draft principle is therefore located in Part One which includes principles relating to the time before conflict, and principles that are applicable in more than one phase including general principles not tied to any particular phase. | 因此，这项原则草案被列入第一部分，这部分包括与冲突前时间有关的原则，以及适用于不止一个阶段的原则，包括不限于任何特定阶段的一般原则。 |
| Principle 11 Corporate liability | 原则11 公司的赔偿责任 |
| States should take appropriate legislative and other measures aimed at ensuring that corporations and other business enterprises operating in or from their territories can be held liable for harm caused by them to the environment, including in relation to human health, in an area of armed conflict or in a post-armed conflict situation. | 各国应当采取适当的立法措施和其他措施，以确保在其领土内或从其领土上开展活动的公司和其他工商企业，对于在武装冲突地区或冲突后局势中由它们对环境、包括对人员健康造成的损害，可被认定负有赔偿责任。 |
| Such measures should, as appropriate, include those aimed at ensuring that a corporation or other business enterprise can be held liable to the extent that such harm is caused by its subsidiary acting under its de facto control. | 此种措施应酌情包括旨在确保公司或其他工商企业对事实上由其控制的子公司所造成的此种损害可被认定负有赔偿责任的措施。 |
| To this end, as appropriate, States should provide adequate and effective procedures and remedies, in particular for the victims of such harm. | 为此，各国应当酌情提供，特别是向此种损害的受害者提供充分和有效的程序和补救措施。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 11 is closely related to draft principle 10 concerning corporate due diligence. | (1) 原则11草案与关于公司应尽职责的原则10草案密切相关。 |
| The purpose of draft principle 11 is to address situations in which harm has been caused to the environment, including in relation to human health, in areas of armed conflict or in post-conflict situations. | 原则草案11的目的是阐述武装冲突地区或冲突后局势中对环境、包括与人员健康有关的环境造成的损害的情况。 |
| States are invited to take appropriate legislative and other measures aimed at ensuring that corporations or other business enterprises operating in or from the State’s territory can be held liable for having caused such harm. | 请各国采取适当的立法措施和其他措施，以确保在其领土内或从其领土上开展活动的公司和其他工商企业，对于造成的此种损害，可被认定负有赔偿责任。 |
| The concepts of “legislative and other measures”, “corporations and other business enterprises”, “the environment, including in relation to human health”, “operating in or from their territories” and “in an area of armed conflict or in a post-armed conflict situation” are to be interpreted in the same way as in draft principle 10. | “立法措施和其他措施”、“公司和其他工商企业”、“环境、包括与人员健康有关的环境”、“在其领土内或从其领土上开展活动”和“在武装冲突地区或冲突后局势中”等概念的解释应当与原则草案10中的解释相同。 |
| (2) The notions of “harm” and “caused by them” are to be interpreted in accordance with the applicable law, which may be the law of the home State of the corporation or other business enterprise, or the law of the State in which the harm has been caused. | (2) “损害”和“由它们…造成的”的概念应根据适用的法律来解释，适用的法律可能是公司或其他工商企业母国的法律，或它们造成损害的国家的法律。 |
| In this regard, reference can be made to the legal regime applicable in the European Union which provides that the law applicable to a claim shall in general be that of the State in which the damage occurred. | 在这方面，可以参考欧洲联盟适用的法律制度， 该制度规定，适用于索赔的法律一般应为损害发生国的法律。 |
| As for the term “cause”, the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, in the context of human rights due diligence, refer to adverse impacts that the business enterprise “may cause or contribute to through its own activities, or which may be directly linked to its operations, products or services by its business relationships”. | 关于“造成”一词，《工商企业与人权指导原则》在人权尽责中提到，工商企业“可能造成或加剧或因商业关系而与其业务、产品或服务直接相关的”负面人权影响。 |
| (3) The second sentence of draft principle 11 follows the wording of draft principle 10 in that it begins with a reference to the preceding sentence and adds a further consideration that is included within its remit. | (3) 原则草案11的第二句沿用了原则草案10的措辞，它首先提及前一句，并增加了其范围所包括的另一个考虑因素。 |
| The phrase “as appropriate” which does not appear in draft principle 10 provides nuance as to how the elements of the provision are to be applied at the national level. | 原则草案10中没有出现的“酌情”一词为原则草案11的内容应当如何在国家一级适用平添了几分微妙性。 |
| The second sentence of draft principle 11 recommends measures aimed at ensuring that a corporation or other business enterprise can, under certain circumstances, be held liable if its subsidiary has caused harm to the environment including in relation to human health in armed conflict or a post-armed conflict situation. | 原则草案11的第二句建议采取措施，确保在某些情况下，如果一家公司或其他工商企业的子公司对于在武装冲突地区或冲突后局势中由其子公司对环境、包括对人员健康造成的损害，可被认定负有赔偿责任。 |
| More specifically, this should be possible when and to the extent that the subsidiary acts under the de facto control of the parent company. | 更具体而言，当子公司在母公司事实上的控制下行事时，应当能够认定母公司负有赔偿责任。 |
| To illustrate the importance of such control, reference can be made to the statement of the United Kingdom Supreme Court in the Vedanta v. Lungowe case regarding the possible liability of the British multinational group Vedanta Resources for the release of toxic substances to a watercourse in Zambia by its subsidiary: “Everything depends on the extent to which, and the way in which, the parent availed itself of the opportunity to take over, intervene in, control, supervise or advise the management of the relevant operations (including land use) of the subsidiary.” | 为了说明这种控制的重要性，可参考联合王国最高法院在Vedanta诉Lungowe案中关于英国跨国集团Vedanta资源集团对其子公司向赞比亚水道排放有毒物质可能承担的赔偿责任的声明：“一切取决于母公司在何种程度上以及以何种方式利用接管、干预、控制、监督或建议子公司相关业务(包括土地使用)管理的机会。 |
| (4) The concept of de facto control is to be interpreted in accordance with the requirements of each national jurisdiction. | ” (4) 事实上的控制的概念应根据每个国家司法管辖机构的要求来解释。 |
| The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises point out in this regard that the companies or other entities forming a multinational enterprise may coordinate their operations in different ways. | 在这方面，经合组织《跨国企业准则》指出，组成跨国企业的公司或其他实体可能不同方式协调其业务。 |
| “While one or more of these entities may be able to exercise a significant influence over the activities of others, their degree of autonomy within the enterprise may vary widely from one multinational enterprise to another.” | “虽然这些实体中的一个或多个或许能够对其他实体的活动施加重大影响，但在不同的跨国企业中，这些实体在整个企业内部的自主程度可能大不相同。 |
| (5) Reference can in this regard also be made to national judicial cases that have shed light on the relevant aspects of the relationship between the parent company and its subsidiary. | ” (5) 在这方面，还可参考阐明母公司与其子公司之间关系相关方面的国家司法案件。 |
| For instance, in the Bowoto v. Chevron case, the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, paid particular attention to: (a) the degree and content of the communication between the parent and the subsidiary; | 例如，在Bowoto诉雪佛龙案 中，美国加州北区地区法院关注的是：(a) 母公司与子公司之间往来的程度和内容； |
| (b) the degree to which the parent set or participated in setting policy, particularly security policy, for the subsidiary; | (b) 母公司为子公司制定或参与制定政策，特别是安全政策的程度； |
| (c) the officers and directors whom the parent and the subsidiary had in common; | (c) 母公司与子公司共有的高级管理人员及董事； |
| (d) the reliance on the subsidiary for revenue production and its importance in the overall success of the parent’s operations; | (d) 对子公司创收的依赖程度，以及子公司对母公司经营活动总体取得成功的重要程度； |
| and (e) the extent to which the subsidiary, if acting as the agent of the defendants, was acting within the scope of its authority. | (e) 子公司如以被告的代理人身份行事，在其权限范围内行事的程度。 |
| In a further case, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York stated that one corporation may be held legally accountable for the actions of the other if the corporate relationship between a parent and its subsidiary is sufficiently close. | 在另一起案件 中，美国纽约州南区地区法院指出，如果母公司与其子公司之间的关系足够密切，则其中一家公司可能要对另一家公司的行动承担法律责任。 |
| Relevant factors in determining whether this was the case included disregard of corporate formalities, intermingling of funds and overlap of ownership, officers, directors and personnel. | 确定这种情况是否属实的相关因素包括未遵守公司手续、资金混合以及所有权、高级管理人员、董事和工作人员重叠。 |
| In the Chandler v. Cape case, the England and Wales Court of Appeal concluded that, in appropriate circumstances, the parent company may have a duty of care in relation to the health and safety of the employees of its subsidiary. | 在Chandler诉Cape案中，英格兰和威尔士上诉法院得出结论认为，在适当情况下，母公司可能对其子公司雇员的健康和安全负有关照义务。 |
| That may be the case, for instance, when the business of the parent and the subsidiary are in a relevant aspect the same and the parent has, or ought to have, superior knowledge of the relevant aspects of health and safety in the particular industry as well as of the shortcomings in the subsidiary’s system of work. | 例如，当母公司和子公司的业务在某一相关方面相同，且母公司对特定行业的健康和安全相关方面以及子公司工作制度的缺陷具有或应当具有更多的了解时，就可能出现这种情况。 |
| (6) The third sentence of draft principle 11 concerns to both the first and the second sentences of the draft principle. | (6) 原则草案11的第三句与本项原则草案的第一句和第二句都有关。 |
| Its purpose is to recall that States should provide adequate and effective procedures and remedies for the victims of environmental and health-related harm caused by corporations or other business enterprises or their subsidiaries in areas of armed conflict or in post-armed conflict situations. | 其目的是回顾，各国应对公司或其他工商企业或其子公司武装冲突地区或武装冲突后局势中造成的环境和健康相关损害的受害者提供充分和有效的程序和补救措施。 |
| The sentence thus refers to situations, in which the host State may not be in the position to effectively enforce its legislation. | 因此，这句提到东道国可能无法有效执行其法律的情况。 |
| Reference can in this regard also be made to the general comment of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights which interprets the obligation to protect as extending to corporate wrongdoing abroad, “especially in cases where the remedies available to victims before the domestic courts of the State where the harm occurs are unavailable or ineffective”. | 在这方面，可参考经济、社会及文化权利委员会的一般性意见，其中将保护义务的范围解释为延伸至公司国外不当行为，“凡遇受害人在损害发生国法院无法获得补救或所得补救无效力的情况，域外的保护尤其重要”。 |
| (7) It may be recalled that the collapse of State and local institutions is a common consequence of armed conflict and one that often casts a long shadow in the aftermath of conflict, undermining law enforcement and the protection of rights as well as the integrity of justice. | (7) 可以回顾，国家和地方机构的崩溃是武装冲突的共同后果，这种后果在冲突结束后经常留下长长的阴影，破坏了执法和权利保护以及司法公正。 |
| The important role that home States of corporations and other business enterprises can play in such situations is illustrated by a reference to the Katanga Mining case, in which the dispute related to events in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. | 公司和其他工商企业的母国在这种情况下可以发挥的重要作用可以从加丹加采矿案 中得到说明，在该案中，争端涉及刚果民主共和国境内的事件。 |
| The company Katanga Mining Ltd. was incorporated in Bermuda and resident in Canada for tax purposes and had all its actual business operations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. | 加丹加矿业有限公司在百慕大注册成立，为税收目的将总部设在加拿大， 而其所有实际业务活动均在刚果民主共和国进行。 |
| The parties had furthermore agreed in a previous contract that any disputes would be settled in the Court of Great Instance of Kolwezi (Democratic Republic of the Congo). | 各方还在之前的一份合同中商定，任何争端均由科卢韦齐(刚果民主共和国)最高法院解决。 |
| The English Court nevertheless decided, in view of the situation in which “attempted interference with the integrity of justice” was “apparently widespread and endemic”, that the Democratic Republic of the Congo would not be “a forum in which the case may be tried suitably for the interests of all the parties and for the ends of justice”. | 然而，鉴于“企图干涉司法公正”的情况“显然是普遍而具有地方性的”， 英国法院决定，刚果民主共和国不是“为所有当事方的利益和司法目对案件进行适当审理的法庭”。 |
| (8) The human rights treaty bodies within the United Nations have also addressed the issue in their comments on the situation in individual States. | (8) 联合国人权条约机构在关于各国情况的评论中也讨论了这个问题。 |
| The Human Rights Committee, for instance, has encouraged the relevant State party “to set out clearly the expectation that all business enterprises domiciled in its territory and/or its jurisdiction respect human rights standards in accordance with the Covenant throughout their operations” and “to take appropriate measures to strengthen the remedies provided to protect people who have been victims of activities of such business enterprises operating abroad”. | 例如，人权事务委员会鼓励相关缔约国“清晰阐明希望所有在本国境内开设和/或在该国司法管辖下的公司，在整个经营生产过程中依据《公约》，尊重各项人权标准”，并“采取适当措施，加强所提供的补救措施，保护因上述公司的海外经营运作活动蒙受伤害的人们”。 |
| Similarly, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination has drawn attention to instances where the rights of indigenous peoples to land, health, environment and an adequate standard of living have been adversely affected by the operations of transnational corporations. | 同样，消除种族歧视委员会提请关注土著民族的土地权、健康权、环境权和适当生活水准权因跨国企业的经营活动而受到损害的情况。 |
| In that context, it has encouraged the relevant State party to “ensure that no obstacles are introduced in the law that prevent the holding of … transnational corporations accountable in the State party’s courts when [violations of the Covenant] are committed outside the State party. | 这个问题上，委员会鼓励相关缔约国“确保不在法律上设立任何障碍，当跨国公司在缔约国境外出现[违反《公约》]行为时，不会阻碍…缔约国法院追究其责任”。 |
| (9) Reference can furthermore be made to the Montreux Document which refers to the obligations that home States of private military and security companies have under international human rights law. | (9) 还可参考《蒙特勒文件》，该文件提及私营军事和安保公司的母国根据国际法应承担的义务。 |
| To give effect to such obligations, States “have the obligation, in specific circumstances, to take appropriate measures to prevent, investigate and provide effective remedies for relevant misconduct of [private military and security companies] and their personnel”. | 为履行这些义务，国家“在特定情况下，有义务采取适当措施，预防、调查[私营军事和安保公司]及其人员的相关不检行为并提供切实有效的补救措施”。 |
| (10) The term “victims” refers to persons, whose health or livelihood has been harmed by the environmental damage referred to in draft principle 11. | (10) “受害者”一词指健康或生计受到原则草案11所述环境损害的人。 |
| Environmental damage may also affect other human rights such as the right to life and the right to food. | 环境损害还可能影响生命权和食物权等其他人权。 |
| The phrase “in particular for the victims” indicates, in the first place, that the adequate and effective remedies should be available for the victims of the environmental harm. | “特别是向…的受害者”短语首先表明，环境损害的受害者应当能够获得充分和有效的补救措施。 |
| In the second place, the phrase acknowledges that such remedies may also be available on a broader basis depending on the national legislation. | 第二，该短语承认这种补救措施还可根据国家立法在更广泛的基础上获得。 |
| This may be a case of public interest litigation by environmental associations or groups of persons who cannot allege a violation of their individual rights or interests. | 一种可能的情况是环境协会或无法指称个人权利或利益受到侵犯的群体提起的公共利益诉讼。 |
| Furthermore, environmental damage can also give rise to civil claims in which the term “victim” would not be normally used. | 此外，环境损害也可能引起民事索赔，在这种情况下通常不使用“受害者”一词。 |
| (11) The words “adequate and effective procedures and remedies” are general in nature and, together with the phrase “as appropriate”, allow States a certain flexibility when applying this provision at the national level. | (11) “充分和有效的程序和补救措施”是一般性措辞，加上“酌情”一词，使各国在国家一级适用这一规定时有一定的灵活性。 |
| (12) Draft principle 11 is located in Part Two as a provision of general application for the same reasons as draft principle 10. | (12) 原则草案11作为一项一般适用的规定，被列入第二部分，其原因与原则草案10被列入第二部分相同。 |
| Part Three Principles applicable during armed conflict | 第三部分 武装冲突期间适用的原则 |
| Principle 12 Martens Clause with respect to the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict | 原则12 与武装冲突有关的环境保护方面的马顿斯条款 |
| In cases not covered by international agreements, the environment remains under the protection and authority of the principles of international law derived from established custom, from the principles of humanity and from the dictates of public conscience. | 在国际协议所未包括的情形下，环境仍受来源于既定习惯、人道原则和公众良心要求的国际法原则的保护和支配。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 12 is inspired by the Martens Clause, which originally appeared in the preamble to the 1899 Hague Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, and has been restated in several later treaties. | (1) 原则草案12受到马顿斯条款的启发，该条款最初出现在《1899年关于陆战法规和惯例的海牙(第二)公约》 的序言部分，并在后来的若干条约 中得到重申。 |
| The Martens Clause provides, in essence, that even in cases not covered by specific international agreements, civilians and combatants remain under the protection and authority of the principles of international law derived from established custom, from the principles of humanity and from the dictates of public conscience. | 马顿斯条款实质上规定：即使在特定国际协定所不包括的情况下，平民和战斗员仍然处于源自既定习惯、人道原则和公众良心要求的国际法原则的保护和权力之下。 |
| The International Court of Justice has stated that the clause forms part of customary international law. | 国际法院指出，该条款构成习惯国际法的一部分。 |
| While originally conceived in the context of belligerent occupation, the clause has today a broader application, covering all areas of the law of armed conflict. | 尽管最初是在交战占领背景下构思的，但该条款如今有更广泛的适用范围，涵盖武装冲突法的所有领域。 |
| (2) The function of the Martens Clause is generally seen as providing residual protection in cases not covered by a specific rule. | (2) 马顿斯条款的作用通常被视为是在具体规则所不包括的情况下提供剩余保护。 |
| The International Court of Justice referred to the Martens Clause in Its Advisory Opinion on the Legality of Nuclear Weapons to strengthen the argument about the applicability of international humanitarian law to the threat or use of nuclear weapons. | 国际法院为加强其关于国际人道法是否适用于以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器问题的论点，曾在其核武器合法性咨询意见中提到马顿斯条款。 |
| Similarly, the ICRC Commentary to Geneva Convention I mentioned, as a dynamic aspect of the clause, that it confirms “the application of the principles and rules of humanitarian law to new situations or to developments in technology, also when those are not, or not specifically, addressed in treaty law”. | 同样，红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第一公约》的评注提到，该条款的一个积极方面是，它确认“人道主义法的原则和规则适用于新的形势或技术发展，同时也适用于条约法未涉及或未明确涉及的情况”。 |
| The clause thus prevents the argument that any means or methods of warfare that are not explicitly prohibited by the relevant treaties are permitted, or, in a more general manner, that acts of war not expressly addressed by treaty law, customary international law, or general principles of law, are ipso facto legal. | 因此，该条款可以防止下列论点，即相关条约 未明确禁止的任何战争手段或方法都是允许的，或更笼统而言，条约法、习惯国际法或一般法律原则未明确阐述的战争行为事实上都是合法的。 |
| (3) Further than that, however, views differ as to the legal consequences of the Martens Clause. | (3) 然而，除此之外，对马顿斯条款的法律后果存在不同的看法。 |
| It has been seen as a reminder of the role of customary international law in the absence of applicable treaty law, and of the continued validity of customary law beside treaty law. | 该条款被视为提醒人们注意习惯国际法在没有适用的条约法的情况下所应发挥的作用以及除条约法之外习惯法也具有持续有效性。 |
| The Martens Clause has also been seen to provide additional interpretative guidance “whenever the legal regulation provided by a treaty or customary rule is doubtful, uncertain or lacking in clarity”. | 马顿斯条款也被视为“在条约或习惯规则所提供的法律规定有疑问、不确定或缺乏明确性的任何时候”提供额外的解释性指导。 |
| A further interpretation links the Martens Clause to a method of identifying customary international law in which particular emphasis is given to opinio juris. | 还有一种解读将马顿斯条款与一种特别强调法律确信的识别习惯国际法的方法联系起来。 |
| The inclusion of the present draft principle in the set of draft principles does not mean, or imply, that the Commission is taking a position on the various interpretations regarding the legal consequences of the Martens Clause. | 将本项原则草案纳入这套原则草案并不意味着或暗示委员会对关于马顿斯条款法律后果的各种解读采取了某种立场。 |
| (4) Draft principle 12 is entitled “Martens Clause with respect to the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict”. | (4) 原则草案12的标题为“与武装冲突有关的环境保护方面的马顿斯条款”。 |
| The title draws attention to the environmental focus of the draft principle, the purpose of which is to provide subsidiary protection to the environment in relation to armed conflict. | 标题提请注意本项原则草案以环境为重点，其目的是提供辅助性的与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| (5) This is not the first time the Martens Clause has been invoked in the context of the protection of the environment in armed conflict. | (5) 这不是第一次在武装冲突保护环境方面援引马顿斯条款。 |
| The ICRC Guidelines on the Protection of the Environment in Armed Conflict of 1994 include a provision stating the following: “In cases not covered by international agreements, the environment remains under the protection and authority of the principles of international law derived from established custom, the principles of humanity and the dictates of public conscience. | 红十字国际委员会1994年《关于武装冲突中环境保护的准则》包括一项规定，内容如下：“在国际协定所未包括的情形下，环境仍受来源于既定习惯、人道原则和公众良心要求的国际法原则的保护和支配。 |
| ” In 1994, the General Assembly invited all States to disseminate the revised guidelines widely and to “give due consideration to the possibility of incorporating them into their military manuals and other instructions addressed to their military personnel”. | ” 1994年，联大请所有国家广为传播订正准则，并“适当考虑将这些准则纳入发给其军事人员的军事手册和其他指南的可能性”。 |
| The second IUCN World Conservation Congress, furthermore, in 2000 urged Member States of the United Nations to endorse a policy reading as follows: | 此外，世界自然保护联盟2000年第二届世界自然保护大会促请联合国会员国核可一项政策，内容如下： |
| Until a more complete international code of environmental protection has been adopted, in cases not covered by international agreements and regulations, the biosphere and all its constituent elements and processes remain under the protection and authority of the principles of international law derived from established custom, from dictates of the public conscience, and from the principles and fundamental values of humanity acting as steward for present and future generations. | 在通过更为完整的国际环境保护法之前，在国际协定和条例所未包括的情形下，生物圈及其所有组成部分和进程仍受来源于既定习惯、公众良心要求以及各项原则和作为今世后代守护者的人类基本价值观的国际法原则的保护和支配。 |
| The recommendation was adopted by consensus and was meant to apply during peacetime as well as during armed conflicts. | 这项建议获得一致通过， 旨在适用于和平时期以及武装冲突期间。 |
| (6) The present draft principle follows the wording of the Martens Clause in Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions (art. 1, para. 2), which states: “In cases not covered by this Protocol or by other international agreements, civilians and combatants remain under the protection and authority of the principles of international law derived from established custom, from the principles of humanity and from the dictates of public conscience. | (6) 本项原则草案采用了《日内瓦四公约第一附加议定书》(第一条第二款)中“马滕斯条款”的措辞。 该款规定：“在本议定书或其他国际协定所未包括的情形下，平民和战斗员仍受来源于既定习惯、人道原则和公众良心要求的国际法原则的保护和支配。 ”。 |
| ” The Commission agreed that in particular the reference to “the dictates of public conscience”, as a general notion not intrinsically limited to one specific meaning, justified the application of the Martens Clause to the environment. | 委员会一致特别认为， “公众良心要求”是一般性概念，在本质上并不限于某个具体的含义，因此马滕斯条款有理由适用于环境。 |
| In this regard, reference can be made to the importance, as generally recognized, of environmental protection, as well as to the growth and consolidation of international environmental law. | 在这方面，可以参考环境保护公认的重要性以及国际环境法的发展和整合。 |
| More specifically, the understanding of the environmental impacts of conflict has developed considerably since the adoption of the treaties codifying the law of armed conflict. | 更具体而言，自旨在编纂武装冲突法的各项条约通过以来，对冲突的环境影响的了解已有很大发展。 |
| (7) Another essential component of the Martens Clause, the reference to “the principles of humanity”, displays a more indirect relationship to the protection of the environment. | (7) 马腾斯条款的另一个重要组成部分，即“人道原则”，显示了与环境保护更间接的关系。 |
| It has even been asked whether the environment can remain under the protection of “the principles of humanity”, given that the function of such principles is to specifically serve human beings. | 鉴于“人道原则”专门用于人类，甚至有人对环境是否仍能受到这些原则的保护怀有疑问。 |
| That reference was retained given that humanitarian and environmental concerns are not mutually exclusive, as pointed out by the International Court of Justice: “The environment is not an abstraction but represents the living space, the quality of life and the very health of human beings, including generations unborn”. | 鉴于人道关切和环境关切并不相互排斥，这一提法得到了保留，正如国际法院指出的：“环境不是一个抽象的概念，而是代表人类包括子孙后代的生活空间、生活质量甚至健康”。 |
| The intrinsic link between the survival of people and the environment in which they live has also been recognized in other authoritative statements. | 其他权威论述也承认人的生存与他们生活的环境之间的内在联系。 |
| Similarly, modern definitions of the environment as an object of protection do not draw a strict dividing line between the environment and human activities but encourage definitions that include components of both. | 同样，作为保护对象的环境的现代定义并未在环境与人类活动之间划出严格的界线，而是鼓励将两者的组成部分都纳入定义。 |
| Moreover, the retention of that notion was seen as appropriate to protect the integrity of the Martens Clause. | 此外，保留这一概念被认为是保护马腾斯条款完整性的适当做法。 |
| Additionally, the phrase “principles of humanity” can be taken to refer more generally to humanitarian standards that are found not only in international humanitarian law but also in international human rights law, which provides important protections to the environment. | 另外，“人道原则”这一短语可被理解为更笼统地指国际人道法和国际人权法 (载有重要的环境保护规定)中均涉及的人道主义标准。 |
| (8) As originally proposed by the Special Rapporteur, the draft principle included a reference to “present and future generations”. | (8) 特别报告员最初提出的本项原则草案中包含“今世后代”的提法。 |
| This reference was ultimately not retained so as to stay as close to the established language of the Martens Clause as possible. | 最终删除了这一提法，以便尽可能接近马腾斯条款的既定措辞。 |
| The view was also expressed that the term “public conscience” could be seen to encompass the notion of intergenerational equity as an important part of the ethical basis of international environmental law. | 还有意见认为，“公共良心”一词可被视为包含代际公平概念，这一概念是国际环境法道德基础的重要组成部分。 |
| (9) Draft principle 12 is located in Part Three containing draft principles applicable during an armed conflict. | (9) 原则草案12被列入第三部分，这部分载有武装冲突期间适用的原则草案。 |
| It also applies in situations of occupation. | 该原则草案也适用于占领局势。 |
| Principle 13 General protection of the natural environment during armed conflict | 原则13 武装冲突期间对自然环境的一般保护 |
| 1. The natural environment shall be respected and protected in accordance with applicable international law and, in particular, the law of armed conflict. | 1. 应按照适用的国际法，特别是武装冲突法，尊重和保护自然环境。 |
| 2. Care shall be taken to protect the natural environment against widespread, long-term and severe damage. | 2. 应注意保护自然环境免遭广泛、长期和严重的损害。 |
| 3. No part of the natural environment may be attacked, unless it has become a military objective. | 3. 除非自然环境成为军事目标，否则任何一部分都不得受到攻击。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 13 comprises three paragraphs which broadly provide for the protection of the natural environment during armed conflict. | (1) 原则草案13由三段组成，对武装冲突期间的自然环境保护作了大体上的规定。 |
| It reflects the obligation to respect and protect the natural environment, the duty of care and the prohibition of attacks against any part of the environment, unless it has become a military objective. | 这一原则体现的是尊重和保护自然环境的义务、加以注意的责任及除非环境成为军事目标，否则禁止攻击其中任何一部分的规定。 |
| (2) Paragraph 1 sets out the general position that in relation to armed conflict, the natural environment shall be respected and protected in accordance with applicable international law and, in particular, the law of armed conflict. | (2) 第1段规定的是，在武装冲突中应按照适用的国际法特别是武装冲突法尊重和保护自然环境这一一般立场。 |
| (3) The words “respected” and “protected” were considered fitting for use in this draft principle as they have been used in several law of armed conflict, international environmental law and international human rights law instruments. | (3) “尊重”和“保护”用在这一原则草案中被认为是恰当的，因为在若干武装冲突法、国际环境法和国际人权法文书中使用的都是这两个词。 |
| The International Court of Justice in its Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons held that “respect for the environment is one of the elements that go to assessing whether an action is in conformity with the principle of necessity” and that States have a duty “to take environmental considerations into account in assessing what is necessary and proportionate in the pursuit of legitimate military objectives”. | 国际法院在以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性咨询意见中认为，“对环境的尊重是评估某项行动是否符合必要性原则的要素之一”，各国有义务“在评估谋求合法军事目标的必要和相称代价时考虑到环境因素”。 |
| (4) As far as the use of the term “law of armed conflict” is concerned, it should be emphasized that traditionally there was a distinction between the terms “law of armed conflict” and “international humanitarian law”. | (4) 关于“武装冲突法”一语的使用，应当强调，“武装冲突法”与“国际人道法”这两个用语在传统上是有区别的。 |
| International humanitarian law could be viewed narrowly as only referring to the part of the law of armed conflict which aims at protecting victims of armed conflict; whereas the law of armed conflict can be seen as more of an umbrella term covering the protection of victims of armed conflict as well as regulating the means and methods of war. | 国际人道法可被看作是狭义的，仅指武装冲突法中以保护武装冲突受害者为目的的部分内容，而武装冲突法可被看作是更为宽泛的总括用语，既包括保护武装冲突的受害者，也包括对战争手段和方法的规范。 |
| The terms are often seen as synonyms in international law. | 这两个用语在国际法中经常被视为同义词。 |
| However, the term “law of armed conflict” was preferred due to its broader meaning and to ensure consistency with the Commission’s previous work on the draft articles on effects of armed conflict on treaties, in which context it was pointed out that the law of armed conflict also includes the law of occupation and the law of neutrality. | 但是，比较倾向使用的是“武装冲突法”，因为这个用语的含义较广，也是为了确保与委员会此前关于武装冲突对条约的影响的条款草案工作保持一致，关于这方面的工作，委员会指出，武装冲突法也包括占领法和中立法。 |
| The relationship between the present topic and the topic on the effects of armed conflict on treaties should be emphasized. | 本专题与武装冲突对条约的影响专题之间的关系应予以强调。 |
| (5) As far as the term “applicable international law” is concerned, it must be noted that the law of armed conflict is lex specialis during times of armed conflict, but that other rules of international law providing environmental protection, such as international environmental law and international human rights law, remain relevant. | (5) 关于“适用的国际法”这一用语，必须指出，武装冲突法是武装冲突期间的特别法，但国际环境法和国际人权法等规定保护环境的其他国际法的规则仍然相关。 |
| Paragraph 1 of draft principle 13 is therefore relevant during all three phases (before, during and after armed conflict) to the extent that the law of armed conflict applies. | 因此，在适用武装冲突法的所有三个阶段(武装冲突之前、期间和之后)，原则草案13第1段都始终相关。 |
| This paragraph highlights the fact that the draft principles are intended to build on existing references to the protection of the environment in the law of armed conflict together with other rules of international law in order to enhance the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict overall. | 该段突出反映的事实是，原则草案的目的是结合国际法的其他规则巩固武装冲突法中关于保护环境的现有内容，以便从整体上加强武装冲突期间对环境的保护。 |
| (6) Paragraph 2 is inspired by article 55 of Additional Protocol I, which provides the rule that care shall be taken to protect the environment against widespread, long term and severe damage in international armed conflicts. | (6) 第2段受到了《第一附加议定书》第五十五条的启发，该条规定的规则是，武装冲突期间应注意保护自然环境不受广泛、长期和严重地损害。 |
| The term “care shall be taken” should be interpreted as indicating that there is a duty on the parties to an armed conflict to be vigilant of the potential impact that military activities can have on the natural environment. | 对于“应注意”一语，应当解释为表示武装冲突当事各方有义务对军事活动可能对自然环境造成的潜在影响保持警惕。 |
| (7) Similar to article 55, draft principle 13 also uses the word “and” which indicates a triple cumulative standard. | (7) 与第五十五条相似，原则草案13也使用了“和”一词，表示三重叠加标准。 |
| However, draft principle 13 differs from article 55 as regards applicability and generality. | 但是，原则草案13在适用性和普遍性方面与第五十五条不同。 |
| First, draft principle 13 does not make a distinction between international and non-international armed conflicts, with the understanding that the draft principles are aimed at applying to all armed conflicts. | 首先，原则草案13对国际武装冲突和非国际性武装冲突未作区分，对此的理解是，原则草案的目标是适用于所有武装冲突。 |
| This includes international armed conflicts, understood in the traditional sense of an armed conflict fought between two or more States, as well as armed conflicts in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist régimes in the exercise of their right of self-determination; | 其中包括国际武装冲突，即传统地理解为两个或更多国家之间的武装冲突，以及人民行使自决权反抗殖民统治和外来占领及反对种族主义制度的武装冲突，也包括一国领土内国家与有组织武装集团之间或有组织武装集团相互之间的非国际性武装冲突。 |
| as well as non-international armed conflicts, which are fought either between a State and organized armed group(s) or between organized armed groups within the territory of a State. | (8) 《第一附加议定书》中没有界定“广泛”、“长期”和“严重”的含义。 |
| (8) The terms “widespread”, “long-term” and “severe” are not defined in Additional Protocol I. The same terms are used in the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques. | 《禁止为军事或任何其他敌对目的使用改变环境的技术的公约》(《改变环境技术公约》)使用了同样的用语。 |
| However, the Convention does not contain the triple cumulative requirement as required by Additional Protocol I, as it uses the word “or” instead of “and”, and also that the context of the Convention is far narrower than Additional Protocol I. | 但是，《改变环境技术公约》中没有《第一附加议定书》规定的三重叠加标准，而是用“或”代替了“和”，而且，《改变环境技术公约》的范围远比《第一附加议定书》窄。 |
| (9) Second, draft principle 13 differs from article 55 of Additional Protocol I in that it is of a more general nature. | (9) 第二，原则草案13与《第一附加议定书》第五十五条不同，具有更强的概括性。 |
| Unlike article 55, draft principle 13 does not explicitly prohibit the use of methods or means of warfare which are intended or may be expected to cause damage to the natural environment and thereby prejudice the health or survival of the population. | 原则草案13不像第五十五条，没有明确禁止使用旨在或可能预期对自然环境造成损害从而妨害居民健康或生存的作战方法或手段。 |
| Concerns that this exclusion may weaken the text of the draft principles should be considered in light of the general nature of the draft principles. | 关于这种排除可能会削弱原则草案案文的关切应结合原则草案的一般性来考虑。 |
| Paragraph 2 should be read together with draft principle 14, which deals with the application of principles and rules of the law of armed conflict to the natural environment with the aim of providing environmental protection. | 应当结合原则草案14阅读第2段，该项原则草案处理的是以保护环境为目标对自然环境适用武装冲突法原则和规则的问题。 |
| (10) Paragraph 3 of draft principle 13 is based on the fundamental rule that a distinction must be made between military objectives and civilian objects. | (10) 原则草案13第3段以必须区分军事目标和民用物体这一基本规则为依据。 |
| It underlines the inherently civilian nature of the natural environment.Paragraph 3 of draft principle 13 can be linked to article 52, paragraph 2, of Additional Protocol I, which defines the term “military objective” as: | 它强调了自然环境固有的民用性质。 可以把原则草案13第3段与《第一附加议定书》第五十二条第二款相联系，其中“军事目标”一语的定义为： |
| … [T]hose objects which by their nature, location, purpose or use make an effective contribution to military action and whose total or partial destruction, capture or neutralization, in the circumstances ruling at the time, offers a definite military advantage. | 由于其性质、位置、目的或用途对军事行动有实际贡献，而且在当时情况下其全部或部分毁坏、缴获或失去效用提供明确的军事利益的物体。 |
| The term “civilian object” is defined as “all objects which are not military objectives”. | “民用物体”的定义是，“所有不是军事目标的物体”。 |
| In terms of the law of armed conflict, attacks may only be directed against military objectives, and not civilian objects. | 按武装冲突法的用语说就是，只能攻击军事目标，不得攻击民用物体。 |
| There are several binding and non-binding instruments which indicate that this rule is applicable to parts of the natural environment. | 有若干约束性和非约束性文书都表明，这条规则适用于部分自然环境。 |
| (11) Paragraph 3 is, however, temporally qualified with the words “has become”, which emphasizes that this rule is not absolute: the environment may become a military objective in certain instances, and could thus be lawfully targeted. | (11) 不过，第3段用“成为”一词做了时间上的限定，强调这一规则不是绝对性的：在某些情况下环境有可能变成军事目标，因而对之实施攻击也就可能是合法的。 |
| (12) Paragraph 3 is based on the first paragraph of rule 43 of the ICRC study on customary international humanitarian law. | (12) 第3段以红十字国际委员会关于习惯国际人道法的研究报告规则43第1段为基础。 |
| However, the other parts of rule 43 were not included in its current formulation, which raised some concerns. | 但是，由于规则43的其他部分引起了某些关切，所以没有列入目前的草案措辞。 |
| In this regard, it is useful to reiterate that the draft principles are general in nature. | 关于这个问题，重申原则草案属于一般性质是有益的。 |
| Accordingly, both paragraph 2 and paragraph 3 must be read together with draft principle 14, which specifically references the application of the law of armed conflict rules and principles of distinction, proportionality, military necessity and precautions in attack. | 因此，第2段和第3段必须同原则草案14一并解读，其中具体提到了攻击行动中适用关于区别、相称性、军事必要性和预防措施的武装冲突法规则和原则的问题。 |
| (13) Draft principle 13 strikes a balance: creating guiding principles for the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict without reformulating rules and principles already recognized by the law of armed conflict. | (13) 原则草案13达成了一种平衡，一方面要建立起关于武装冲突期间的环境保护指导原则，另一方面又要不改写已经得到武装冲突法承认的规则和原则。 |
| Principle 14 Application of the law of armed conflict to the natural environment | 原则14 对自然环境适用武装冲突法 |
| The law of armed conflict, including the principles and rules on distinction, proportionality, military necessity and precautions in attack, shall be applied to the natural environment, with a view to its protection. | 应对自然环境适用武装冲突法，包括关于区分、相称性、军事必要性和攻击中采取预防措施的原则和规则，以期保护自然环境。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 14 is entitled “Application of the law of armed conflict to the natural environment” and deals with the application of principles and rules of the law of armed conflict to the natural environment with a view to its protection. | (1) 原则草案14的标题是“对自然环境适用武装冲突法”，处理的问题是，对自然环境适用武装冲突法的原则和规则，以期保护自然环境。 |
| Draft principle 14 is placed in Part Two of the draft principles indicating that it is intended to apply during armed conflict. | 把原则草案14放在原则草案的第二部分表明，意图是要在武装冲突期间适用。 |
| The overall aim of the draft principle is to strengthen the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict, and not to reaffirm the law of armed conflict. | 这项原则草案的总体目标是在武装冲突期间加强对环境的保护，并不是要重申武装冲突法。 |
| (2) The words “law of armed conflict” were chosen instead of “international humanitarian law” for the same reasons explained in the commentary on draft principle 13. | (2) 选用“武装冲突法”一词而不是“国际人道法”，其中的原因与关于原则草案13的评注中所作的解释相同。 |
| The use of this term also highlights the fact that draft principle 14 deals exclusively with the law of armed conflict as lex specialis, and not other branches of international law. | 使用这一用语还突出表明，原则草案14处理的仅仅是作为特别法的武装冲突法，而不是国际法的其他分支。 |
| (3) Draft principle 14 lists some specific principles and rules of the law of armed conflict, namely the principles and rules of distinction, proportionality, military necessity and precautions in attack. | (3) 原则草案14提到了武装冲突法的一些具体原则和规则，即关于区分、相称性、军事必要性和攻击中采取预防措施的原则和规则。 |
| The draft principle itself is of a general character and does not elaborate on how these well-established principles and rules under the law of armed conflict should be interpreted. | 这一原则草案本身属于一般性质，并没有阐述应当如何解释这些在武装冲突法之下明确订立的原则和规则。 |
| They are explicitly included in draft principle 14 because they have been identified as being the most relevant principles and rules relating to the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict. | 将这些原则和规则明文列入原则草案14, 是因为认为它们是与武装冲突期间保护环境最为相关的原则和规则。 |
| However, this reference should not be interpreted as indicating a closed list, as all other rules under the law of armed conflict which relate to the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict remain applicable and cannot be disregarded. | 但是，不应当把提及这些原则和规则解释为提出了一个封闭式的清单，因为武装冲突法之下与武装冲突期间保护环境有关的其他规则仍然适用，不得忽视。 |
| (4) One of the cornerstones of the law of armed conflict is the principle of distinction which obliges parties to an armed conflict to distinguish between civilian objects and military objectives at all times, and that attacks may only be directed against military objectives. | (4) 区分原则是武装冲突法的基石之一， 规定武装冲突当事各方有义务始终将民用物体与军事目标区别开来，只能攻击军事目标。 |
| This is considered a rule under customary international law, applicable in both international and non-international armed conflict. | 这被视为习惯国际法下的一条规则，既适用于国际武装冲突，也适用于非国际性武装冲突。 |
| As explained in the commentary on draft principle 13, the natural environment is not intrinsically military in nature and should be treated as a civilian object. | 如关于原则草案13的评注所解释，自然环境并不具备内在的军事性质，应当作为民用物体对待。 |
| However, there are certain circumstances in which parts of the environment may become a military objective, in which case such parts may be lawfully targeted. | 然而，在某些情况下，环境的某些部分可能会成为军事目标，在这种情况下对此种部分实施攻击就可能是合法的。 |
| (5) The principle of proportionality establishes that an attack against a legitimate military target is prohibited if it may be expected to cause incidental damage to civilians or civilian objects, which would be excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated. | (5) 相称性原则规定，如果可以预期对合法军事目标的攻击会对平民或平民物体造成附带损害，超出预期达到的具体和直接军事优势的范围，则受到限制。 |
| (6) The principle of proportionality is an important rule under the law of armed conflict also because of its relation to the rule of military necessity. | (6) 相称性原则是武装冲突法之下的一条重要规则，原因还在于这条规则与军事必要性规则之间的联系。 |
| It is codified in several instruments of the law of armed conflict, and the International Court of Justice has also recognized its applicability in its Advisory Opinion on Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons. | 这条规则编纂入了若干武装冲突法文书，国际法院在以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性咨询意见 中也承认了这条规则的适用性。 |
| It is considered a rule under customary international law, applicable in both international and non-international armed conflict. | 这被视为习惯国际法的一条规则，适用于国际武装冲突和非国际武装冲突两者。 |
| (7) As the environment is often indirectly rather than directly affected by armed conflict, rules relating to proportionality are of particular importance in relation to the protection of the natural environment in armed conflict. | (7) 由于环境受到的武装冲突影响往往是间接的而不是直接的，关于相称性的规则在武装冲突期间保护自然环境方面就特别重要。 |
| The particular importance of the principle of proportionality in relation to the protection of the natural environment in armed conflict has been emphasized by the ICRC customary law study, which found that the potential effect of an attack on the environment needs to be assessed. | 红十字国际委员会的习惯法研究报告强调了相称性原则对于武装冲突期间保护自然环境的特殊重要性，认为需要评估攻击行动对环境的潜在影响。 |
| (8) If the rules relating to proportionality are applied in relation to the protection of the natural environment, it means that attacks against legitimate military objectives must be refrained from if such an attack would have incidental environmental effects that exceed the value of the military objective in question. | (8) 如果在保护自然环境方面适用关于相称性的规则，则意味着，如果对合法军事目标的攻击会对环境造成超出所涉军事目标价值的附带影响，就必须避免实施此种攻击。 |
| On the other hand, the application of the principle of proportionality also means that “if the target is sufficiently important, a greater degree of risk to the environment may be justified”. | 另一方面，适用相称性原则也意味着“如果目标足够重要，可能有理由加大对环境构成的风险程度”。 |
| It therefore accepts that “collateral damage” to the natural environment may be lawful in certain instances. | 因此，这条规则接受，在某些情况下自然环境受到的“附带损害”可能是法律许可的。 |
| (9) Under the law of armed conflict, military necessity allows “measures which are actually necessary to accomplish a legitimate military purpose and are not otherwise prohibited”. | (9) 根据武装冲突法的规定，出于军事必要可以采取“确为实现合法军事目的所需、且未以其他方式受到禁止的措施”。 |
| It means that an attack against a legitimate military objective which may have negative environmental effects will only be allowed if such an attack is actually necessary to accomplish a specific military purpose and is not covered by the prohibition against the employment of methods or means of warfare which are intended, or may be expected, to cause widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment, or other relevant prohibitions, and meets the criteria contained in the principle of proportionality. | 这意味着对合法军事目标的攻击，如果可能对环境产生不利影响，只有在此攻击确为实现具体军事目的所需，且不在禁止使用旨在或可能对自然环境造成广泛、长期和严重损害的作战方法或手段的禁令的范围内， 不在其他禁令范围内，并且符合相称性原则所含各项标准的情况下， 才允许实施。 |
| (10) The rule concerning precautions in attack lays out that care must be taken to spare the civilian population, civilians and civilian objects from harm during military operations; | (10) 关于攻击时采取预防措施的规则规定，军事行动中必须注意不损害平民居民、平民和民用物体； |
| and also that all feasible precautions must be taken to avoid and minimize incidental loss of civilian life, injury to civilians as well as damage to civilian objects which may occur. | 还须采取一切可行的预防措施，避免并尽可能减少附带造成平民死亡、受伤以及民用物体受损害的情况。 |
| The rule is codified in several instruments of the law of armed conflict and is also considered to be a customary international law rule in both international and non-international armed conflict. | 此规则已写入若干关于武装冲突的法律文书，而且被视为国际性和非国际性武装冲突中的习惯国际法规则。 |
| (11) The fundamental rule concerning precautions in attack obliges parties to an armed conflict to take all feasible precautions in planning and deciding an attack. | (11) 关于攻击时采取预防措施的基本规则要求武装冲突各方在计划和决定攻击时采取一切可行的预防措施。 |
| Therefore in relation to the protection of the environment, it means that parties to an armed conflict are obliged to take all feasible precautions to avoid and minimize collateral environmental damage. | 因此，在环境保护方面，这意味着武装冲突各方必须采取一切可行的预防措施，避免并尽可能减少对环境的附带损害。 |
| (12) Lastly, the words “shall be applied to the natural environment, with a view to its protection” introduces an objective which those involved in armed conflict or military operations should strive towards, and thus it goes further than simply affirming the application of the rules of armed conflict to the environment. | (12) 最后，“应对自然环境适用…，以期保护环境”这段话为卷入武装冲突或军事行动的各方树立了应力争达到的目标，从而比仅仅申明对环境适用武装冲突规则更进了一步。 |
| Principle 15 Environmental considerations | 原则15 环境因素 |
| Environmental considerations shall be taken into account when applying the principle of proportionality and the rules on military necessity. | 适用相称性原则和军事必要性规则时，应考虑环境因素。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 15 is entitled “Environmental considerations” and provides that environmental considerations shall be taken into account when applying the principle of proportionality and the rules on military necessity. | (1) 原则草案15的标题是“环境因素”，规定在适用相称性原则和军事必要性规则时，应考虑环境因素。 |
| (2) The text is drawn from and inspired by the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, which held that: “States must take environmental considerations into account when assessing what is necessary and proportionate in the pursuit of legitimate military objectives. | (2) 此案文源自国际法院以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性咨询意见，并受到了它的启发。 该咨询意见认为：“国家在追求合法的军事目标而估量什么手段是必要和相称时，必须考虑到环境因素。 |
| Respect for the environment is one of the elements that goes into assessing whether an action is in conformity with the principles of necessity and proportionality”. | 在估量一项行动是否符合必要和相称的原则时，尊重环境是必须考虑的因素之一”。 |
| (3) Draft principle 15 is closely linked with draft principle 14. | (3) 原则草案15与原则草案14密切相关。 |
| The added value of this draft principle in relation to draft principle 14 is that it provides specificity with regard to the application of the principle of proportionality and the rules of military necessity. It is therefore of operational importance. | 这项原则草案较原则草案14增加的内容是，它在适用相称性原则和军事必要性规则方面提供了具体说明，因此具有实际操作意义。 |
| However, a view was expressed that it should be deleted altogether. | 然而，有一种意见认为应将其完全删除。 |
| (4) Draft principle 15 aims to address military conduct and does not deal with the process of determining what constitutes a military objective as such. | (4) 原则草案15旨在处理军事行为，而不涉及确定何为军事目标的过程本身。 |
| This is already regulated under the law of armed conflict, and is often reflected in military manuals and domestic law of States. | 这一过程已由武装冲突法加以规范，军事手册和各国国内法也经常有所反映。 |
| The words “when applying the principle” were specifically chosen to make this point clear. | 为明确这一点，特别选用了“适用原则时”的措辞。 |
| Also for purposes of clarity and in order to emphasize the link between draft principles 14 and 15, it was decided to refer explicitly to the principle of proportionality and the rules on military necessity. | 为明确起见，同时为了强调原则草案14与原则草案15之间的关联，委员会决定明确提及相称性原则和军事必要性规则。 |
| These principles have been discussed in the commentary to draft principle 14 above. | 上文原则草案14的评注部分已对这些原则进行了讨论。 |
| (5) Draft principle 15 becomes relevant once the legitimate military objective has been identified. | (5) 一旦确认了合法军事目标，原则草案15便具有相关性。 |
| Since knowledge of the environment and its eco-systems is constantly increasing, better understood and more widely accessible to humans, it means that environmental considerations cannot remain static over time, they should develop as human understanding of the environment develops. | 由于人类对环境及其生态系统的认知不断增加、深入和普及，这意味着随着时间的推移，环境因素不可能一成不变，而应当随着人类对环境的认知的发展而发展。 |
| Principle 16 Prohibition of reprisals | 原则16 禁止报复 |
| Attacks against the natural environment by way of reprisals are prohibited. | 禁止作为报复而对自然环境进行攻击。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 16 is entitled “Prohibition of reprisals” and is identical to paragraph 2 of article 55 of Additional Protocol I. | (1) 原则草案16的标题是“禁止报复”，其内容与《第一附加议定书》第五十五条第二款相同。 |
| (2) Although the draft principle on the prohibition of reprisals against the natural environment was welcomed and supported by some members, other members raised several issues concerning its formulation and were of the view that it should not have been included in the draft principles at all. | (2) 虽然禁止针对自然环境进行报复的原则草案得到一些委员的欢迎和支持，但另一些委员就其表述方式提出了几个问题，认为根本不应将其纳入原则草案。 |
| The divergent views centred around three main points: (a) the link between draft principle 16 and article 51 of Additional Protocol I; | 不同意见主要集中在三点：(a) 原则草案16与《第一附加议定书》第五十一条之间的关联； |
| (b) whether or not the prohibition of reprisals against the environment reflected customary law; | (b) 禁止针对环境进行报复是否体现了习惯法； |
| and (c) if so, whether both international and non-international armed conflicts were covered by such a customary law rule. | (c) 如果是，那么此习惯法规则是否涵盖了国际性和非国际性武装冲突。 |
| (3) Those who expressed support for the inclusion of the draft principle stressed the link between draft principle 16 and article 51 of Additional Protocol I. In their view, article 51 (which is placed under the section “General protection against effects of hostilities”) is one of the most fundamental articles of Additional Protocol I. It codifies the customary rule that civilians must be protected against danger arising from hostilities, and, in particular, also provides that “attacks against the civilian population or civilians by way of reprisals are prohibited”. | (3) 表示支持纳入这项原则草案的委员强调原则草案16与《第一附加议定书》第五十一条之间的关联。 他们认为，第五十一条(列在“防止敌对行动影响的一般保护”之下)是《第一附加议定书》最根本的条款之一。 这一条阐明了一项习惯法规则，即必须保护平民免遭敌对行动引发的危险，这一条还特别规定“作为报复对平民居民的攻击，是禁止的。 |
| This made the inclusion of draft principle 16 essential. | ” 因此，必须纳入原则草案16。 |
| In their view, if the environment, or part thereof, became an object of reprisals, it would be tantamount to an attack against the civilian population, civilians or civilian objects, and would thus violate the laws of armed conflict. | 他们认为，如果环境或其一部分成为报复的对象，则相当于攻击平民人口、平民或民用物体，从而违反了武装冲突法。 |
| (4) In this context, some members took the view that the prohibition of reprisals forms part of customary international law. | (4) 在这方面，一些委员认为禁止报复构成习惯国际法的部分内容。 |
| However, other members questioned the existence of this rule, and were of the view that the rule exists only as a treaty obligation under Additional Protocol I. | 但是其他委员质疑是否存在这一规则，认为此规则仅作为《第一附加议定书》之下的条约义务存在。 |
| (5) Concerns were raised that including draft principle 16 as a copy of article 55, paragraph 2, of Additional Protocol I risked the draft principles going against their main aim, which is to apply generally. | (5) 有人关切地指出，纳入仿效《第一附加议定书》第五十五条第二款的原则草案16, 有可能使原则草案与其普遍适用的宗旨背道而驰。 |
| Although Additional Protocol I is widely ratified and thus the prohibition of reprisals against the environment is recognized by many States, Additional Protocol I is not universally ratified. | 虽然《第一附加议定书》已被广泛批准，从而使禁止针对环境进行报复的禁令得到多国承认，但是《第一附加议定书》并未得到普遍批准。 |
| Some members were concerned that reproducing article 55, paragraph 2, verbatim in draft principle 16 could therefore be misinterpreted as trying to create a binding rule on non-State parties. | 一些委员感到关切的是，在原则草案16中原样照搬第五十五条第二款可被误解为试图为非缔约国设置一条有约束力的规则。 |
| It was also pointed out in this regard that paragraph 2 of article 55 has been subject to reservations and declarations by some States parties. | 还有人就此指出，一些缔约国就第五十五条第二款做出了保留和声明。 |
| (6) It is therefore worth summarizing the position of article 55, paragraph 2 (as a treaty provision), as follows: the prohibition of attacks against the natural environment by way of reprisals is a binding rule for the 174 State parties to Additional Protocol I. The extent to which States have made declarations or reservations that are relevant to its application must be evaluated on a case by case basis, since only a few States have made an explicit reference to paragraph 2 of article 55. | (6) 因此，有必要对第五十五条第二款(作为条约条款)的立场做出如下小结：禁止作为报复而对自然环境进行攻击对于《第一附加议定书》174个缔约国是一项具有约束力的规则。 各国做出的与其适用有关的声明或保留的范围，必须逐一评价，因为只有几个国家明确提及第五十五条第二款。 |
| (7) Another contentious issue raised which merits discussion is the fact that there is no corresponding rule to article 55, paragraph 2, in common article 3 to the four Geneva Conventions or in Additional Protocol II which explicitly prohibits reprisals in non-international armed conflicts (including against civilians, the civilian population, or civilian objects). | (7) 另一个值得讨论的争议问题是，日内瓦四公约共同第三条和《第二附加议定书》中都没有与第五十五条第二款对应的规则，明确禁止在非国际性武装冲突中实施报复(包括报复平民、平民居民或民用物体)。 |
| The drafting history of Additional Protocol II reveals that at the time of drafting, some States were of the view that reprisals of any kind are prohibited under all circumstances in non-international armed conflicts. | 《第二附加议定书》的起草过程显示，起草时有些国家认为，在非国际性武装冲突的所有情况下均禁止任何报复。 |
| There are, however, also valid arguments that reprisals may be permitted in non-international armed conflicts in certain situations. | 然而，也存在有效论据，证明在非国际性武装冲突中，某些情况下可能允许报复。 |
| (8) In the light of this uncertainty, some members expressed concern that by not differentiating between the position in international armed conflicts and non-international armed conflicts, draft principle 16 would attempt to create a new international law rule. | (8) 鉴于这一不确定性，一些委员关切地指出，原则草案16没有区分国际性武装冲突和非国际性武装冲突中的立场，试图建立一项新的国际法规则。 |
| It was therefore suggested that the principle be redrafted with appropriate caveats, or excluded from the draft principles altogether. | 因此，有人建议重新起草这项原则，附带适当的限制条件，或将其完全排除在原则草案之外。 |
| (9) Concerning reprisals against the natural environment in particular, it is worth mentioning that the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia considered that the prohibition against reprisals against civilian populations constitutes a customary international law rule “in armed conflicts of any kind”. | (9) 关于专门针对自然环境的报复，值得一提的是，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭认为，“在任何类型的武装冲突中”，禁止报复平民人口均构成一条习惯国际法规则。 |
| As the environment should be considered as a civilian object unless parts of it becomes a military objective, some members expressed the view that reprisals against the environment in non-international armed conflicts are prohibited. | 环境应被视为民用物体，除非环境中的一部分成为军事目标； 因此，一些委员认为，非国际性武装冲突中禁止针对环境进行报复。 |
| (10) Given the controversy surrounding the formulation of this draft principle, various suggestions were made regarding ways in which the principle could be rephrased to address the issues in contention. | (10) 考虑到围绕这项原则草案的表述方式存在的争议，委员们就如何重新表述这项原则以解决争议问题提出了各种建议。 |
| However, it was ultimately considered that any formulation other than the one adopted could be interpreted as weakening the existing rule under the law of armed conflict. | 然而，委员们最终认为，除了已通过的案文，其他任何表述方式都可能被解释为削弱了武装冲突法之下的现有规则。 |
| This would be an undesirable result, given the fundamental importance of the existing rules of the law of armed conflict. | 鉴于武装冲突法现有规则至关重要，这样的结果并不可取。 |
| Despite the concerns raised during drafting, including a draft principle on the prohibition of reprisals against the natural environment was viewed as being particularly relevant and necessary, given that the overall aim of the draft principles is to enhance environmental protection in relation to armed conflict. | 尽管起草期间出现了令人关切的问题，但是委员们认为，纳入一项禁止针对自然环境进行报复的原则草案尤为重要和必要，因为原则草案的总体目标是加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| In the light of the comments made above, the inclusion of this draft principle can be seen as promoting the progressive development of international law, which is one of the mandates of the Commission. | 鉴于上述意见，可将纳入这项原则草案视为促进国际法的逐渐发展，而这是委员会的任务之一。 |
| Principle 17 Protected zones | 原则17 受保护区 |
| An area of major environmental and cultural importance designated by agreement as a protected zone shall be protected against any attack, as long as it does not contain a military objective. | 以协议方式指定为受保护区的具有重大环境和文化意义的地区，只要不包含军事目标，应保护其不受任何攻击。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) This draft principle corresponds with draft principle 4. It provides that an area of major environmental and cultural importance designated by agreement as a protected zone shall be protected against any attack, as long as it does not contain a military objective. | (1) 这项原则草案与原则草案4相呼应，规定以协议指定为受保护区的具有重大环境和文化意义的地区，只要不包含军事目标，应保护其不受任何攻击。 |
| Unlike the earlier draft principle, it only covers areas that are designated by agreement. | 不同于前面的原则草案4,这条草案仅涵盖以协议指定的地区。 |
| There has to be an express agreement on the designation. | 必须有明确的指定协议。 |
| Such an agreement may have been concluded in peacetime or during armed conflict. | 此协议可在和平时期或武装冲突期间缔结。 |
| The reference to the term “agreement” should be understood in its broadest sense as including mutual as well as unilateral declarations accepted by the other party, treaties and other types of agreements, as well as agreements with non-State actors. | “协议”一词应按最广泛的含义理解，包括共同声明和被另一方接受的单方面声明、条约和其他类型的协议，以及与非国家行为体的协议。 |
| Such zones are protected from attack during armed conflict. | 此类地区得到保护，在武装冲突期间不受攻击。 |
| The reference to the word “contain” in the phrase “as long as it does not contain a military objective” is intended to denote that it may be the entire zone, or only parts thereof. | 在“只要不包含军事目标”中使用“包含”一词，目的是表示它既可以是整个地区，也可以仅为其中的部分地区。 |
| Moreover, the protection afforded to a zone ceases if one of the parties commits a material breach of the agreement establishing the zone. | 此外，如果其中一方严重违反了设立受保护区的协议，则终止对该地区的保护。 |
| (2) As mentioned above, a designated area established in accordance with draft principle 4 may lose its protection if a party to an armed conflict has military objectives within the area, or uses the area to carry out any military activities during an armed conflict. | (2) 如上文所述，如果武装冲突一方在按照原则草案4设立的指定地区内设有军事目标，或在武装冲突期间利用该地区开展任何军事活动，该地区则可能失去保护。 |
| The term “military objective” in the present draft principle frames the description of military objectives as “so long as it does not contain a military objective”, which is different from draft principle 13, paragraph 3, which stipulates “unless it has become a military objective”. | 这项原则草案中“军事目标”一词出现的背景是“只要不包含军事目标”，有别于原则草案13第3段中规定的“除非成为军事目标”。 |
| The relationship between these two principles is that principle 17 seeks to enhance the protection established in draft principle 13, paragraph 3. | 这两项原则之间的关系是，原则17试图加强原则草案13第3段中确立的保护。 |
| (3) The conditional protection is an attempt to strike a balance between military, humanitarian, and environmental concerns. | (3) 有条件的保护是试图平衡处理军事、人道主义和环境关切。 |
| This balance mirrors the mechanism for demilitarized zones as established in article 60 of Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions. | 这种平衡体现了日内瓦公约《第一附加议定书》第六十条中设立的非军事化地带机制。 |
| Article 60 states that if a party to an armed conflict uses a protected area for specified military purposes, the protected status shall be revoked. | 第六十条规定，如果武装冲突一方将受保护地带用于具体的军事目的，则应取消该地带的受保护地位。 |
| (4) Under the 1954 Hague Convention referred to above, State parties are similarly under the obligation to not destroy property that has been identified as cultural property in accordance with article 4 of the Convention. | (4) 根据上文提到的1954年《海牙公约》，缔约国同样有义务避免破坏已依照《公约》第四条确定为文化财产的财产。 |
| However, the protection can only be granted as long as the cultural property is not used for military purposes. | 然而，只有文化财产不被用于军事目的时，才能给予保护。 |
| (5) The legal implications of designating an area as a protected area will depend on the origin and contents, as well as the form, of the proposed protected area. | (5) 指定某地区为受保护区所产生的法律影响，取决于拟议受保护区的来源和内容以及形式。 |
| For example, the pacta tertiis rule will limit the application of a formal treaty to the parties. | 例如，“条约不约束第三国”原则将限制正式条约对各方的适用。 |
| As a minimum, the designation of an area as a protected zone could serve to alert parties to an armed conflict that they should take this into account when applying the principle of proportionality or the principle of precautions in attack. | 指定一个地区为受保护区至少可以警示武装冲突各方，在适用相称性原则或攻击时采取预防措施的原则时，应考虑到这一点。 |
| In addition, preventive and remedial measures may need to be tailored so as to take the special status of the area into account. | 此外，还可能需要调整预防和补救措施，以便照顾该地区的特殊地位。 |
| Principle 18 Prohibition of pillage | 原则18 禁止掠夺 |
| Pillage of natural resources is prohibited. | 禁止掠夺自然资源。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) The purpose of draft principle 18 is to restate the prohibition of pillage as well as its applicability to natural resources. | (1) 原则草案18的目的是重申禁止掠夺以及这一规定对自然资源的适用性。 |
| Illegal exploitation of natural resources has been a driving force for many, in particular non-international, armed conflicts in recent decades, and has caused severe environmental strain in the affected areas. | 近几十年来，非法开采自然资源一直是许多武装冲突，特别是非国际性武装冲突的驱动因素， 并在受影响地区造成了严重的环境压力。 |
| In this context, the prohibition of pillage was identified as one of the provisions of the law of armed conflict that provide protection to the environment in armed conflict. | 在此背景下，禁止掠夺被确定为武装冲突法的条款之一，为武装冲突中的环境提供保护。 |
| (2) Pillage is an established violation of the law of armed conflict and a war crime. | (2) 掠夺是一种得到确认的违反武装冲突法行为，也是一项战争罪。 |
| Geneva Convention IV contains an absolute prohibition of pillage, both in the territory of a party to an armed conflict, and in an occupied territory. | 《日内瓦第四公约》载有绝对禁止在武装冲突各方领土和被占领土内进行掠夺的规定。 |
| Additional Protocol II to the Geneva Conventions confirms the applicability of this general prohibition in non-international armed conflicts meeting the criteria set out in the Protocol and, in that context, “at any time and in any place whatsoever”. | 《日内瓦四公约第二附加议定书》确认，这一普遍禁令适用于符合《议定书》所列标准的非国际性武装冲突，而且，在这种情况下“无论何时何地”都是如此。 |
| The prohibition has been widely incorporated into national legislation as well as in military manuals. | 这项禁令已被广泛纳入国家法律以及军事手册中。 |
| There is considerable case law from both post-Second World War and modern international criminal tribunals confirming the criminal nature of pillage. | 第二次世界大战和现代国际刑事法庭也有相当多的判例证实掠夺的犯罪性质。 |
| The war crime of pillaging is also prosecutable under the Rome Statute, in both international and non-international conflicts. | 对于国际冲突和非国际性冲突中的掠夺战争罪，均可根据《罗马规约》提出起诉。 |
| The prohibition of pillage has been found to constitute a customary rule of international law. | 禁止掠夺被认定为构成习惯国际法规则。 |
| (3) According to the ICRC commentary, the prohibition applies to all categories of property, whether public or private. | (3) 根据红十字国际委员会的评注，这一禁令适用于所有类别的财产，无论是公共财产还是私人财产。 |
| The scope of the present draft principle is limited to the pillage of natural resources, which is a common phenomenon in armed conflicts, and one that leads to severe environmental impacts. | 本项原则草案的范围仅限于掠夺自然资源，这是武装冲突中的一种常见现象，会导致对环境的严重影响。 |
| While such pillage only applies to natural resources that can be subject to ownership and constitute “property”, this requirement is easily met for high-value natural resources. | 虽然这种掠夺只适用于涉及所有权并构成“财产”的自然资源，但高价值自然资源很容易满足这一要求。 |
| The prohibition covers pillage of natural resources, whether owned by the State, communities or private persons. | 这一禁令涵盖对国家、社区或私人拥有的自然资源的掠夺。 |
| The applicability of the prohibition of pillage to natural resources has been confirmed by the International Court of Justice, which found in the Armed Activities judgment, that Uganda was internationally responsible “for acts of looting, plundering and exploitation of the [Democratic Republic of the Congo]’s natural resources” committed by members of the Ugandan Armed Forces in the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. | 对掠夺自然资源的禁令的适用已得到国际法院的确认，国际法院在武装活动案判决中认定，乌干达对乌干达武装部队成员在刚果民主共和国境内实施的“抢掠、抢占和盗采[刚果民主共和国的]自然资源的行为”负有国际责任。 |
| (4) Pillage is a broad term that applies to any appropriation of property in armed conflict that violates the law of armed conflict. | (4) 掠夺是一个广义术语，适用于武装冲突中违反武装冲突法的任何占用财产行为。 |
| At the same time, the law of armed conflict provides a number of exceptions under which appropriation or destruction of property is lawful. | 同时，武装冲突法规定了一些例外情况，在这些例外情况下，占用或破坏财产是合法的。 |
| According to the ICRC commentaries, the prohibition of pillage covers both organized pillage and individual acts, whether committed by civilians or military personnel. | 根据红十字国际委员会的评注，禁止掠夺既包括有组织的掠夺，也包括个人行为， 无论是平民还是军事人员实施的行为。 |
| Acts of pillage do not necessarily involve the use of force or violence. | 掠夺行为未必涉及使用武力或暴力。 |
| (5) The terminology used for illegal appropriation of property, including natural resources, in armed conflict has not been consistent. | (5) 关于武装冲突中非法占用财产包括占用自然资源的术语并不一致。 |
| The International Court of Justice, in the Armed Activities judgment, referred to “looting, plundering and exploitation”, the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia referred to “plunder”, while the African Charter uses the term “spoliation”. | 国际法院在武装活动案判决中提到“抢掠、抢占和盗采(looting, plundering and exploita-tion)”， 《前南斯拉夫问题国际法庭规约》提及“劫掠”(plunder)， 而《非洲宪章》使用了“强夺”(spoliation)。 |
| Research shows, however, that the terms “pillage”, “plunder”, “spoliation” and “looting” have a common legal meaning and been used interchangeably by international courts and tribunals. | 然而，研究表明，“掠夺”、“劫掠”、“强夺”和“抢掠”等术语具有共同的法律含义，曾被国际性法院和法庭互换使用。 |
| The Nürnberg Judgment thus used “pillage” and “plunder” as synonyms. | 因此，纽伦堡法庭的判决将“掠夺”和“劫掠”当作同义词使用。 |
| While the post-Second World War jurisprudence preferred the term “spoliation”, it confirmed that the term was synonymous with “plunder”, which was the term appearing in Control Council Law No. 10. | 虽然第二次世界大战后的判例倾向于使用“强夺”一词，但也确认了该术语是《管制理事会第10号法》 中使用的“劫掠”一词的同义词。 |
| The jurisprudence of the modern international criminal courts and tribunals has further confirmed that “pillage”, “plunder” and “looting” all signify unlawful appropriation of public or private property in armed conflict. | 现代国际性刑事法院和法庭的判例进一步确认，“掠夺”、“劫掠”和“抢掠”都意味着在武装冲突中非法占用公共或私人财产。 |
| (6) The term “pillage” has been used in the Hague Regulations and Geneva Convention IV, Additional Protocol II and the Rome Statute. | (6) 《海牙章程》、《日内瓦第四公约》、《第二附加议定书》 和《罗马规约》 中使用了“掠夺”(pillage)一词。 |
| The Nürnberg Charter used the term “plunder”. | 《纽伦堡宪章》 使用了“劫掠”一词。 |
| The concept of pillage has been defined in the ICRC Commentaries to the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol II, as well as in the jurisprudence of the international criminal tribunals. | 红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦四公约》和《第二附加议定书》的评注以及国际刑事法庭的判例中对掠夺的概念作了定义。 |
| It has therefore been deemed appropriate to use the term “pillage” in the draft principle. | 因此，在原则草案中使用“掠夺”一词被认为是适当的。 |
| (7) Pillage of natural resources is part of the broader context of illegal exploitation of natural resources that thrives in areas of armed conflict and in post-armed conflict situations. | (7) 掠夺自然资源是在武装冲突地区和武装冲突后局势中猖獗发展的范围更广的非法开采自然资源行为的一部分。 |
| The Security Council and the General Assembly have drawn attention in this regard to the connections between transnational criminal networks, terrorist groups and armed conflicts, including in relation to illicit trade in natural resources. | 在这方面，安全理事会和联大提请注意跨国犯罪网络、恐怖主义团体和武装冲突之间的联系，包括与自然资源非法贸易有关的联系。 |
| Frequently characterized by poor governance, widespread corruption and weak protection of resource rights, post-armed conflict situations are vulnerable to exploitation through transnational environmental crime. | 冲突后局势的特点往往是治理不善、普遍腐败和对资源权利的保护薄弱，容易遭到通过跨国环境犯罪实施的盗采。 |
| “Illegal exploitation of natural resources”, as used in the relevant Security Council resolutions is a general notion that may cover the activities of States, non-State armed groups, or other non-State actors, including private individuals. | 安全理事会在相关决议 中使用的“非法开采自然资源”是一个一般性概念，可涵盖国家、非国家武装团体或其他包括个人在内的非国家行为体的活动。 |
| Accordingly, the notion may refer to illegality under international or national law. | 因此，这个概念可指国际法或国内法所指的非法性。 |
| While the notion of “illegal exploitation of natural resources” is partly overlapping with the concept of pillage, it has not been defined and may also refer to environmental crime, whether in times of armed conflict or in times of peace. | 虽然“非法开采自然资源”的概念与掠夺的概念部分重叠，但其概念尚未界定， 也可能指在武装冲突时期或和平时期的环境犯罪。 |
| This broader context underscores the application of the prohibition of pillage to natural resources. | 这种更广的范围强调，禁止掠夺的规定适用于自然资源。 |
| (8) Draft principle 18 is located in Part Three containing draft principles applicable during an armed conflict. | (8) 原则草案18被列入第三部分，这部分载有武装冲突期间适用的原则草案。 |
| It also applies in situations of occupation. | 这项原则草案也适用于占领局势。 |
| Principle 19 Environmental modification techniques | 原则19 改变环境的技术 |
| In accordance with their international obligations, States shall not engage in military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting or severe effects as the means of destruction, damage or injury to any other State. | 各国根据其国际义务，不得为军事或任何其他敌对目的使用具有广泛、长期或严重后果的改变环境的技术作为摧毁、破坏或伤害任何其他国家的手段。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 19 has been modelled on article 1, paragraph 1, of the 1976 Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques. | (1) 原则草案19以1976年《禁止为军事或任何其他敌对目的使用改变环境的技术的公约》第一条第1款为范本。 |
| The Convention prohibits military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting or severe effects. | 该《公约》禁止为军事或任何其他敌对目的使用具有广泛、长期和严重后果的改变环境的技术。 |
| Environmental modification techniques are defined in the convention as “any technique for changing – through the deliberate manipulation of natural processes – the dynamics, composition or structure of the Earth, including its biota, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere, or of outer space”. | 《公约》将改变环境的技术的定义是“任何通过蓄意操纵自然过程改变地球(包括其生物群、岩石圈、水气层和大气层)或外层空间的动态、组成或结构的技术”。 |
| The present draft principle uses the concept of environmental modification technique in the same sense. | 本项原则草案使用同样意义上的改变环境的技术概念。 |
| (2) The mention of international obligations in the draft principle refers to the treaty obligations of States parties to the Convention and, to the extent that the prohibition overlaps with a customary obligation that, according to the ICRC study on customary international humanitarian law, prohibits the use of the environment as a weapon, the obligations under customary international law. | (2) 本项原则草案中提到的国际义务指《公约》缔约国的条约义务，如果这一禁止规定与红十字国际委员会关于习惯国际人道法的研究报告规定的禁止将环境用作武器的习惯义务重叠，则指习惯国际法所指的义务。 |
| To quote the ICRC study, “there is sufficiently widespread, representative and uniform practice to conclude that the destruction of the natural environment may not be used as a weapon”, and this irrespective of whether the provisions of the Convention are themselves customary. | 引用红十字国际委员会研究：“有足够广泛、有代表性和统一的做法可以得出结论认为，对自然环境的破坏不得用作武器”，这与《禁止为军事或任何其他敌对目的使用改变环境的技术的公约》的规定本身是否是惯例无关。 |
| The ICRC Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed Conflict also contain a guideline based on articles I and II of the Convention. | 红十字国际委员会《关于武装冲突中环境保护的军事手册和指南准则》还载有基于《公约》第一条和第二条的准则。 |
| (3) The Convention does not spell out clearly whether the prohibition of the use of environmental modification techniques could be applicable in a non-international armed conflict. | (3) 该《公约》没有明确说明禁止使用改变环境的技术的规定是否可适用于非国际性武装冲突。 |
| The formulation of paragraph 1 of article I only prohibits environmental modification that causes damage to another State Party to the Convention. | 第一条第1款的表述仅禁止对《公约》另一缔约国造成损害的环境改变。 |
| It has been argued that this condition could nevertheless also be fulfilled in a non-international armed conflict provided that a hostile use of an environmental modification technique by a State in the context of such a conflict causes environmental or other damage in the territory of another State party. | 有人认为，这种情况在非国际性武装冲突中也可以实现，前提是一国在这种冲突中为敌对目的使用改变环境的技术在另一缔约国境内造成环境破坏或其他破坏。 |
| The environmental modification techniques addressed in the Convention – capable of causing “earthquakes, tsunamis, an upset in the ecological balance of a region, changes in weather patterns (clouds, precipitation, cyclones of various types and tornadic storms); | 《公约》所述改变环境的技术――能够引起“地震、海啸、某一地区生态丧失平衡、天气模式变化(云层、降水、各种气旋和龙卷风暴)； |
| changes in climate patterns; | 气候型态变化； |
| changes in ocean currents; | 洋流变化； |
| changes in the state of the ozone layer, and changes in the state of the ionosphere” – could well be expected to produce transboundary effects. | 臭氧层状态变化； 以及电离层状态变化”――很可能产生跨境影响。 |
| (4) The Convention only addresses the hostile or military use of environmental modification techniques by States, excluding hostile use of such techniques by non-State actors. | (4) 《公约》只涉及国家为敌对或军事目的使用改变环境的技术，不包括非国家行为体为敌对目的使用这种技术的情况。 |
| The ICRC study on customary international humanitarian law concludes that the prohibition of the destruction of the natural environment as a weapon is a norm of customary international law “applicable in international armed conflicts and arguably also in non-international armed conflicts”. | 然而，红十字国际委员会关于习惯国际人道法的研究报告得出结论认为，禁止将破坏自然环境作为一种武器的规定是一项“适用于国际武装冲突，也可以说适用于非国际性武装冲突”的习惯国际法规范。 |
| (5) Draft principle 19 has been located in Part Three, which contains draft principles applicable during armed conflict. | (5) 原则草案19被列入第三部分，这部分载有武装冲突期间适用的原则草案。 |
| This location reflects the most likely situations in which the Convention would be applied, even though the prohibition of the convention is broader, and also covers other hostile uses of environmental modification techniques. | 其位置反映了《公约》最有可能适用的情形，尽管《公约》规定的禁止范围更广，也涵盖为其他敌对目的使用改变环境的技术的行为。 |
| (6) The Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques deserves particular attention in the context of the present draft principles as the first and, so far, the only international treaty to specifically address means and methods of environmental warfare. | (6) 《禁止为军事或任何其他敌对目的使用改变环境的技术的公约》在本原则草案背景下值得特别关注，因为它是第一项也是迄今为止唯一一项专门论述环境战手段和方法的国际条约。 |
| The inclusion of draft principle 19 in the set of draft principles is without prejudice to the existing conventional or customary rules of international law regarding specific weapons that have serious impacts on the environment. | 将原则草案19列入这套原则草案不妨碍关于对环境具有严重影响的特定武器的现有国际法公约性规则或习惯规则。 |
| Part Four Principles applicable in situations of occupation | 第四部分 在占领局势下适用的原则 |
| Introduction | 导言 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) The three draft principles related to situations of occupation are placed in a separate Part Four. | (1) 与占领局势有关的三项原则草案列在单独的第四部分。 |
| The new category of draft principles is not intended as a deviation from the temporal approach chosen for the topic but as a practical solution reflecting the great variety of circumstances that may qualify as a situation of occupation. | 这个新的原则草案类别并不是为了偏离为本专题选择的分时段方法，而是作为一个务实的解决办法，反映可构成占领局势的多种情形。 |
| While military occupation under the law of armed conflict is a specific form of international armed conflict, situations of occupation differ from armed conflicts in many respects. | 虽然武装冲突法下的军事占领是国际武装冲突的一种具体形式， 但占领局势在许多方面不同于武装冲突。 |
| Most notably, occupations are typically not characterized by active hostilities and can even take place in situations in which the invading armed forces meet no armed resistance. | 最值得注意的是，占领通常不以积极敌对行动为特征，甚至可能发生在入侵武装部队未遇武装抵抗的情况下。 |
| A stable occupation shares many characteristics with a post-conflict situation and may with time even come to “approximating peacetime” conditions. | 稳定的占领与冲突后局势有许多共同特征，随着时间的推移，甚至可能出现“近似和平时期”的状况。 |
| Occupations can nevertheless also be volatile and conflict-prone. | 不过，占领也可能不稳定，易发生冲突。 |
| The Occupying Power may confront armed resistance during the occupation and even temporarily lose control of part of the occupied territory without this affecting the characterization of the situation as one of occupation. | 占领期间，占领国可能面临武装抵抗，甚至暂时丧失对部分被占领土的控制，但这并不影响对这一局势构成占领局势的定性。 |
| Furthermore, the beginning of an occupation does not necessarily coincide with the beginning of an armed conflict, nor is there any necessary concurrence between the cessation of active hostilities and the termination of an occupation. | 此外，占领开始时，武装冲突未必也恰好同时开始，现行敌对行动停止时，占领也未必同时终止。 |
| Parallels can therefore be drawn between occupations and armed conflicts, on the one hand, and occupations and post-conflict circumstances, on the other, depending on the nature of the occupation. | 因此，一方面，占领与武装冲突之间可能存在类似之处，另一方面，占领与冲突后局势也可能存在类似之处，这取决于占领的性质。 |
| (2) In spite of this variety, all occupations display certain common characteristics, namely that the authority over a certain territory is transferred from a territorial State, without its consent, to the Occupying Power. | (2) 尽管存在多种情形，但所有的占领都表现出某些共同特征，即管控某领土的权力未经领土国同意从领土国移交至占领国。 |
| The established understanding of the concept of occupation is based on article 42 of the Hague Regulations, which stipulates that a territory is considered occupied “when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army. | 对占领概念的既定理解以《海牙章程》第四十二条 为基础，这条规定，“领土如实际上被置于敌军当局的权力之下，即被视为被占领的领土。 |
| The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established and can be exercised. | 占领只适用于该当局建立并行使其权力的地域”。 |
| ” According to the judgment in Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo case, it was necessary “that the Ugandan armed forces in the [Democratic Republic of the Congo] were not only stationed in particular locations but also that they had substituted their own authority for that of the Congolese Government”. | 根据对刚果境内的武装活动案的判决，须“[刚果民主共和国]境内的乌干达武装部队不仅驻扎在特定地点，还以其自身权力取代刚果政府权力”。 |
| Authority in this context is a fact-based concept: occupation “does not transfer the sovereignty to the occupant, but simply the authority or power to exercise some of the rights of sovereignty”. | 在这种情况下，权力是一个以事实为基础的概念； 占领“并非向占领者移交主权，而仅是移交行使一些主权权利的权力”。 |
| (3) Once established in the territory of an occupied State, at least when the whole territory is occupied, the temporary authority of an Occupying Power extends to the adjacent maritime areas over which the territorial State is entitled to exercise sovereign rights. | (3) 一旦在被占领国领土确立了权力，至少是当整个领土被占领时，占领方的临时权力便延伸至领土国有权行使主权权利的毗邻海域。 |
| Similarly, the authority of the Occupying Power may extend to the airspace over the occupied territory and over the territorial sea. | 同样，占领方的权力可延伸至被占领土和领海的上空。 |
| Such authority underscores the obligation of the Occupying Power to take appropriate steps to prevent transboundary environmental harm. | 这种权力强调占领国有义务采取适当步骤，预防跨界环境损害。 |
| (4) The status of a territory as occupied is often disputed, including in situations in which the Occupying Power relies on a local surrogate, transitional government or rebel group for the purposes of exercising control over the occupied territory. | (4) 被占领土的地位往往有争议，包括占领方依靠当地代理人、过渡政府或叛乱团体对被占领土行使控制等情形。 |
| It is widely acknowledged that the law of occupation applies to such cases provided that the local surrogate acting on behalf of a State exercises effective control over the occupied territory. | 人们普遍承认，只要当地代理人代表一国行事，对被占领土行使有效控制，则占领法适用于这类情况。 |
| The possibility of such an “indirect occupation” has been acknowledged by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Court of Justice, and the European Court of Human Rights. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭、国际法院 和欧洲人权法院 都曾承认可能存在这种“间接占领”。 |
| (5) The law of occupation is applicable to situations that fulfil the factual requirements of effective control of a foreign territory irrespective of whether the Occupying Power invokes the legal regime of occupation. | (5) 无论占领方是否援用占领法制度，占领法均适用于满足有效控制外国领土的实际要求的所有局势。 |
| It also extends to territories with unclear status that are placed under foreign rule. | 其适用范围也延伸至处于外国统治下的地位不明的领土。 |
| Similarly, and in accordance with the fundamental distinction between jus ad bellum and jus in bello, the law of occupation applies equally to all occupations, whether or not they result from a use of force that is lawful in the sense of jus ad bellum. | 与此相同，并且鉴于诉诸战争权与战时法之间的根本区别，占领法平等适用于所有占领情形，无论占领是否源于诉诸战争权意义上的合法使用武力。 |
| The law of occupation may also be applicable to territorial administration by an international organization, provided that the situation meets the criteria of article 42 of the Hague Regulations. | 当情况符合《海牙章程》第四十二条的标准时，占领法也可能适用于国际组织管理某一领土的情形。 |
| Even where this is not the case, as in operations relying on the consent of the territorial State, the law of occupation may provide guidance and inspiration for international territorial administration entailing the exercise of functions and powers over a territory that are comparable to those of an Occupying Power under the law of armed conflict. | 即使情况并非如此，如在依赖领土国的同意的行动中，占领法也可为国际领土管理提供指导和启示，国际领土管理需要在某一领土上行使与武装冲突法中规定的占领方行使的职能和权力相当的职能和权力。 |
| The term “Occupying Power” as used in the present draft principles is sufficiently broad to cover such cases. | 本原则草案中使用的“占领方”一词足够宽泛，足以涵盖这种情况。 |
| (6) While the type and duration of occupation do not affect the applicability of the law of occupation as lex specialis, the obligations of the Occupying Power under the law of occupation are, to a certain extent, context specific. | (6) 虽然占领的类型和持续时间不影响占领法作为特别法的适用性，但占领法规定的占领方承担的义务在一定程度上视具体情况而定。 |
| As has been pointed in the ICRC commentary to common article 2 of the Geneva Conventions, negative obligations – mostly prohibitions – under the law of occupation apply immediately, whereas the implementation of positive obligations depends on “the level of control exerted, the constraints prevailing in the initial phases of the occupation, and the resources available to the foreign forces”. | 红十字国际委员会关于日内瓦四公约共同第二条的评注指出，根据占领法，消极义务(大多是禁止性的)立即适用，而积极义务的履行则取决于“控制的程度、占领初期存在的局限以及外国部队掌握的资源”。 |
| Certain flexibility is thus recognized in the implementation of the law of occupation, and the exact scope of the respective obligations depends on the nature and duration of the occupation. | 因此，在执行占领法时承认一定的灵活性，各自义务的确切范围取决于占领的性质和持续时间。 |
| In other words, the responsibilities falling on the Occupying Power are “commensurate with the duration of the occupation”. | 换言之，占领方承担的责任“与占领持续的时间相当”。 |
| Furthermore, while protracted occupations remain governed by the law of occupation, other bodies of law, such as human rights law and international environmental law, gain more importance as time goes by. | 此外，虽然长期占领仍须遵从占领法，但人权法和国际环境法等其他法律随着时间的推移会越来越重要。 |
| (7) Given the variety of different situations of occupation, the draft principles in Parts Two, Three and Five apply mutatis mutandis to situations of occupation. | (7) 鉴于存在各种不同的占领局势，第二、第三和第五部分的原则草案比照适用于占领局势。 |
| For instance, the draft principles in Part Two, which cover measures to be taken with a view to enhancing the protection of the environment in the event of an armed conflict, remain relevant whether or not an armed conflict takes place and whether or not it includes an occupation. | 例如，原则草案第二部分涵盖了在发生武装冲突时为加强环境保护而采取的措施，无论是否发生武装冲突，也无论是否发生占领，这些原则草案始终具有相关性。 |
| To the extent that periods of intense hostilities during an occupation are governed by the rules concerning the conduct of hostilities, the draft principles in Part Three concerning the protection of the environment in the “during” phase are directly relevant. | 占领期间一段时间的密集敌对行动遵从开展敌对行动的规则，从这个意义上说，第三部分中涉及在武装冲突“期间”保护环境的原则草案直接相关。 |
| Additionally, the environment of an occupied territory continues to enjoy the protection accorded to the environment during an armed conflict in accordance with applicable international law and as reflected in draft principle 13. | 此外，被占领土的环境继续享有适用的国际法规定的、原则草案13反映的在武装冲突期间为自然环境提供的保护。 |
| The draft principles in Part Five addressing post-armed conflict situations would primarily have relevance for situations of prolonged occupation. | 第五部分中关于武装冲突后局势的原则草案主要与长期占领的局势相关。 |
| For each part, the draft principles may require some adjustment, hence the phrase mutatis mutandis. | 对于每一部分，原则草案可能需要一些调整，因此采用了比照适用这一短语。 |
| Principle 20 General obligations of an Occupying Power | 原则20 占领方的一般义务 |
| 1. An Occupying Power shall respect and protect the environment of the occupied territory in accordance with applicable international law and take environmental considerations into account in the administration of such territory. | 1. 占领方应按照适用的国际法尊重和保护被占领土的环境，并应在管理此种领土时将环境因素纳入考虑。 |
| 2. An Occupying Power shall take appropriate measures to prevent significant harm to the environment of the occupied territory that is likely to prejudice the health and well-being of the population of the occupied territory. | 2. 占领方应采取适当措施，防止对被占领土的环境造成可能有损被占领土居民健康和福祉的重大损害。 |
| 3. An Occupying Power shall respect the law and institutions of the occupied territory concerning the protection of the environment and may only introduce changes within the limits provided by the law of armed conflict. | 3. 占领方应尊重被占领土关于环境保护的法律和制度，并仅可在武装冲突法规定的限制内予以改动。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Paragraph 1 of draft principle 20 sets forth the general obligation of an Occupying Power to respect and protect the environment of the occupied territory and to take environmental considerations into account in the administration of such territory. | (1) 原则草案20第1段规定，占领国有尊重和保护被占领土的环境以及在管理此种领土时将环境因素纳入考虑的一般义务。 |
| The provision is based on the Occupying Power’s obligation to take care of the welfare of the occupied population, derived from article 43 of the Hague Regulations which requires that the Occupying Power restores and maintains public order and security in the occupied territory. | 这一规定的依据是源自《海牙章程》第四十三条的占领方维护被占领居民福利的义务，该条要求占领方恢复并维持被占领土的公共秩序和安全。 |
| The obligation to ensure that the occupied population lives as normal a life as possible in the prevailing circumstances entails environmental protection as a widely recognized public function of the modern State. | 确保被占领人民在当前局势下尽可能正常生活的义务 需要履行环境保护这一得到广泛承认的现代国家公共职能。 |
| Moreover, environmental concerns relate to an essential interest of the territorial sovereign, which the occupying State as a temporary authority must respect. | 此外，环境方面的关切涉及领土主权的一项根本利益， 作为临时权力机构的占领国必须予以尊重。 |
| (2) The law of occupation is a subset of the law of armed conflict, and draft principle 20 shall be read in the context of draft principle 13, which provides that the “natural environment shall be respected and protected in accordance with applicable international law and, in particular, the law of armed conflict”. | (2) 占领法是武装冲突法的一个子集，应结合原则草案13来解读原则草案20, 原则草案13规定：“应按照适用的国际法，特别是武装冲突法，尊重和保护自然环境”。 |
| Both draft principles refer to the obligation to “respect and protect” the environment in accordance with applicable international law, although draft principle 20 does so in the more specific context of occupation. | 两项原则草案都提及按照适用的国际法“保护和尊重”环境的义务，但原则草案20更加具体地述及占领局势下的这种义务。 |
| (3) The term “applicable international law” refers, in particular, to the law of armed conflict, but also to the law of the environment and international human rights law. | (3) “适用的国际法”一词特别指的是武装冲突法，但也指环境法和国际人权法。 |
| Concurrent application of human rights law is of particular relevance in situations of occupation. | 人权法的同时适用与占领局势尤其相关。 |
| The International Court of Justice has notably interpreted respect for the applicable rules of international human rights law to be part of the obligations of the Occupying Power under article 43 of the Hague Regulations. | 国际法院曾有一条著名的解释，即尊重国际人权法中适用的规则，系《海牙章程》第四十三条规定占领国承担的部分义务。 |
| As for the application of environmental law, reference can be made to the 1996 Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons which provides important support to the claim that customary international environmental law and treaties on the protection of the environment continue to apply in situations of armed conflict. | 关于环境法的适用，可以参考国际法院1996年以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性咨询意见，该咨询意见为习惯国际环境法和关于环境保护的条约继续适用于武装冲突局势的主张提供了重要的支持。 |
| Similarly, the Commission’s 2011 articles on the effects of armed conflicts on treaties indicate that treaties relating to the international protection of the environment, treaties relating to international watercourses or aquifers, and multilateral law-making treaties may continue in operation during armed conflict. | 同样，委员会2011年关于武装冲突对条约的影响的条款表明，关于对环境进行国际保护的条约、关于国际水道或含水层的条约以及多边造法条约可在武装冲突期间继续施行。 |
| Furthermore, to the extent that multilateral environmental agreements address environmental problems that have a transboundary nature, or a global scope, and the treaties have been widely ratified, it may be difficult to conceive of suspension only between the parties to a conflict. | 此外，若此类条约针对具有跨界性质或全球范围的环境问题，且条约获得广泛批准，可能难以想象仅在冲突各方之间中止施行。 |
| Obligations established under such treaties protect a collective interest and are owed to a wider group of States than the ones involved in the conflict or occupation. | 此类条约规定的义务是为了保护集体利益，是对冲突或占领所涉国家以外的更大范围的多个国家承担的义务。 |
| (4) Paragraph 1 is also related to draft principle 15 entitled “Environmental considerations”. | (4) 第1段也与标题为“环境因素”的原则草案15有关。 |
| The reference to environmental considerations in both provisions is drawn from and inspired by the advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice on Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons. | 这两项条款提到环境因素，都是借鉴国际法院以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性咨询意见并受到其启发。 |
| While the statement referred to in the commentary to draft principle 15 is related to the principle of proportionality and rules of military necessity, the Court also held more generally that “the existing international law relating to the protection and safeguarding of the environment … indicates important environmental factors that are properly to be taken into account in the context of the implementation of the principles and rules of the law applicable in armed conflict”. | 虽然原则15草案评注中提到的声明涉及相称性原则和军事必要性规则，但法院也更笼统地认为，“与保护和保障环境有关的现有国际法表明，在落实武装冲突中适用的国际法原则和规则时，应当适当考虑重要的环境因素”。 |
| The Arbitral Tribunal, furthermore, has stated that “where a State exercises a right under international law within the territory of another State, considerations of environmental protection also apply”. | 此外，仲裁法庭指出，“若一国在另一国领土内行使国际法下的权利，则也适用环境保护考虑因素”。 |
| The term “environmental considerations” as used in paragraph 1 is comparable to the phrases “environmental factors” or “considerations of environmental protection” in that it does not have a specific content. | 第1段中使用的“环境因素(environmental considerations)”一词与“环境因素(environmental factors)”或“环境保护因素(considerations of environmental protection)”类似，因为它没有具体内容。 |
| It is a generic notion that is widely used but rarely defined. | 这是一个广为使用但很少被定义的通用概念。 |
| Furthermore, environmental considerations are context dependent and evolving: they cannot remain static over time but have to reflect the development of the human understanding of the environment and its ecosystems. | 此外，环境因素是与环境相关 和不断演变的：随着时间的推移，它们不能一成不变，而是必须反映人类对环境及其生态系统的认知的发展。 |
| (5) Paragraph 2 provides that an Occupying Power shall take appropriate measures to prevent significant harm to the environment of the occupied territory that is likely to prejudice the health and well-being of the population of the occupied territory. | (5) 第2段规定，占领方应采取适当措施，防止对被占领土的环境造成可能有损被占领土居民健康和福祉的重大损害。 |
| This provision should be read in the context of the general obligation in paragraph 1. | 这项规定应结合第1段中的一般义务解读。 |
| The purpose of paragraph 2 is to indicate that significant harm to the environment of an occupied territory may have adverse consequences for the population of the occupied territory, in particular with respect to the enjoyment of certain human rights, such as the right to life, right to health, or right to food. | 第2段的目的是表明对被占领土环境的重大损害可能对被占领土居民产生不利影响，特别是在享有某些人权方面，如生命权、健康权 或食物权。 |
| There is in general a close link between key human rights, on the one hand, and the protection of the quality of the soil and water, as well as biodiversity to ensure viable and healthy ecosystems, on the other. | 一般而言，关键人权与为保障有生命力的健康生态系统而保护土壤质量和水质、以及生物多样性这两方面之间存在着密切联系。 |
| (6) The formulation of paragraph 2 is based on article 55, paragraph 1, of Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions and international human rights law. | (6) 第2段的提法以《日内瓦四公约第一附加议定书》第五十五条第一款 和国际人权法为基础。 |
| Unlike article 55, paragraph 1, which refers to “the health or survival” of the population, the present paragraph uses the formulation “health and well-being”. | 第五十五条第一款提到居民的“健康和生存”，与此不同，本段使用了“健康和福祉”的提法。 |
| Reference can in this regard be made to the common objectives between economic, social and cultural rights, such as the right to health, on the one hand, and the law of occupation, on the other, such as the well-being of the population. | 在这方面，可以参考经济、社会及文化权利(如健康权)与占领法的共同目标，如居民的福祉。 |
| The notion of “health and well-being” is furthermore consistently used by the World Health Organization, which recalls that health and well-being affect both the society at present and future generations and are dependent on a healthy environment. | 此外，世界卫生组织一贯使用“健康和福祉”概念，该组织回顾指出，健康和福祉影响今世后代的社会，并有赖于健康的环境。 |
| Reference can also be made to the Stockholm Declaration, which reaffirms “the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being”. | 还可以参考《斯德哥尔摩宣言》，其中重申“在过着尊严和幸福生活的优良环境里享受自由、平等和适当生活条件的基本权利”。 |
| (7) As for the standard of “significant harm” in paragraph 2, reference can be made to the Commission’s earlier work on the prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities and the allocation of loss in the case of such harm. | (7) 关于第2段中“重大损害”的标准，可以参考委员会以前关于预防危险活动的跨界损害 和这种损害的损失分配 的工作。 |
| “Significant harm” is thus “something more than ‘detectable’ but need not be at the level of ‘serious’ or ‘substantial’”. | 因此，“重大损害”的程度超过‘可察觉’，但不必达到‘严重’或‘显著’的程度。 |
| Such harm must lead to real detrimental effects on the environment. | 这种损害必须是会对环境造成真实的有害影响。 |
| At the same time, “the determination of ‘significant damage’ involves both factual considerations and objective criteria, and a value determination”, which is dependent on the circumstances of the particular case. | 同时，“确定‘重大损害’既涉及事实考虑，也涉及客观标准，还涉及价值确定”，取决于具体情况。 |
| In the context of paragraph 2, harm that is likely to prejudice the health and well-being of the population of the occupied territory would amount to “significant harm”. | 在第2段的背景下，可能有损被占领土居民健康和福祉的损害将构成“重大损害”。 |
| The two phrases in paragraph 2 should thus not be read as two cumulative thresholds. | 因此，第2段中的两个短语不应理解为两个累积性的阈值。 |
| (8) Paragraph 2 refers to “the population of the occupied territory” in general terms. | (8) 第2段采用了“被占领土居民”这种一般性措辞。 |
| This wording has been aligned with article 55, paragraph 1, of Additional Protocol I, which refers to “population” without the qualifying adjective “civilian”. | 这一措辞与《第一附加议定书》第五十五条第一款相一致，该款提及“居民”，但没有限定形容词“平民”。 |
| This omission, according to the ICRC commentary, “serves to emphasize the fact that damage caused to the environment may continue for a long time and affect the whole population without any distinction”. | 根据红十字国际委员会的评注，这种措辞“有助于强调，对环境造成的损害可能会持续很长时间，并毫无差别地影响到全体居民”。 |
| Similarly, health and well-being affect society at present as well as future generations. | 同样，健康和福祉影响着今世后代。 |
| (9) Paragraph 3 of draft principle 20 provides that an Occupying Power shall respect the law and institutions of the occupied territory concerning the protection of the environment and may only introduce changes within the limits provided by the law of armed conflict. | (9) 原则草案20第3段规定，占领方应尊重被占领土关于环境保护的法律和制度，并仅可在武装冲突法规定的限制内予以改动。 |
| The term “law and institutions” is intended to also cover the international obligations of the occupied State. | “法律和制度”一语意在同时涵盖被占领国的国际义务。 |
| The paragraph is based on the last phrase of article 43 of the Hague Regulations, “while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the country”, as well as on article 64 of Geneva Convention IV. These provisions embody the so-called conservationist principle, which underlines the temporary nature of occupation and the need for maintaining the status quo ante. | 该段以《海牙章程》第四十三条最后一句“除非万不得已，应尊重当地现行的法律”以及《日内瓦第四公约》第六十四条 为基础。 这些规定体现了所谓的自然保护主义原则，强调占领的临时性和维持原状的必要性。 |
| (10) In spite of their strict wording, the two provisions have been interpreted to allow the Occupying Power the competence to legislate when necessary for the maintenance of public order and civil life and to change legislation that is contrary to established human rights standards. | (10) 虽然这两个条款措辞严格，但被解释为使占领国有权在对维护公共秩序和公民生活必要之时制定法律，并且有权修改违反既定人权标准的法律。 |
| The ICRC commentary to article 47 of Geneva Convention IV points out that some changes to the institutions “might conceivably be necessary and even an improvement” and explains that the object of the text in question was “to safeguard human beings and not to protect the political institutions and government machinery of the State as such”. | 红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第四公约》第四十七条的评注指出，对制度的某些修改“可以想象，是必要的，甚至是一种改善”，并解释说，所涉案文旨在“保护人类，而不是保护国家自身的政治制度和政府机构”。 |
| It is furthermore evident that “civil life” and “orderly government” are evolving concepts, comparable to the notions of “well-being and development”, or “sacred trust” which the International Court of Justice described in the Namibia Advisory Opinion as “by definition evolutionary”. | 此外，“公民生活”和“有秩序之统治”显然是不断演变的概念，与“福祉和发展”或“神圣之信托”的概念类似，国际法院在纳米比亚案咨询意见中将后两个概念称为“顾名思义是不断演变的”。 |
| The longer the occupation lasts, the more evident is the need for proactive action and to allow the Occupying Power to fulfil its duties under the law of occupation, including for the benefit of the population of the occupied territory. | 占领持续的时间越长，就越明显需要采取积极主动的行动，并使占领国能履行占领法规定的义务，包括满足被占领土居民的利益。 |
| At the same time, the Occupying Power is not supposed to take over the role of a sovereign legislator. | 与此同时，占领国不应取代主权立法机构发挥的作用。 |
| (11) Paragraph 3 takes into account that armed conflict may have caused significant stress on the environment of the occupied State and resulted in institutional collapse, which is a common feature of many armed conflicts, and recognizes that an Occupying Power may have to take proactive measures to address immediate environmental problems. | (11) 第3段考虑到，武装冲突可能对被占领国的环境造成重大压力，并可能造成体制崩溃，这是许多武装冲突的一个共同特点， 该段还承认，占领方可能必须采取积极主动的措施，处理迫切环境问题。 |
| The more protracted the occupation, the more diversified measures are likely to be required for the protection of the environment. | 占领持续时间越长，需要占领国为保护环境所采取的措施可能也就越多样。 |
| Furthermore, as the objectives of such proactive action are limited, it would be appropriate in a prolonged occupation to engage the population of the occupied territory in decision-making. | 此外，由于此类积极主动行动的目标有限，在长期占领的情况下，让当地居民参与决策进程是一种适当的做法。 |
| (12) While some active interference in the law and institutions concerning the environment of the occupied territory may thus be required, the Occupying Power may not introduce permanent changes in fundamental institutions of the country and shall be guided by a limited set of considerations: the concern for public order, civil life, and welfare in the occupied territory. | (12) 虽然可能因此需要对被占领土关于环境的法律和制度进行某些积极主动的干预，但是占领国不可对被占领土的根本制度实施永久性改变，并应以一定的考虑因素为指导：对被占领土的公共秩序、公民生活和福祉的关切。 |
| The phrase “within the limits provided by the law of armed conflict” in paragraph 3 also refers to article 64 of Geneva Convention IV. According to this provision, local laws may be changed when it is essential: (a) to enable the Occupying Power to fulfil its obligations under the Convention; | 第三段中“在武装冲突法规定的限制内”一语还参考了《日内瓦第四公约》第六十四条。 该条指出，在对以下方面必要时，可修改当地法律：(a) 使占领国得以履行在公约下所负之义务； |
| (b) to maintain the orderly government of the territory; | (b) 维持该地有秩序之统治； |
| or (c) to ensure the security of occupying forces or administration. | (c) 维持该地有秩序之统治。 |
| Principle 21 Sustainable use of natural resources | 原则21 自然资源的可持续利用 |
| To the extent that an Occupying Power is permitted to administer and use the natural resources in an occupied territory, for the benefit of the population of the occupied territory and for other lawful purposes under the law of armed conflict, it shall do so in a way that ensures their sustainable use and minimizes environmental harm. | 在占领方为了被占领土居民的利益和出于武装冲突法规定的其他合法目的而获准管理和利用被占领土内自然资源的情形下，其管理和利用方式应确保这些自然资源的可持续利用，并将对环境的损害减少至最低限度。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) The purpose of draft principle 21 is to set forth the obligations of an Occupying Power with respect to the sustainable use of natural resources. | (1) 原则草案21旨在规定占领方在可持续利用自然资源方面的义务。 |
| As indicated in the first part of the sentence, the draft principle applies “to the extent that an Occupying Power is permitted to administer and use the natural resources in an occupied territory”. | 正如该句第一部分所指出的那样，原则草案适用于“在占领方…获准管理和利用被占领土内自然资源的情形”。 |
| The phrase refers to the various limitations set forth by the law of armed conflict and other international law to the exploitation of the wealth and natural resources of the occupied territory. | 该短语参考了武装冲突法和其他国际法对利用被占领土财富和自然资源规定的各种限制。 |
| (2) The provision is based on article 55 of the Hague Regulations, which regards the Occupying Power “only as administrator and usufructuary” of immovable public property in the occupied territory. | (2) 该条款以《海牙章程》第五十五条为基础，该条认为占领国对其占领地内属于敌国的公共不动产“只是被视为管理者和收益的享用者”。 |
| This description has traditionally been interpreted to forbid “wasteful or negligent destruction of the capital value, whether by excessive cutting or mining or other abusive exploitation”. | 这种表述传统上被解释为禁止“以浪费或疏忽方式破坏资本价值，无论是过度砍伐还是采矿或其他滥用性开发”。 |
| A similar limitation deriving from the nature of occupation as temporary administration of the territory prevents the Occupying Power from using the resources of the occupied country or territory for its own domestic purposes. | 一个相似的限制源于占领作为对领土的临时管理的性质，不允许占领国将被占领国家或领土的资源用于其国内目的。 |
| Furthermore, any exploitation of property is permitted only to the extent required to cover the expenses of the occupation, and “these should not be greater than the economy of the country can reasonably be expected to bear”. | 此外，只有在支付占领费用所需的范围内，才允许利用财产，并且“这些不应超过该国经济可以合理预期的承受能力”。 |
| (3) The second sentence of the draft principle mentions explicitly that the Occupying Power’s administration and use of natural resources in the occupied territory may only be “for the benefit of the population of the occupied territory and for other lawful purposes under the law of armed conflict”. | (3) 原则草案第二句明确提到，占领国对被占领土自然资源的管理和使用只能是“为了被占领土居民的利益和出于武装冲突法规定的其他合法目的”。 |
| The reference to “the population of the occupied territory” is to be understood in this context in the sense of article 4 of Geneva Convention IV, which defines protected persons as “those who, at a given moment and in any manner whatsoever, find themselves, in case of a conflict or occupation, in the hands of a party to the conflict or Occupying Power of which they are not nationals”. | “被占领土居民”的提法在这里应理解为《日内瓦第四公约》第四条的含义，该条将受保护之人定义为“在冲突或占领之场合，于一定期间内及依不论何种方式，处于非其本国之冲突之一方或占领国手中之人”。 |
| (4) A further limitation that provides protection to the natural resources and certain other components of the environment of the occupied territory is contained in the general prohibition of destruction or seizure of property, whether public or private, movable or immovable, in the occupied territory unless such destruction or seizure is rendered absolutely necessary by military operations (or, with respect to seizure of movable public property, is necessary for military operations). | (4) 保护自然资源和某些其他环境组成部分的另一项限制规定是，普遍禁止破坏或扣押被占领土内的公共或私人动产或不动产，除非这种破坏或扣押是军事行动所绝对必要的(或扣押公共动产是军事行动所必要的)。 |
| The prohibition of pillage of natural resources is furthermore applicable in situations of occupation. | 禁止掠夺自然资源的规定也适用于占领局势。 |
| An “extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly” is also defined as a grave breach in article 147 of Geneva Convention IV (see also article 53) and as a war crime of “pillage” in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. | 《日内瓦第四公约》第一四七条(另见第五十三条)还将“无军事上之必要而以非法与暴乱之方式对财产之大规模的破坏与征收”定义为严重破坏公约行为，《国际刑事法院罗马规约》将这种行为定义为“掠夺”战争罪。 |
| (5) The principle of permanent sovereignty over natural resources also has a bearing on the interpretation of article 55 of the Hague Regulations. | (5) 对自然资源的永久主权这一原则也影响到对第《海牙章程》第五十五条的解释。 |
| According to this principle, as enshrined in both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, all peoples may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural wealth and resources without prejudice to any obligations arising out of international economic cooperation, based upon the principle of mutual benefit, and international law. | 根据《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》和《经济、社会及文化权利国际公约》所载的这一原则，所有人民得为他们自己的目的自由处置他们的天然财富和资源，而不损害根据基于互利原则的国际经济合作和国际法而产生的任何义务。 |
| In no case may a people be deprived of its own means of subsistence. | 在任何情况下不得剥夺一个人民自己的生存手段。 |
| The International Court of Justice has confirmed the customary nature of the principle. | 国际法院确认了该原则的习惯法性质。 |
| Similarly, the principle of self-determination may be invoked in relation to the exploitation of natural resources in territories under occupation, particularly in the case of territories that are not part of any established State. | 同样，在开发被占领土内自然资源方面，特别是在领土不属于任何已经建立的国家的情况下，可援引自决原则。 |
| (6) While the right of usufruct has traditionally been regarded as applicable to the exploitation of all kinds of natural resources, including non-renewable ones, the various limitations outlined above serve to curtail the Occupying Power’s rights to exploit the natural resources of the occupied territory. | (6) 虽然用益权历来被认为适用于包括不可再生资源在内各种自然资源的开发， 但上述各种限制限制了占领方开采被占领土自然资源的权利。 |
| These limitations are also reflected in the use of “permitted”. | 这些限制也反映在“获准”一词的使用上。 |
| (7) The last sentence of draft principle 21 addresses situations in which an Occupying Power is permitted to administer and use the natural resources in an occupied territory. | (7) 原则21草案最后一句述及占领方获准管理和使用被占领土自然资源的情况。 |
| It sets forth an obligation to do so in a way that ensures the sustainable use of such resources and minimizes environmental harm. | 它规定了一种义务，即管理和利用方式应确保这些资源的可持续利用，并将对环境的损害减少至最低限度。 |
| This requirement is based on the Occupying Power’s duty under article 55 of the Hague Regulations to safeguard the capital of public immovable property, which has for long been interpreted to entail certain obligations with regard to the protection of the natural resources in the occupied territory. | 这一要求以《海牙章程》第五十五条规定的占领国保护公共不动产资本的义务为依据，长期以来，这一规定一直被解释为在保护被占领土的自然资源方面承担某些义务。 |
| In the light of the development of the international legal framework for the exploitation and conservation of natural resources, environmental considerations and sustainability are to be seen as integral elements of the duty to safeguard the capital. | 鉴于开发和保护自然资源的国际法律框架的发展，环境因素和可持续性应被视为保护资本义务的组成部分。 |
| Reference can in this respect be made to the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros judgment, in which the International Court of Justice, in interpreting a treaty that predated certain recent norms of environmental law, accepted that “the Treaty is not static, and is open to adapt to emerging norms of international law”. | 在这方面，可以参考加布奇科沃－大毛罗斯案的判决，在该判决中，国际法院在解释一项早于某些最近的环境法规范的条约时，承认“该条约不是静态的，并可能适应新出现的国际法规范”。 |
| An arbitral tribunal has furthermore stated that principles of international environmental law must be taken into account even when interpreting treaties concluded before the development of that body of law. | 一个仲裁法庭进一步指出，即使在解释国际环境法制定之前缔结的条约时，也必须考虑到该法的原则。 |
| (8) The notion of sustainable use of natural resources can in this regard be seen as the modern equivalent of the concept of “usufruct”, which is in essence a standard of good housekeeping, according to which the Occupying Power “must not exceed what is necessary or usual” when exploiting the relevant resource. | (8) 在这方面，可持续利用自然资源的概念可被视为等同于现代的“用益权”概念，其本质上是“良好的家务管理”标准，根据这一标准，在开采相关资源时，占领方“不得超过必要或通常的水平”。 |
| This entails that the Occupying Power should exercise caution in the exploitation of non-renewable resources, not exceeding pre-occupation levels of production, and exploit renewable resources in a way that ensures their long-term use, and capacity for regeneration. | 这意味着，占领国在开采不可再生资源方面应谨慎行事，不应超过占领前的生产水平，开采可再生资源时应确保其长期利用和资源的再生能力。 |
| (9) The notion of minimization of environmental harm follows from the purpose of the draft principles. | (9) 对环境的损害减少至最低限度的概念源自本原则草案的宗旨。 |
| Draft principle 2 notably states that the draft principles are aimed at enhancing the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict, including through preventive measures for minimizing damage to the environment during armed conflict and through remedial measures. | 原则草案2特别指出，本原则草案旨在通过将武装冲突期间对环境损害减少至最低限度的预防措施以及通过补救措施，加强与武装冲突有关的环境保护。 |
| While the obligation to ensure the sustainable use of natural resources is most relevant in a long-term perspective, the use of natural resources, and the need to minimize environmental harm, is relevant both in short-term and more protracted occupations. | 虽然确保可持续利用自然资源的义务从长期来看最为相关，但自然资源的利用和对环境的损害减少至最低限度的必要性在短期和更长期的占领中都是相关的。 |
| Principle 22 Due diligence | 原则22 应尽职责 |
| An Occupying Power shall exercise due diligence to ensure that activities in the occupied territory do not cause significant harm to the environment of areas beyond the occupied territory. | 占领方应履行应尽职责，确保被占领土内的活动不对被占领土以外地区的环境造成重大损害。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 22 contains the established principle that each State has an obligation not to cause significant harm to the environment of other States or to areas beyond national jurisdiction. | (1) 原则22草案载有一项既定原则，即每个国家都有义务不对其他国家的环境或国家管辖范围以外的地区造成重大损害。 |
| The International Court of Justice referred to this principle in the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons case and confirmed its customary nature, stating that the general obligation of States to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction and control respect the environment of other States and of areas beyond national control constitutes “part of the corpus of international law relating to the environment”. | 国际法院在以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性案中提及这一原则，并确认了其习惯法性质，指出，各国有一般义务确保在其管辖范围内或在其控制下的活动尊重其他国家以及本国控制范围以外地区的环境，这种义务构成“有关环境的国际法的一部分”。 |
| (2) The obligation not to cause significant harm to the environment of other States has an established status in a transboundary context and has been particularly relevant with regard to shared natural resources, such as sea areas, international watercourses and transboundary aquifers. | (2) 不对其他国家的环境造成重大损害的义务已在跨界问题方面有了既定地位，并与海域、国际水道、跨界含水层等共享自然资源特别相关。 |
| This obligation is explicitly contained in the Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses and in the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes as well as in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. | 《国际水道非航行使用法公约》、《跨界水道和国际湖泊保护和利用公约》以及《联合国海洋法公约》明确载列这项义务。 |
| Numerous regional treaties establish corresponding obligations of prevention, cooperation, notification or compensation with regard to damage caused to rivers or lakes. | 许多区域条约就对河流或湖泊造成的损害规定了相应的预防、合作、通知或赔偿义务。 |
| The principle has also been confirmed and clarified in international and regional jurisprudence. | 这一原则也在国际和区域判例中得到确认和澄清。 |
| (3) Furthermore, the Commission has included this principle in its draft articles on prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities. | (3) 此外，委员会已将这一原则列入关于预防危险活动所致跨界损害的条款草案。 |
| According to the commentary thereto, the obligation of due diligence can be deduced from a number of international conventions as the standard basis for the protection of the environment from harm. | 根据该条款草案的评注，尽职义务作为保护环境不受损害的标准基础，可以追溯到一些国际公约。 |
| (4) As regards the applicability of this principle in the specific context of occupation, reference can be made to the International Court of Justice’s Advisory Opinion in the Namibia case, in which the Court underlined the international obligations and responsibilities of South Africa towards other States while exercising its powers in relation to the occupied territory, stating that “[p]hysical control of a territory, and not sovereignty or legitimacy of title, is the basis of State liability for acts affecting other States”. | (4) 关于这一原则在具体占领情况下的适用性，可参考国际法院在纳米比亚案中的咨询意见，其中，法院强调南非在就被占领土行使权力时对其他国家承担国际义务和责任，指出，“对某一领土的实际控制，而不是主权或所有权的合法性，是对影响到其他国家的行动承担国家责任的基础”。 |
| Furthermore, the Court has referred to the general obligation of States to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction and control respect the environment of other States or of areas beyond national control in its judgment concerning the Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay case, as well as in the joint cases of Certain Activities and Construction of a Road. | 此外，法院在关于乌拉圭河纸浆厂案 以及在某些活动案和修建道路案合并案件 的判决中，提到各国有一般义务确保在其管辖范围内或在其控制下的活动尊重其他国家或本国管辖范围以外地区的环境。 |
| (5) The Commission’s draft articles on prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities state that this obligation applies to activities carried out within the territory or otherwise under the jurisdiction or control of a State. | (5) 委员会关于预防危险活动所致跨界损害的条款草案指出，该义务适用于在一国领土内或在其管辖或控制下进行的活动。 |
| It should be recalled that the Commission has consistently used this formulation to refer not only to the territory of a State but also to activities carried out in other territories under the State’s control. | 应当回顾，委员会一直使用这一表述，不仅指一国领土，而且指在国家控制下的其他领土上进行的活动。 |
| As explained in the commentary to draft article 1, “it covers situations in which a State is exercising de facto jurisdiction, even though it lacks jurisdiction de jure, such as in cases of unlawful intervention, occupation and unlawful annexation”. | 正如条款草案1评注的解释，“这包括一国即使没有法律上的管辖权，却行使事实上的管辖权的各种情况，例如非法干涉、占领和非法吞并”。 |
| (6) The “no harm” or due diligence principle in customary international environmental law only applies to harm above a certain threshold, most often indicated as “significant harm”, and it is an obligation of conduct that requires in situations of occupation that the Occupying Power takes all measures it can reasonably be expected to take. | (6) 习惯国际环境法的“不损害”或应尽职责原则仅适用于高于某一临界值的损害，通常表示为“重大损害”， 这是一项行为义务，要求在占领局势中，占领方采取一切按照合理预期应采取的措施。 |
| The notion of significant harm is the same as referred to above in the commentary to draft principle 20. | 重大损害的概念与上文原则草案20的评注中提到的概念相同。 |
| (7) The wording of draft principle 22 is different from the established precedents in that it refers to “the environment of areas beyond the occupied territory”. | (7) 原则草案22的措辞与既定先例的不同之处是，它提及“被占领土以外地区的环境”。 |
| The consideration behind this formulation was related to situations in which the occupied territory extends to only a part of the territory of a State and not its entirety. | 这一表述背后的考虑涉及被占领土仅占一国的部分领土而不是全部领土的情形。 |
| The concern was expressed that the term “to the environment of another State or to areas beyond national jurisdiction” could be interpreted as excluding the territory of other parts of the occupied State. | 有人关切地指出，“另一国的环境或国家管辖范围以外的地区”一词可能被解释为不包括被占领国其他地区的领土。 |
| It was therefore decided to indicate that the territorial scope of the provision should cover “areas beyond the occupied territory”. | 因此委员会决定指明，该条款的领土范围应涵盖“被占领土范围以外地区”。 |
| Furthermore, the reference to the conduct required of the Occupying Power to ensure that activities in the occupied territory do not cause significant transboundary harm was replaced by the term “due diligence”. | 此外，关于要求占领方确保被占领土内的活动不造成重大跨界损害的表述，被“应尽职责”一词取代。 |
| A view was nevertheless expressed that language commonly used in international instruments would be preferable. | 然而，有人认为，国际文书中常用的用语更为可取。 |
| Part Five Principles applicable after armed conflict | 第五部分 武装冲突后适用的原则 |
| Principle 23 Peace processes | 原则23 和平进程 |
| 1. Parties to an armed conflict should, as part of the peace process, including where appropriate in peace agreements, address matters relating to the restoration and protection of the environment damaged by the conflict. | 1. 武装冲突各方应当作为和平进程的一部分，处理与遭冲突损害的环境的恢复和保护有关的问题，包括酌情在和平协议中处理此事。 |
| 2. Relevant international organizations should, where appropriate, play a facilitating role in this regard. | 2. 有关国际组织应当酌情在这方面发挥协助作用。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 23 aims to reflect that environmental considerations are, to a greater extent than before, being taken into consideration in the context of peace processes, including through the regulation of environmental matters in peace agreements. | (1) 原则草案23旨在表明，在和平进程的背景下，环境因素比以前更受重视，包括通过在和平协议中就涉及环境的问题作出规定。 |
| Reference can also be made to the heavy environmental impact of non-international armed conflicts that has led a growing number of States to include measures to protect and restore the environment in transitional justice processes. | 还可以参考非国际性武装冲突对环境的严重影响，这种影响已使得越来越多的国家将保护和恢复环境的措施纳入过渡期司法进程。 |
| (2) Including the term “peace process” in the draft principle is intended to broaden its scope to cover the entire peace process, as well as any formal peace agreements concluded. | (2) 在原则草案中列入“和平进程”一词，意在扩大其范围，以涵盖整个和平进程以及所缔结的任何正式和平协议。 |
| Modern armed conflicts have a variety of outcomes that do not necessarily take the form of formal agreements. | 现代武装冲突有各种结果，不一定采取正式协议的形式。 |
| For example, at the end of an armed conflict, a ceasefire agreement, an armistice or a situation of de facto peace with no agreement could be reached. | 例如，在武装冲突结束时，可以达成停火协议、停战协议或无法达成协议情况下事实上的和平局面。 |
| A peace process may also begin well before the actual end of an armed conflict. | 和平进程也可能在武装冲突实际结束之前开始。 |
| The conclusion of a peace agreement thus represents only one aspect, which, if at all, may take place several years after the cessation of hostilities. | 因此，缔结和平协议只是一个方面，即使缔结，也可能是在停止敌对行动几年之后。 |
| For this purpose, and to also avoid any temporal lacuna, the words “as part of the peace process” have been employed. | 为此，并为了避免任何时间上的空白，使用了“作为和平进程的一部分”一语。 |
| The outcome of a peace process often involves different steps and the adoption of a variety of instruments. | 和平进程的结果往往涉及不同步骤和通过不同文书。 |
| (3) The phrase “[p]arties to an armed conflict” is used in paragraph 1 to indicate that the provision covers both international and non-international armed conflicts. | (3) 第1段使用“武装冲突各方”一语来表示该段既涵盖国际性武装冲突，也涵盖非国际性武装冲突。 |
| This is in line with the general understanding that the draft principles apply to international, as well as non-international armed conflicts. | 这符合一般理解，即这套原则草案适用于国际性和非国际性的武装冲突。 |
| (4) The word “should” is used to reflect the normative ambition of the provision, while also recognizing that it does not correspond to any existing legal obligation. | (4) “应当”一词用于反映这项规定的规范理想，同时也认识到它并不对应于任何现有的法律义务。 |
| (5) The draft principle is cast in general terms to accommodate the wide variety of situations that may exist after an armed conflict. | (5) 本项原则草案采用了一般性措辞，以便顾及武装冲突后可能存在的各种情况。 |
| The condition of the environment after an armed conflict can vary greatly depending on a number of factors. | 武装冲突后的环境状况可能因许多因素而有很大差异。 |
| In some instances, the environment may have suffered serious and severe damage which is immediately apparent and which may need to be addressed as a matter of urgency; | 在一些情况下，环境可能遭受严重损害，这种损害立即显现，可能需要紧急处理； |
| whereas, in others, the damage the environment has suffered may not be so significant as to warrant urgent restoration. | 而在另一些情况下，环境受到的损害可能不那么大，不需要紧急恢复。 |
| Some environmental damage may only become apparent months or even years after the armed conflict has ended. | 有些环境损害可能在武装冲突结束后几个月甚至几年才会变得明显。 |
| (6) The draft principle aims to cover all formal peace agreements, as well as other instruments or agreements concluded or adopted at any point during the peace process, whether concluded between two or more States, between State(s) and non-State armed group(s), or between two or more non-State armed group(s). | (6) 本项原则草案旨在涵盖所有正式的和平协议，以及在和平进程的任何时间缔结或通过的其他文书或协议，无论是在两个或两个以上国家之间、国家和非国家武装团体之间、还是在两个或两个以上的非国家武装团体之间缔结的文书或协议。 |
| Such agreements and instruments may take different forms, such as sub-agreements to formal peace agreements, informal agreements, declarations, communiqués, joint public statements resulting from informal talks, agreed accounts of meetings between parties, as well as relevant legislation, acts and decrees that constitute an agreement between parties and/or were the outcome of peace negotiations. | 这些协议和文书可以采取不同的形式，如正式和平协议的子协议、非正式协议、声明、公报、非正式会谈产生的联合公开声明、各方会议的商定报告、以及构成各方之间协议和/或和平谈判结果的相关立法、法律和法令。 |
| (7) Some modern peace agreements contain environmental provisions. | (7) 一些现代和平协议包含环境条款。 |
| The types of environmental matters that have been addressed in the instruments concluded during the peace process or in peace agreements include, for example, obligations for or encouragement to parties to cooperate regarding environmental issues, and provisions that set out in detail the authority that will be responsible for matters relating to the environment, such as preventing environmental crimes and enforcing national laws and regulations on natural resources and the sharing of communal resources. | 例如，和平进程期间所缔结的文书或和平协议中涉及的环境问题类型包括：关于各方就环境问题进行合作的义务或鼓励； 以及详细列明由哪个当局负责环境相关问题的条款，这些问题包括防止环境犯罪和执行关于自然资源和公共资源共享的国家法律法规。 |
| The present draft principle aims to encourage parties to consider including such provisions in the agreements. | 本项原则草案的目的在于鼓励各方考虑在协议中纳入这些规定。 |
| (8) Paragraph 2 aims to encourage relevant international organizations to take environmental considerations into account when they act as facilitators in peace processes. | (8) 第2段旨在鼓励有关国际组织在促进和平进程中时考虑到环境因素。 |
| The wording of the paragraph is intended to be broad enough to cover situations where Chapter VII resolutions of the United Nations Security Council have been passed, as well as situations where relevant international organizations play a facilitating role at the consent of the relevant State or parties to an armed conflict in question. | 该段的措辞是为了足够广泛，以涵盖联合国安全理事会根据《宪章》第七章通过的决议所涉及的情况，以及有关国际组织在有关国家或武装冲突各方同意下发挥协助作用的情况。 |
| (9) Paragraph 2 refers to “relevant international organizations” to signal that not all organizations are suited to address this particular issue. | (9) 第2段提到“有关国际组织”，表明并非所有组织都适合处理这一特定问题。 |
| The organizations that are envisioned as being relevant in the context of this draft principle include those that have been recognized as playing an important role in the peace processes of various armed conflicts in the past, inter alia, the United Nations and its organs in particular, as well as the African Union, the European Union and the Organization of American States. | 本项原则草案中的有关组织包括被公认为在过去各种武装冲突的和平进程发挥了重要作用的组织，特别是联合国及其机构，以及非洲联盟、欧洲联盟、东南亚国家联盟和美洲国家组织。 |
| The draft principle also includes the words “where appropriate” to reflect the fact that the involvement of international organizations for this purpose is not always required, or wanted by the parties. | 本项原则草案还包括“酌情”一词，以反映一个事实，即国际组织以此为目的的参与并非总是各方所要求或希望的。 |
| Principle 24 Sharing and granting access to information | 原则24 共享与准许获取信息 |
| 1. To facilitate remedial measures after an armed conflict, States and relevant international organizations shall share and grant access to relevant information in accordance with their obligations under international law. | 1. 为便利武装冲突后采取补救措施，各国和有关国际组织应按照其国际法义务，共享并准许获取相关信息。 |
| 2. Nothing in the present draft principle obliges a State or international organization to share or grant access to information vital to its national defence or security. | 2. 本项原则草案中并无任何内容要求一国或国际组织必须共享或准许获取对其国防或安全至关重要的信息。 |
| Nevertheless, that State or international organization shall cooperate in good faith with a view to providing as much information as possible under the circumstances. | 但国家或国际组织应善意合作，根据具体情况提供尽可能多的信息。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 24 refers generally to “States”, as this term is broader than “parties to an armed conflict”. | (1) 原则草案24一般性地提到“各国”，因为这一用语比“武装冲突各方”更加广泛。 |
| States not parties to an armed conflict may be affected as third States, and may have relevant information useful for the taking of remedial measures that could usefully be provided to other States or international organizations. | 非武装冲突方的国家可能会作为第三国受到影响，并可能掌握有助于采取补救措施的相关信息，将这些信息提供给其他国家或国际组织可能十分有益。 |
| This obligation applies to States, even though non-State actors are addressed in other draft principles, and the set of draft principles covers both international and non-international armed conflicts. | 尽管其他原则草案涉及非国家行为体，而且本套原则草案涵盖国际性和非国际性武装冲突，但这一义务适用于各国。 |
| (2) While States are typically the most relevant subjects, the draft principle also refers to international organizations, with the addition of the qualifier “relevant”. | (2) 虽然各国通常是最相关的对象，但本项原则草案还提到国际组织，并以“有关”一词来限定。 |
| The specific term “national defence” applies only to States. | “国防”一词只适用于国家。 |
| For some international organizations, confidentiality requirements may also affect the extent of information that they can share or grant access to in good faith. | 对于一些国际组织而言，保密要求也可能影响到它们本着善意共享或准许获取的信息的范围。 |
| (3) Draft principle 24 consists of two paragraphs. | (3) 原则草案24包括两段。 |
| Paragraph 1 refers to the obligations States and international organizations may have under international law to share and grant access to information with a view to facilitating remedial measures after an armed conflict. | 第1段提及各国和国际组织依照国际法可能有义务共享并准许获取信息，以期便利武装冲突后采取补救措施。 |
| Paragraph 2 refers to security considerations to which such access may be subject. | 第2段提及这种获取可能须考虑到的安全因素。 |
| (4) The expression “in accordance with their obligations under international law” reflects that treaties contain obligations relevant in the context of the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts, which may be instrumental for the purpose of the taking of remedial measures after an armed conflict, such as, for instance, keeping a record of the placement of landmines. | (4) “按照其国际法义务”这一表述反映出各条约载有与武装冲突有关的环境保护方面的义务，这些义务可有助于在武装冲突后采取补救措施， 如记录地雷的位置。 |
| Obligations to grant access to and/or share information which provide protection for the environment in relation to armed conflicts have been listed above. | 上文列出了为在武装冲突中保护环境而准许获取和/或共享信息的义务。 |
| Also relevant is paragraph 2 of article 9 on “Recording and use of information on minefields, mined areas, mines, booby-traps and other devices” of Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, as well as article 4, paragraph 2, on “Recording, retaining and transmission of information” of Protocol V to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons. | 与此有关的还有《特定常规武器公约第二号议定书》中涉及“记录和利用关于雷场、雷区、地雷、诱杀装置和其他装置的资料”的第9条第2款和《特定常规武器公约第五号议定书》中涉及“资料的记录、保存和提供”的第4条第2款。 |
| (5) Furthermore, this expression reflects that the obligations to grant access to and/or share information as contained in the relevant treaties are commonly accompanied by exceptions or limitations regarding grounds for which the disclosure of information may be refused. | (5) 此外，这一表述还反映出，相关条约中包含的准许获取和/或共享信息的义务通常伴有与可拒绝披露信息的理由有关的例外或限制。 |
| Such grounds relate, inter alia, to “national defence and public security” or situations in which the disclosure would make it more likely that the environment to which such information related would be damaged. | 这些理由除其他外涉及“国防和公共安全”，或者披露会使与此类信息有关的环境受损害的风险增加的情况。 |
| (6) While the term “share” refers to information provided by States and international organizations in their mutual relations and as a means of cooperation, the term “granting access” refers primarily to allowing access to individuals for example to such information, and thus signifies a more unilateral relationship. | (6) “共享”一词是指各国和国际组织在相互关系中和作为合作手段提供的信息，“准许获取”则主要是指准许个人获取这些信息，因此更多地是一种单边关系。 |
| (7) The obligation to share and grant access to information pertaining to the environment can be found in numerous sources of international law, both at global and regional level. | (7) 在全球和区域层面的许多国际法渊源中，都可找到关于共享和准许获取环境相关信息的义务。 |
| (8) The origins of the right to access to information in modern international human rights law can be found in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. | (8) 在《世界人权宣言》 第十九条和《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》 第十九条中可以找到现代国际人权法中获取信息权利的来源。 |
| General comment No. 34 on article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides that article 19, paragraph 2, should be read as including a right to access to information held by public bodies. | 关于《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第十九条的第34号一般性意见规定，第十九条第2款应当被解读为包括获取公共机构掌握的信息的权利。 |
| (9) A right to environmental information has also developed within the context of the European Convention on Human Rights as exemplified in the case of Guerra and Others v. Italy, in which the European Court of Human Rights decided that the applicants had a right to environmental information on the basis of article 8 of the Convention (the right to family life and privacy). | (9) 在《欧洲人权公约》范围内也形成了获取环境信息的权利，Guerra等人诉意大利案 就是例证，欧洲人权法院在该案中裁定，申请人有权根据《公约》第8条(家庭生活权和隐私权)获取环境信息。 |
| Reference can also be made to the European Union directive on public access to environmental information and to a related judgment of the European Court of Justice of 2011. | 也可以参考欧洲联盟关于公众获取环境信息的指令以及欧洲法院2011年的相关判决。 |
| In addition to the right to privacy, a right to environmental information has also been based on the right to freedom of expression (as in e.g. Claude-Reyes et al. v. Chile before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights). | 除隐私权外，获取环境信息的权利还以表达自由权为基础(例如美洲人权法院审理的Claude-Reyes等人诉智利案)。 |
| (10) Principle 10 of the 1992 Rio Declaration also provides that individuals shall have appropriate access to information, including on hazardous materials. | (10) 1992年《里约宣言》的原则10也规定，个人应能适当获取信息，包括关于危险材料的信息。 |
| The recently adopted Sustainable Development Goal 16 on peaceful and inclusive societies calls upon States to ensure public access to information concerning the environment and protect fundamental freedoms, in accordance with national legislation and international agreements. | 最近通过的关于和平和包容性社会的可持续发展目标16要求各国根据国家立法和国际协定，确保公众获得关于环境信息，保障基本自由。 |
| (11) Article 2 of the Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention) defines “environmental information” as any information pertaining to the state of elements of the environment, factors affecting or likely to affect elements of the environment, as well as the state of human health and safety insofar as it may be affected by these elements. | (11) 《在环境问题上获得信息、公众参与决策和诉诸法律的公约》(《奥胡斯公约》)第二条将“环境信息”界定为与各种环境要素的状况、正在影响或可能影响环境要素的各种因素和可能受以上要素影响的人类健康和安全状况有关的任何信息。 |
| Article 4 of the Aarhus Convention stipulates that State parties must “make such [environmental] information available to the public, within the framework of national legislation”. | 《奥胡斯公约》第四条规定，缔约国必须“在国家立法范围内为公众提供这种[环境]信息”。 |
| Such a right necessarily entails a duty for States to collect such environmental information for the purposes of making it available to the public if and when requested to do so. | 此种权利必然要求国家担负收集此类环境信息的义务，以便一旦收到请求，即为公众提供这种信息。 |
| In addition, the Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (Escazú Agreement), adopted on 4 March 2018, comprises similar provisions. | 此外，2018年3月4日通过的《拉丁美洲和加勒比关于在环境问题上获得信息、公众参与和诉诸法律的区域协定》(《埃斯卡苏协定》)包含类似条款。 |
| (12) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change addresses access to information in its article 6, noting that the Parties shall “[p]romote and facilitate at the national and, as appropriate, subregional and regional levels, and in accordance with national laws and regulations, and within their respective capacities: … public access to information on climate change and its effects”. | (12) 《联合国气候变化框架公约》第六条提及信息的获取，指出各缔约方应：“在国家一级并酌情在次区域和区域一级，根据国家法律和规定，并在各自的能力范围内，促进和便利：…公众获取有关气候变化及其影响的信息”。 |
| In addition, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention stipulates that Parties shall promote and facilitate access to information on living modified organisms. | 此外，《生物安全公约卡塔赫纳议定书》规定，缔约方应促进和便利获取有关改性活生物体的信息。 |
| Both the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants contain provisions on access to information. | 《关于在国际贸易中对某些危险化学品和农药采用事先知情同意程序的鹿特丹公约》 和《关于持久性有机污染物的斯德哥尔摩公约》 均载有关于获取信息的条款。 |
| Similarly, article 18 of the 2013 Minamata Convention on Mercury stipulates that Parties shall “promote and facilitate” access to such information. | 同样，2013年《关于汞的水俣公约》 第十八条规定，各缔约方应“推动和促进”获取这类信息。 |
| The recently concluded Paris Agreement similarly addresses access to information in numerous paragraphs and articles, e.g. as part of the responsibility for States to provide intended nationally determined contributions in article 4, paragraph 8, of the Agreement, and more generally regarding climate change education and public access to information in article 12. | 最近缔结的《巴黎协定》也在许多条款中述及获取信息，例如该协定第四条第八款作为通报国家自主贡献的国家责任的一部分而提及，第十二条中则有关于气候变化教育和公众获取信息的更一般性的规定。 |
| (13) In accordance with the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in Africa, Parties thereto shall make information on desertification “fully, openly and promptly available”. | (13) 根据《联合国关于在发生严重干旱和/或荒漠化的国家特别是在非洲防治荒漠化的公约》，各缔约方应“充分、公开和及时提供”荒漠化信息。 |
| Similarly, the 2010 Bali Guidelines provide that “affordable, effective and timely access to environmental information held by public authorities upon request” should be ensured. | 同样，2010年《巴厘准则》规定，应当确保“提出请求后应可廉价、有效、及时地获得由公共主管部门掌握的环境信息”。 |
| (14) Within the particular regime of humanitarian demining and remnants of war, a number of instruments contain requirements on providing environmental information. | (14) 在人道主义排雷和战争遗留物的特定制度内，一些文书载有关于提供环境信息的要求。 |
| For instance, a request to extend the deadline for completing the clearance and destruction of cluster munition remnants under the Convention on Cluster Munitions must outline any potential environmental and humanitarian impacts of such an extension. | 例如，根据《集束弹药公约》，关于延长完成清理和销毁遗留集束弹药最后期限的请求必须列出这种延期在环境和人道主义方面的任何可能影响。 |
| Similarly, in connection to the destruction of cluster munitions, the “location of all destruction sites and the applicable safety and environmental standards” must be outlined. | 同样，在销毁集束弹药方面，还必须说明“所有销毁场址的位置以及应遵守的适用安全标准和环境标准”。 |
| Similar obligations are contained in the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction. | 《关于禁止使用、储存、生产和转让杀伤人员地雷及销毁此种地雷的公约》载有类似的义务。 |
| Reference can also be made to the International Mine Action Standard 10.70, which states, inter alia, that national mine action authorities should “promulgate information about significant environmental incidents to other demining organizations within the programme”. | 还可以参考《国际地雷行动标准》第10.70条，除其他外，该条规定，国家排雷行动当局应当“向方案内的其他排雷组织发布有关重大环境事件的信息”。 |
| (15) Regarding the practice of international organizations, the Environmental Policy for United Nations Field Missions of 2009 stipulates that peacekeeping missions shall assign an Environmental Officer with the duty to “[p]rovide environmental information relevant to the operations of the mission and take actions to promote awareness on environmental issues”. | (15) 关于国际组织的做法，2009年《联合国外地特派团环境政策》规定，维持和平特派团应指派1名环境干事，“提供与特派团行动有关的环境信息，并采取行动，促进对环境问题的认识”。 |
| The policy also contains a requirement to disseminate and study information on the environment, which would presuppose access to information that can in fact be disseminated and that thus is not classified. | 该政策还包括一项关于传播和研究环境信息的要求，其前提是获取实际上可以传播、因而不是保密资料的信息。 |
| (16) Moreover, the ICRC Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed Conflict contain a provision on protection of organizations, which could include environmental organizations gathering environmental data as a means of “contributing to prevent or repair damage to the environment”. | (16) 此外，红十字国际委员会《关于武装冲突中环境保护的军事手册和指南准则》载有关于保护组织的一项规定， 其中可包括“为防止或修复环境损害”而收集环境数据的环境组织。 |
| (17) In connection with post-armed conflict environmental assessments, it is worth recalling that the United Nations Environment Programme guidelines on integrating environment in post-conflict assessments include a reference to the importance of public participation and access to information, as “natural resource allocation and management is done in an ad-hoc, decentralized, or informal manner” in post-conflict contexts. | (17) 关于武装冲突后环境评估，值得回顾的是，环境署关于将环境纳入冲突后评估的准则提到了公众参与和获取信息的重要性，因为在冲突后环境中，“自然资源的配置和管理是以特定、分散或非正规方式进行的”。 |
| (18) The obligation to share information and to cooperate in this context is reflected in the Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses. | (18) 《国际水道非航行使用法公约》体现了在这方面共享信息和进行合作的义务。 |
| Moreover, the Convention on Biological Diversity contains a provision on exchange of information in its article 14, requiring that each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, promote “notification, exchange of information and consultation on activities under their jurisdiction or control which are likely to significantly affect adversely the biological diversity of other States or areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, by encouraging the conclusion of bilateral, regional or multilateral arrangements, as appropriate”. | 此外，《生物多样性公约》第十四条包含一项关于交流信息的规定，要求每一缔约国应尽可能并酌情“就其管辖或控制范围内对其他国家或国家管辖范围以外地区生物多样性可能产生严重不利影响的活动促进通报、信息交流和磋商，其办法是为此鼓励酌情订立双边、区域或多边安排”。 |
| In addition, article 17 of the Convention calls upon the Parties to facilitate the exchange of information relevant to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. | 另外，该《公约》第十七条呼吁缔约方便利有关生物多样性保护和持久使用的信息的交流。 |
| (19) Previous work of the Commission of relevance to this aspect of the draft principle includes the articles on nationality of natural persons in relation to the succession of States (1999), the articles on prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities (2001), the principles on the allocation of loss in the case of transboundary harm arising out of hazardous activities (2006) and the articles on the law of transboundary aquifers (2008). | (19) 委员会以前与本项原则草案这一方面有关的工作包括国家继承涉及的自然人国籍问题条款(1999年)、预防危险活动的跨界损害条款(2001年)、危险活动所致跨界损害的损失分配原则(2006年) 和跨界含水层法条款(2008年)。 |
| (20) Paragraph 2 serves a similar purpose in the context of draft principle 24. | (20) 第2段在原则草案24中具有类似的目的。 |
| The exception to the obligation set out under paragraph 1 concerns information vital to the national defence of a State or the security of a State or an international organization. | 第1段规定的义务的例外涉及对一国的国防或一国或国际组织的安全至关重要的信息。 |
| This exception is not absolute. | 这种例外并不是绝对的。 |
| The second sentence of the paragraph provides that States and international organizations shall provide as much information as possible under the circumstances, through cooperation in good faith. | 第2段第二句规定，国家和国际组织应善意合作，根据具体情况提供尽可能多的信息。 |
| Paragraph 2 is based on provisions contained in the Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses. | 第2段基于《国际水道非航行使用法公约》中的规定。 |
| Article 31 of the Convention provides that a watercourse State is not obliged to provide data and information vital to its national defence or security, while noting that obligation to cooperate in good faith is still applicable. | 该公约第31条规定，水道国没有义务提供对其国防或国家安全至关重要的数据或资料，同时注意到善意合作的义务仍然适用。 |
| The articles on prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities and the articles on the law of transboundary aquifers contain a similar exception. | 预防危险活动的跨界损害条款 和跨界含水层法条款 也有类似的例外。 |
| (21) Draft principle 24 is closely linked to the duty to cooperate, as well as draft principle 25 on post-armed conflict environmental assessments and remedial measures. | (21) 原则草案24与合作义务以及关于武装冲突后的环境评估和补救措施的原则草案25密切相关。 |
| Principle 25 Post-armed conflict environmental assessments and remedial measures | 原则25 武装冲突后的环境评估与补救措施 |
| Cooperation among relevant actors, including international organizations, is encouraged with respect to post-armed conflict environmental assessments and remedial measures. | 鼓励包括国际组织在内的有关行为体在武装冲突后的环境评估与补救措施方面开展合作。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) The purpose of draft principle 25 is to encourage relevant actors to cooperate in order to ensure that environmental assessments and remedial measures can be carried out in post-conflict situations. | (1) 原则草案25的目的是鼓励有关行为体进行合作，以确保在冲突后局势中进行环境评估和采取补救措施。 |
| The draft principle is closely linked to draft principle 8. | 本项原则草案与原则草案8密切相关。 |
| (2) The reference to “relevant actors” includes both State and non-State actors. | (2) “有关行为体”一词包括国家行为体和非国家行为体。 |
| Not only States, but also a wide range of actors, including international organizations and non-State actors, have a role to play in relation to environmental assessments and remedial measures. | 不仅是国家，包括国际组织和非国家行为体在内的各种广泛的行为体均可在环境评估和补救措施方面发挥作用。 |
| The phrase “are encouraged” is hortatory in nature and is to be seen as an acknowledgment of the scarcity of practice in this field. | “鼓励”一词具有督促性，并被认为是对这一领域缺乏实践的承认。 |
| (3) The term “environmental assessment” is distinct from an “environmental impact assessment”, which is typically undertaken ex ante as a preventive measure. | (3) “环境评估”一词不同于“环境影响评估”，通常是事先采取的预防措施。 |
| Such impact assessments play an important role in the preparation and adoption of plans, programmes, and policies and legislation, as appropriate. | 这种影响评估在制定和通过计划、方案、政策和立法方面发挥着重要作用。 |
| This may involve the evaluation of the likely environmental, including health, effects, in a plan or programme. | 其中可涉及在计划或方案中评价可能的环境影响，包括健康影响。 |
| (4) It is in this context that a post-conflict environmental assessment has emerged as a tool to mainstream environmental considerations in the development plans in the post-conflict phase. | (4) 在这种情况下，冲突后环境评估已成为将环境考虑纳入冲突后阶段发展计划的工具。 |
| Such assessments are typically intended to identify major environmental risks to health, livelihoods and security and to provide recommendations to national authorities on how to address them. | 此类评估通常旨在确定对健康、生计和安全造成的重大环境风险，并就如何解决这些风险向国家当局提供建议。 |
| A post-conflict environmental assessment is intended to meet various needs and policy processes, which, depending on the requirements, are distinct in scope, objective and approach. | 冲突后环境评估旨在满足各种需求和政策进程，这些进程根据需要，在范围、目标和方法上各不相同。 |
| Such post-conflict environmental assessment, undertaken at the request of a State, may take the form of: (a) a needs assessment; | 这种在一国要求下进行的冲突后环境评估可采取以下形式：(a) 需求评估； |
| (b) a quantitative risk assessment; | (b) 定量风险评估 ； |
| (c) a strategic assessment; | (c) 战略评估； |
| or (d) a comprehensive assessment. | 或(d) 综合评估。 |
| The comprehensive assessment of Rwanda, for example, involved a scientific expert evaluation and assessment, covering a range of activities, including scoping, desk study, field work, environmental sampling, geographic information system modelling, analysis and reporting and national consultations. | 例如，卢旺达的综合评估涉及科学专家的评价和评估，涵盖范围界定、案头研究、实地工作、环境抽样、地理信息系统建模、分析和报告以及全国协商等一系列活动。 |
| It is readily acknowledged that “conflicts often have environmental impacts, direct or indirect, that affect human health and livelihoods as well as ecosystem services”. | “冲突通常会对环境产生直接或间接影响，影响到人类健康和生计以及生态系统服务”， 这一点很容易得到承认。 |
| (5) Such assessments are encouraged because, if the environmental impacts of armed conflict are left unattended, there is strong likelihood that they may lead to “further population displacement and socio-economic instability”, thereby “undermining recovery and reconstruction in post-conflict zones” and “triggering a vicious cycle”. | (5) 鼓励进行这种评估，是因为如果不注意武装冲突对环境的影响，很可能会导致“进一步的人口流离失所和社会经济不稳定”，从而“影响冲突后地区的恢复和重建和”并“造成恶性循环”。 |
| (6) In order to align the text with other draft principles, in particular draft principle 2, the term “remedial” is used in the present principle even though “recovery” has a more prominent usage in the practice. | (6) 为了使案文与其他各项原则草案特别是原则草案2相一致，在本原则中使用了“补救”一词，尽管“恢复”在实践中用得更多。 |
| Once an assessment is completed, the challenge is to ensure that environmental recovery programmes are in place that aim at strengthening the national and local environmental authorities, rehabilitate ecosystems, mitigate risks and ensure sustainable utilization of resources in the context of the concerned State’s development plans. | 评估完成后，所面临的挑战是确保制定环境恢复计划，以加强国家和地方环境部门，恢复生态系统，减少风险并确保在有关国家的发展计划中可持续地利用资源。 |
| The term “remedial measures” has a more limited remit than “recovery”. | “补救措施”一词的范围比“恢复”更有限。 |
| Principle 26 Relief and assistance | 原则26 救济和援助 |
| When, in relation to an armed conflict, the source of environmental damage is unidentified, or reparation is unavailable, States are encouraged to take appropriate measures so that the damage does not remain unrepaired or uncompensated, and may consider establishing special compensation funds or providing other forms of relief or assistance. | 当与武装冲突有关的环境损害的来源不明或赔偿无法获得时，鼓励各国采取适当措施，以使该损害不会持续得不到修复或补偿，并可考虑设立特别补偿基金或其他形式的救济或援助。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) The purpose of draft principle 26 is to encourage States to take appropriate measures aimed at repairing and compensating environmental damage caused during armed conflict. | (1) 原则草案26的目的是鼓励各国采取适当措施，修复和补偿武装冲突期间造成的环境损害。 |
| More specifically, it addresses relief and assistance in situations where the source of environmental damage is unidentified or reparation is not available. | 更具体而言，它涉及在环境损害来源不明或赔偿无法获得的情况下的救济和援助。 |
| Such a situation may arise because of different reasons. | 这种情况可能由不同的原因引起。 |
| The particular features of environmental damage may complicate the establishment of responsibility: the damage may result from a chain of events rather than from a single act, and extend over the course of many years, which makes it difficult to establish a causal link to specific acts. | 环境损害的特殊特征可能会让确立责任的过程变得复杂：损害可能是由一连串事件而不是单一行为造成的，并持续多年，从而难以确定与具体行为的因果关系。 |
| The presence of multiple State and non-State actors in contemporary conflicts may further complicate the allocation of responsibility. | 当代冲突涉及多个国家和非国家行为体的现象可能会使责任分配更加复杂。 |
| Environmental damage in armed conflict may moreover result from lawful activities, and there may be no means of establishing the responsibility and claiming reparation. | 武装冲突中的环境损害还可能由合法活动造成， 或许没有办法确定责任和要求赔偿。 |
| (2) It is furthermore not uncommon that States and international organizations use ex gratia payments to make amends for wartime injury and damage without acknowledging responsibility, and possibly also excluding further liability. | (2) 此外，常见的是，国家和国际组织使用惠给金来弥补战时造成的伤害和损害，但不承认责任，并可能拒绝进一步的赔偿责任。 |
| Such payments serve different purposes and may be available for damage and injury caused by lawful action. | 这类付款的用途不同，并可用于合法行为造成的损害和伤害。 |
| In most cases, amends are paid for civilian injury or death, or damage to civilian property, but they may also entail remediation of harm to the environment. | 在大多数情况下，赔偿的对象是受伤或死亡的平民，或受损害的平民财产，但也可能涉及对环境的补救。 |
| Victims assistance is a broader and more recent concept used in relation to armed conflicts – but also in other contexts – to respond to harm caused to individuals or communities, inter alia by military activities. | 受害者援助是一个较广泛和较新的概念，不仅用于武装冲突方面，也在其他情况下用于应对武装活动等对个人或社区造成的损害。 |
| (3) An example of environmental remediation in a situation in which the establishment or implementation of State responsibility is not possible is provided by the assistance to Lebanon following the bombing of the Jiyeh power plant in 2006. | (3) 2006年吉耶发电厂遭轰炸后对黎巴嫩的援助是在无法建立或履行国家责任情况下进行环境补救的实例。 |
| After the strike on the power plant on the Lebanese coast by Israeli Armed Forces, an estimated 15,000 tons of oil were released into the Mediterranean Sea. | 在以色列武装部队袭击黎巴嫩沿海的吉耶发电厂之后，约15,000吨石油流入地中海。 |
| Following requests for assistance from the Government of Lebanon, the Regional Marine Pollution Emergency Response Centre for the Mediterranean Sea provided remote and on-site technical assistance in the cleanup. | 应黎巴嫩政府的援助请求，地中海区域海洋污染应急中心在清理方面提供了远程和现场技术援助。 |
| Assistance was provided pursuant to the 2002 Protocol concerning Cooperation in Preventing Pollution from Ships and, in Cases of Emergency, Combating Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea, one of protocols to the Barcelona Convention. | 提供援助的依据是《巴塞罗那公约》的议定书之一――2002年《地中海防止船舶污染并在紧急情况下治理污染合作议定书》。 |
| The amends related to the use of Agent Orange (a herbicide containing the toxic substance dioxin), by the United States in the Viet Nam War provide an example of ex gratia response to environmental and health effects of armed conflict. | 与美国在越南战争中使用橘色剂(一种含有二恶英的除草剂)有关的补偿是就武装冲突对环境和健康的影响支付惠给金的一个实例。 |
| (4) The term “reparation” is used in the draft principle as a general notion that covers different forms of reparation for an internationally wrongful act. | (4) “赔偿”一词在本项原则草案中被用作一个一般概念，涵盖对国际不法行为的不同形式的赔偿。 |
| The context, however, is one in which reparation is unavailable, including where there has been no wrongful act. | 然而，其背景是赔偿无法提供的情况，包括没有不法行为的情况。 |
| The term “unrepaired” similarly refers to the lack of any reparative measures, while “uncompensated” refers specifically to the lack of monetary compensation. | 同样，“得不到修复”一词指缺乏任何修复措施，而“得不到…补偿”则具体指缺乏货币补偿。 |
| These terms define the specific circumstances in which States are encouraged to take appropriate measures of relief and assistance. | 这些术语界定了鼓励各国采取适当救济和援助措施的具体情况。 |
| Such measures may include establishment of a compensation fund. | 这些措施可能包括设立赔偿基金。 |
| The terms “relief” and “assistance” should also be read as including remedial measures in the sense in which the term has been used in the present draft principles, encompassing any measure of remediation that may be taken to restore the environment. | 术语“救济”和“援助”也应理解为包括本原则草案中使用的和所指的“补救措施”，涵盖任何为恢复环境而可能采取的补救性质的措施。 |
| (5) Draft principle 26 is closely linked to draft principle 25 on “Post-armed conflict environmental assessments and remedial measures” as well as to draft principle 24 on “Sharing and granting access to information”. | (5) 原则草案26与关于“武装冲突后的环境评估与补救措施”的原则草案25以及关于“共享与准许获取信息”的原则草案24密切相关。 |
| All three draft principles address situations in which damage has been caused to the environment in relation to an armed conflict, and they all refer generally to “States” rather than the parties to a conflict. | 这三项原则草案都涉及武装冲突对环境造成损害的情况，它们都一般性地指向“国家”，而不是冲突各方。 |
| Unlike draft principles 24 and 25, however, the present draft principle, which has a specific focus on relief and assistance provided by States, makes no express reference to international organizations. | 然而，与原则草案24和25不同，本项原则草案具体侧重国家提供的救济和援助，没有明确提及国际组织。 |
| It is nevertheless understood that States may channel such relief and assistance through international organizations. | 但理解是，各国可通过国际组织提供这种救济和援助。 |
| (6) Draft principle 26 has been located in Part Five containing draft principles applicable after an armed conflict. | (6) 原则草案26被列入第五部分，这部分载有武装冲突后适用的原则草案。 |
| While it was recognized that it could be preferable to take measures to address environmental damage already during an armed conflict, given that environmental damage accumulates and restoration becomes more challenging with time, the draft principle was seen as primarily relevant in post-armed conflict situations. | 虽然委员会承认，鉴于环境损害会日积月累，其恢复也随着时间的推移变得更具挑战性，最好是在武装冲突期间就采取措施解决已经存在的环境损害，但本项原则草案被视为主要与武装冲突后局势相关。 |
| Principle 27 Remnants of war | 原则27 战争遗留物 |
| 1. After an armed conflict, parties to the conflict shall seek to remove or render harmless toxic and hazardous remnants of war under their jurisdiction or control that are causing or risk causing damage to the environment. | 1. 武装冲突后，冲突各方应争取移除其管辖或控制下正在造成或可能造成环境破坏的有毒和危险的战争遗留物或使之无害。 |
| Such measures shall be taken subject to the applicable rules of international law. | 在采取此种措施时应遵守适用的国际法规则。 |
| 2. The parties shall also endeavour to reach agreement, among themselves and, where appropriate, with other States and with international organizations, on technical and material assistance, including, in appropriate circumstances, the undertaking of joint operations to remove or render harmless such toxic and hazardous remnants of war. | 2. 冲突各方还应努力相互达成并酌情与其他国家和国际组织达成关于技术与物资援助的协议，包括在适当情况下开展联合行动，以移除此种有毒和危险的战争遗留物或使之无害。 |
| 3. Paragraphs 1 and 2 are without prejudice to any rights or obligations under international law to clear, remove, destroy or maintain minefields, mined areas, mines, booby-traps, explosive ordnance and other devices. | 3. 第1和第2段不妨碍任何关于清除、移除、销毁或维护雷场、雷区、地雷、诱杀装置、爆炸性弹药和其他装置的国际法权利或义务。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Draft principle 27 aims to strengthen the protection of the environment in a post-conflict situation. | (1) 原则草案27旨在加强冲突后局势中的环境保护。 |
| It seeks to ensure that toxic and hazardous remnants of war that are causing or that may cause damage to the environment are removed or rendered harmless after an armed conflict. | 它力图确保在武装冲突后移除正在造成或可能造成环境损害的有毒和危险的战争遗留物或使之无害。 |
| This draft principle covers toxic and hazardous remnants of war on land, as well as those which have been placed or dumped at sea, as long as they fall under the jurisdiction or control of a former party to the armed conflict. | 本项原则草案涵盖了陆地上有毒和危险的战争遗留物以及在海上放置或倾倒的这类遗留物――只要它们在前武装冲突一方的管辖或控制范围之内。 |
| The measures taken shall be subject to the applicable rules of international law. | 所采取的措施应遵守适用的国际法规则。 |
| (2) Paragraph 1 is cast in general terms. | (2) 第1段采用了一般性用语。 |
| Remnants of war take various forms. | 战争遗留物的形式各异。 |
| They consist of not only explosive remnants of war but also other hazardous material and objects. | 它们不仅包括战争遗留爆炸物，还包括其他危险物质和物体。 |
| Some remnants of war are not dangerous to the environment at all or may be less dangerous if they remain where they are after the conflict is over. | 有些战争遗留物对环境根本没有危险，或者在冲突结束后如留在原处，可能危险较小。 |
| In other words, removing the remnants of war may in some situations pose a higher environmental risk than leaving them where they are. | 换言之，移除战争遗留物在某些情况下可能比将它们留在原地造成更大的环境风险。 |
| It is for this reason that the draft principle contains the words “or render harmless”, to illustrate that in some circumstances it may be appropriate to do nothing, or to take measures other than removal. | 正因为如此，原则草案中包含“或使之无害”的字样，以说明在某些情况下，什么也不做或采取移除以外的措施，可能才是适当的。 |
| (3) The obligation to “seek to” is one of conduct and relates to “toxic and hazardous remnants of war” that “are causing or risk causing damage to the environment”. | (3) “争取”的义务是行为义务，与“正在造成或可能造成环境损害的有毒和危险的战争遗留物”有关。 |
| The terms “toxic” and “hazardous” are often used when referring to remnants of war which pose a danger to humans or the environment, and it was considered appropriate to use the terms here. | 在提及对人类或环境构成危险的战争遗留物时，经常使用“有毒”和“危险”两个术语，它们在这里的使用被认为是适当的。 |
| The term “hazardous” is somewhat wider than the term “toxic”, in that all remnants of war that pose a threat to humans or the environment may be considered hazardous, but not all are toxic. | “危险”一词的含义比“有毒”一词宽泛一点，因为所有对人类或环境构成威胁的战争遗留物都可能被认为是危险的，但并非都是有毒的。 |
| The term “toxic remnants of war” does not have a definition under international law, but has been used to describe “any toxic or radiological substance resulting from military activities that forms a hazard to humans and ecosystems”. | “有毒的战争遗留物”一词在国际法中没有定义，但一直被用来指“军事活动产生的对人类和生态系统构成危险的任何有毒或放射性物质”。 |
| (4) The reference to “jurisdiction or control” is intended to cover areas within de jure and de facto control even beyond that established by a territorial link. | (4) “管辖或控制”的提法意在涵盖法律上和事实上控制的地区，甚至超出领土关系所确定的范围。 |
| The term “jurisdiction” is intended to cover, in addition to the territory of a State, activities over which, under international law, a State is authorized to exercise its competence and authority extraterritorially. | “管辖”一词除一国的领土外，还涵盖根据国际法国家有权在域外行使其权限和权力的活动。 |
| The term “control” is intended to cover situations in which a State (or party to an armed conflict) is exercising de facto control, even though it may lack de jure jurisdiction. | “控制”意在涵盖一个国家(或武装冲突一方)行使事实上的控制权的情况，尽管它可能缺乏法律上的管辖权。 |
| It therefore “refers to the factual capacity of effective control over activities outside the jurisdiction of a State”. | 因此该词“是指有效控制一国管辖范围以外活动的事实能力”。 |
| (5) The present draft principle is intended to apply to international as well as non-international armed conflicts. | (5) 本项原则草案旨在适用于国际性和非国际性武装冲突。 |
| For this reason, paragraph 1 addresses “parties to a conflict”. | 为此，第1段述及“冲突各方”。 |
| The phrase “party to a conflict” has been used in various provisions of law of armed conflict treaties in the context of remnants of war. | 在关于战争遗留物的各种武装冲突法条约中，都使用了“冲突方”一语。 |
| It was considered appropriate to use the term in the present draft principle as it is foreseeable that there may be situations where there are toxic or hazardous remnants of war in an area where a State does not have full control. | 在本项原则草案中使用该词被认为是适当的，因为可以预见，有些情况下，在一个国家没有完全控制权的地区，可能存在有毒或危险的战争遗留物。 |
| For example, a non-State actor may have control over territory where toxic and hazardous remnants of war are present. | 例如，非国家行为体可能控制存在有毒和危险的战争遗留物的地区。 |
| (6) Paragraph 2 should be read together with paragraph 1. | (6) 第2段应结合第1段解读。 |
| It aims to encourage cooperation and technical assistance amongst parties to render harmless the remnants of war referred to in paragraph 1. | 其目的是鼓励各方之间的合作和技术援助，使第1段所述的战争遗留物无害。 |
| It should be noted that paragraph 2 does not aim to place any new international law obligations on parties to cooperate. | 应当指出的是，第2段并不打算在合作方面对各方规定任何新的国际法义务。 |
| However, it is foreseeable that there may be situations where an armed conflict has taken place and a party is not in a position to ensure that toxic and hazardous remnants of war are rendered harmless. | 但可以预见的是，可能会出现发生武装冲突而一方无法确保使有毒和危险的战争遗留物无害的情况。 |
| It was thus considered valuable to encourage parties to cooperate in this regard. | 因此认为，鼓励各方在这方面进行合作十分重要。 |
| (7) Paragraph 3 contains a without prejudice clause that aims to ensure that there would be no uncertainty that existing treaty or customary international law obligations prevail. | (7) 第3段载有一项不妨碍条款，其目的是确保在以现有条约或习惯国际法义务为准方面没有不确定性。 |
| There are various laws of armed conflict treaties that regulate remnants of war, and different States thus have varying obligations relating to remnants of war. | 有各种关于战争遗留物的武装冲突条约法，因此不同国家对战争遗留物有不同的义务。 |
| (8) The words “clear, remove, destroy or maintain”, as well as the specific remnants of war listed, namely “minefields, mined areas, mines, booby-traps, explosive ordnance and other devices”, were specifically chosen and are derived from existing law of armed conflict treaties to ensure that the paragraph is based on the law of armed conflict as it exists at present. | (8) “清除、移除、销毁或维护”等词，以及所列出的特定战争遗留物，即“雷场、雷区、地雷、诱杀装置、爆炸性弹药和其他装置”，是经特别选定的，并源于现有的武装冲突法条约，以确保该段以目前存在的武装冲突法为基础。 |
| (9) It should be noted that the draft principle does not directly deal with the issue of responsibility or reparation for victims on purpose. | (9) 应当指出的是，本项原则草案的目的不是直接处理责任或受害人赔偿问题。 |
| This is because responsibility to clear, remove, destroy or maintain remnants of war is already regulated to some extent under the existing law of armed conflict, at least in the sense that certain treaties identify who should take action. | 这是因为清除、移除、销毁或维护战争遗留物的责任在现有的武装冲突法中已有规定，至少在某些条约指明谁应当采取行动的意义上是如此。 |
| The draft principle is without prejudice to the allocation of responsibility and questions of compensation. | 本项原则草案不妨碍责任分配和赔偿问题。 |
| Principle 28 Remnants of war at sea | 原则28 海上战争遗留物 |
| States and relevant international organizations should cooperate to ensure that remnants of war at sea do not constitute a danger to the environment. | 各国和有关国际组织应当开展合作，确保海上战争遗留物不对环境构成危险。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) Unlike the broader draft principle 27, which deals with remnants of war more generally, draft principle 28 deals with the specific situation of remnants of war at sea including the long-lasting effects on the marine environment. | (1) 与范围更广、更一般性地涉及战争遗留问题的原则草案27不同，原则草案28涉及海上战争遗留物的具体情况，包括对海洋环境的长期影响。 |
| Draft principle 28 has added value as draft principle 27 only covers remnants of war under the jurisdiction or control of a former party to an armed conflict, which means that it is not wide enough to cover all remnants of war at sea. | 原则草案28具有附加价值，因为原则草案27只涵盖前武装冲突一方管辖或控制下的战争遗留物，这意味着它的范围不够宽，无法涵盖所有海上战争遗留物。 |
| This draft principle expressly encourages international cooperation to ensure that remnants of war at sea do not constitute a danger to the environment. | 本项原则草案明确鼓励开展国际合作，确保海上战争遗留物不对环境构成危险。 |
| (2) Owing to the multifaceted nature of the law of the sea, a particular State could have sovereignty, jurisdiction, both sovereignty and jurisdiction, or neither sovereignty nor jurisdiction, depending on where the remnants are located. | (2) 由于海洋法的多面性，特定国家可以拥有主权、管辖权，同时拥有主权和管辖权，或既无主权也无管辖权，具体取决于遗留物所在地点。 |
| It is therefore not surprising that remnants of war at sea pose significant legal challenges. | 因此，海上战争遗留物构成重大法律挑战这一点并不令人惊讶。 |
| For example, the parties to the armed conflict may have ceased to exist; the coastal State may not have the resources to ensure that the remnants of war at sea do not constitute a danger to the environment; | 例如，武装冲突各方可能已不复存在，沿海国可能没有资源确保海上战争遗留物不对环境构成危险； |
| or the coastal State may not have been a party to the conflict, but the cooperation of that State may still be needed in efforts to get rid of remnants. | 或沿海国可能不是冲突一方，但为努力移除遗留物，可能仍然需要该国的合作。 |
| Another foreseeable challenge is that the party that left the remnants may not have been in violation of its international law obligations at the time when that happened but these remnants now pose environmental risk. | 另一个可预见的挑战是，留下遗留物的一方在当时可能没有违反其国际法义务，但这些遗留物现在构成了环境风险。 |
| (3) Accordingly, draft principle 28 addresses States generally, not only those which have been involved in an armed conflict. | (3) 因此，原则草案28一般性地提及各国，而不仅是卷入武装冲突的国家。 |
| It aims to encourage all States, as well as relevant international organizations, to cooperate to ensure that remnants of war at sea do not constitute a danger to the environment. | 其目的是鼓励所有国家和有关国际组织 进行合作，确保海上战争遗留物不对环境构成危险。 |
| The reference to “international organizations” is qualified with the word “relevant”, in the light of the fact that the issues involved tend to be specialized. | 鉴于所涉问题往往是专业化问题，因此“国际组织”用“有关”一词来限定。 |
| (4) The words “should cooperate” rather than the more prescriptive “shall cooperate” were considered appropriate, given that this is an area where practice is still developing. | (4) 由于这是一个实践仍在发展的领域，“应当开展合作”被认为是适当的，而不是规定性更强的“应开展合作”。 |
| Cooperation is an important element concerning remnants of war at sea, as the coastal States negatively affected by remnants of war at sea may not have the resources and thus not be capable of ensuring that remnants of war at sea do not pose environmental risks. | 合作是与战争遗留物有关的一个重要因素，因为受海上战争遗留物负面影响的沿海国可能没有资源，因此无法确保海上战争遗留物不构成环境风险。 |
| (5) There are various ways in which States and relevant international organizations can cooperate to ensure that remnants of war at sea do not pose environmental risks. | (5) 各国和有关国际组织可通过多种方式进行合作，确保海上战争遗留物不构成环境风险。 |
| For example, they could survey maritime areas and make the information freely available to the affected States, they could provide maps with markers, and they could provide technological and scientific information and information concerning whether the remnants pose risks or may pose risks in the future. | 例如，它们可以进行海域勘测，向受影响国免费提供相关信息，可以提供带有标记的地图，并可提供技术和科学信息以及关于遗留物现在或今后是否构成风险的信息。 |
| (6) There is increasing awareness concerning the environmental effects of remnants of war at sea. | (6) 人们日益认识到海上战争遗留物对环境的影响。 |
| Dangers posed to the environment by remnants of war at sea could have significant collateral damage to human health and safety, especially of seafarers and fishermen. | 海上战争遗留物对环境构成的危险可能会对人类，特别是海员和渔民的健康和安全造成重大的附带损害。 |
| The clear link between danger to the environment and public health and safety has been recognized in several international law instruments, and it was thus considered particularly important to encourage the cooperation amongst States and international organizations to ensure that remnants of war at sea do not pose danger. | 环境危险与公共健康和安全之间的明确联系已得到一些国际法律文书的承认，因此，鼓励各国和国际组织合作确保海上战争遗留物不构成危险被认为尤为重要。 |
| (7) Draft principle 28 intentionally does not deal with any issues concerning the allocation of responsibility or compensation for damages regarding remnants of war at sea. | (7) 原则草案28有意未涉及关于与海上战争遗留物有关的损害的责任分配或赔偿的任何问题。 |
| Determining which party has the primary obligation to ensure that remnants of war at sea do not pose environmental risks is a very complex and delicate issue to define, especially considering the varied legal nature of the law of the sea, ranging from internal waters to the high seas. | 确定哪一方负有确保海上战争遗留物不构成环境风险的主要义务，是一个非常复杂和棘手的问题――尤其是考虑到海洋(从内水到公海)法的不同法律性质。 |
| Chapter VII Succession of States in respect of State responsibility | 第七章 国家责任方面的国家继承 |
| A. Introduction | A. 导言 |
| 72. At its sixty-ninth session (2017), the Commission decided to include the topic “Succession of States in respect of State responsibility” in its programme of work and appointed Mr. Pavel Šturma as Special Rapporteur. | 72. 委员会第六十九届会议(2017年)决定将“国家责任方面的国家继承”专题列入工作方案，并任命帕维尔·斯图尔马先生为特别报告员。 |
| The General Assembly subsequently, in its resolution 72/116 of 7 December 2017, took note of the decision of the Commission to include the topic in its programme of work. | 联大随后在2017年12月7日第72/116号决议中表示注意到委员会决定将本专题列入工作方案。 |
| 73. At the same session, the Commission considered the first report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/708), which set out the Special Rapporteur’s approach to the scope and outcome of the topic, and provided an overview of general provisions relating to the topic. | 73. 在同一届会议上，委员会审议了特别报告员的第一次报告(A/CN.4/708)，特别报告员在报告中阐明了研究本专题范围和成果的方法，并概述了与本专题相关的一般规定。 |
| Following the debate in plenary, the Commission decided to refer draft articles 1 to 4, as contained in the first report of the Special Rapporteur, to the Drafting Committee. | 经全体会议辩论后，委员会决定将特别报告员第一次报告所载的第1至第4条草案转交起草委员会。 |
| The Commission subsequently took note of the interim report of the Chair of the Drafting Committee regarding draft articles 1 and 2, provisionally adopted by the Committee, which was presented to the Commission for information only. | 委员会随后注意到起草委员会主席关于起草委员会暂时通过的第1和第2条草案的临时报告，该报告提交委员会仅供参考。 |
| 74. At its seventieth session (2018), the Commission considered the second report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/719), which addressed the legality of succession, the general rules on succession of States in respect of State responsibility, and certain special categories of State succession to the obligations arising from responsibility. | 74. 委员会第七十届会议(2018年)审议了特别报告员的第二次报告(A/CN.4/ 719)，其中讨论了继承的合法性、国家责任方面的国家继承的一般规则，以及责任所致义务方面的国家继承的特殊类别。 |
| Following the debate in plenary, the Commission decided to refer draft articles 5 to 11, as contained in the second report of the Special Rapporteur, to the Drafting Committee. | 经全体会议辩论后，委员会决定将特别报告员第二次报告所载的第5至第11条草案提交起草委员会。 |
| The Commission subsequently took note of the interim report of the Chair of the Drafting Committee on draft article 1, paragraph 2, and draft articles 5 and 6, provisionally adopted by the Committee, which was presented to the Commission for information only. | 委员会随后注意到起草委员会主席关于起草委员会暂时通过的第1条第2款和第5条及第6条草案的临时报告，该报告提交委员会仅供参考。 |
| B. Consideration of the topic at the present session | B. 本届会议审议此专题的情况 |
| 75. At the present session, the Commission had before it the third report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/731). | 75. 在本届会议上，委员会收到了特别报告员的第三次报告(A/CN.4/731)。 |
| The Commission also had before it a memorandum by the Secretariat providing information on treaties which may be of relevance to its future work on the topic (A/CN.4/730). | 委员会还收到了秘书处的一份备忘录，其中提供了可能与委员会今后关于本专题工作有关的条约资料(A/CN.4/730)。 |
| 76. In his third report, which is composed of four parts, the Special Rapporteur first addressed introductory issues, including certain general considerations (Part One). | 76. 特别报告员的第三次报告分为四部分，首先是导言，包括某些一般考虑因素(第一部分)。 |
| Thereafter, the Special Rapporteur discussed questions of reparation for injury resulting from internationally wrongful acts committed against the predecessor State, considering, in particular, claims for reparation in different categories of State succession, as well as various approaches to reparation for injury arising from internationally wrongful acts committed against the nationals of the predecessor State (Part Two). | 特别报告员继而讨论了对被继承国犯下的国际不法行为造成的损害的赔偿问题，特别审议了不同类别的国家继承中的赔偿要求，以及对被继承国国民犯下的国际不法行为所致损害的各种不同的赔偿办法(第二部分)。 |
| Further, the Special Rapporteur made technical proposals in relation to the scheme of the draft articles (Part Three). | 特别报告员接着就条款草案的整体构架提出了技术性提议(第三部分)。 |
| The future programme of work on the topic was then addressed (Part Four). | 随后，特别报告员讨论了关于本专题的今后工作方案(第四部分)。 |
| The Special Rapporteur proposed several new draft articles (draft articles 2, paragraph (f), X, Y, 12, 13, 14 and 15) and suggested that the draft articles be organized into three parts (Parts One, Two and Three) with proposed titles for Parts Two and Three. | 特别报告员提出了几个新的条款草案(第2条草案(f)项、第X条、第Y条、第12条、第13条、第14条和第15条)，建议将条款草案分为三部分(第一部分、第二部分和第三部分)，并提议了第二部分和第三部分的标题。 |
| 77. The Commission considered the third report of the Special Rapporteur at its 3475th to 3480th meetings, from 8 to 15 July 2019. | 77. 委员会在2019年7月8日至15日的第3475次至第3480次会议上审议了特别报告员的第三次报告。 |
| At its 3480th meeting, on 15 July 2019, the Commission decided to refer draft articles 2, paragraph (f), X, Y, 12, 13, 14 and 15, and the titles of Part Two and Part Three, as contained in the third report of the Special Rapporteur, to the Drafting Committee, taking into account the views expressed in the plenary debate. | 在2019年7月15日第3480次会议上，委员会决定结合全体辩论中表达的意见，将条款草案第2条(f)项、第X条、第Y条、第12条、第13条、第14条和第15条以及特别报告员的第三次报告所载的第二部分和第三部分的标题提交起草委员会。 |
| 78. At its 3489th meeting, on 24 July 2019, the Commission considered a first report of the Drafting Committee on the topic and provisionally adopted draft articles 1, 2 and 5, which had been provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee at the sixty-ninth and seventieth sessions (see section C.1 below). | 78. 在2019年7月24日第3489次会议上，委员会审议了起草委员会关于本专题的第一次报告， 并暂时通过了第1、第2和第5条草案，上述草案已由起草委员会第六十九届和第七十届会议暂时通过(见下文C.1节)。 |
| 79. At its 3495th meeting, on 31 July 2019, the Chair of the Drafting Committee presented an interim report on draft articles 7, 8 and 9, provisionally adopted by the Committee at the present session. | 79. 在2019年7月31日第3495次会议上，起草委员会主席提交了一份关于委员会在本届会议暂时通过的第7、第8和第9条草案的临时报告。 |
| The report was presented for information only and is available on the website of the Commission. | 提交该报告仅供参考，可在委员会网站查阅。 |
| The Commission took note of the draft articles as presented by the Drafting Committee. | 委员会注意到起草委员会提交的条款草案。 |
| 80. At its 3507th meeting, on 9 August 2019, the Commission adopted the commentaries to draft articles 1, 2 and 5 provisionally adopted at the present session (see section C.2 below). | 80. 在2019年8月9日第3507次会议上，委员会通过了本届会议暂时通过的第1、第2和第5条草案的评注(见下文C.2节)。 |
| 1. Introduction by the Special Rapporteur of the third report | 1. 特别报告员介绍第三次报告 |
| 81. The Special Rapporteur indicated that Part One of his third report recalled the work of the Commission on the topic so far and the summary of the debate in the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly. | 81. 特别报告员指出，第三次报告第一部分回顾了委员会迄今就本专题所做的工作，以及联大第六委员会的辩论摘要。 |
| Reiterating that he was attentive to comments made in the Commission and in the Sixth Committee, the Special Rapporteur stressed that he was open to suggestions regarding his proposals. | 特别报告员重申，他注意到委员会和第六委员会提出的意见，并强调他愿意听取关于其提议的建议。 |
| The report aimed to follow the programme of work, as previously outlined, without undue haste. | 报告力求遵循先前概述的工作方案，未操之过急。 |
| Apart from one new definition and two provisions on the scheme of the draft articles, only four new substantive draft articles were proposed. | 除了关于条款草案整体构架的一个新定义和两项规定外，只提出了四条新的实质性条款草案。 |
| Further, the report clarified the Special Rapporteur’s approach to the topic, which excluded both the automatic extinction of responsibility and the automatic transfer of responsibility in cases of succession of States. | 此外，报告澄清了特别报告员处理这一专题的方法，该方法既排除了责任的自动消失，也排除了在国家继承的情况下责任的自动转移。 |
| As to the fact that complex situations may occur when a claim for reparation is invoked by the predecessor State and one or more successor States, the Special Rapporteur indicated that this issue will be addressed in his fourth report. | 关于被继承国和一个或多个继承国提出赔偿要求时可能出现的复杂情况，特别报告员表示，他将在第四次报告中讨论这一问题。 |
| He also considered it useful to state expressly that the draft articles only covered situations when injury was not made good by reparation before the date of succession of States and he proposed draft articles X and Y to that effect. | 他还认为，宜明确说明条款草案只涵盖在国家继承日期之前没有通过赔偿弥补损害的情况，为此他提出了第X条和第Y条草案。 |
| 82. Part Two of the report, dealing with reparation for injury resulting from internationally wrongful acts committed against the predecessor State, addressed the so-called “passive” aspect of State responsibility where succession of States occurs in relation to the injured State. | 82. 报告第二部分涉及对被继承国遭受的国际不法行为所致损害的赔偿问题，涉及国家责任的所谓“被动”方面，即国家继承发生在受害国。 |
| Unlike the resolution of the Institute of International Law on succession of States in matters of international responsibility, the Special Rapporteur proposed analysing the possible transfer of rights separately from that of obligations, taking into account that an important difference between the question of succession to the right to reparation, on one hand, and the question of succession to obligations arising from State responsibility, on the other hand, was that the right to reparation was a consequence of the internationally wrongful act of the responsible State which remained unaffected by the territorial changes giving rise to the succession of States. | 与国际法学会关于国际责任事项上的国家继承问题的决议不同，特别报告员考虑到赔偿权的继承问题与国家责任引起的义务的继承问题的一个重要区别是，赔偿权是责任国的国际不法行为的后果，而责任国不受引起国家继承的领土改变的影响，因此建议将权利的可能转移与义务的可能转移分开分析。 |
| 83. In addition, the Special Rapporteur distinguished between situations when the predecessor State continued to exist after the date of succession and when the predecessor State ceased to exist. | 83. 此外，特别报告员区分了被继承国在继承日期之后继续存在与被继承国不复存在的情况。 |
| When the predecessor State continued to exist, succession would not affect its right to claim reparation from the wrongdoing State for acts committed before the date of succession. | 当被继承国继续存在时，继承不会影响其就继承日期前所犯行为向不法行为国索赔的权利。 |
| Such claim was based on the rules governing the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 这种索赔是基于关于国家对国际不法行为的责任的规则。 |
| However, that did not answer all questions that could arise when the injury primarily or exclusively affected part of the territory which became part of the successor State. | 然而，这并没有回答当损害主要或仅仅影响成为继承国一部分的领土时可能出现的所有问题。 |
| In situations such as decolonization, separation or transfer of territory, when the injury affected persons who subsequently became nationals of the successor State, the Special Rapporteur considered it unlikely that the predecessor State could still claim reparation after the date of succession. | 在摆脱殖民统治、分离或领土转移等情况下，当损害影响到后来成为继承国国民的人时，特别报告员认为，被继承国不太可能在继承日期之后仍然要求赔偿。 |
| In contrast, according to the prevailing opinion in doctrine, when the predecessor State ceased to exist, the right to reparation did not devolve from the predecessor State to the successor State. | 相反，按照主流学说的意见，当被继承国不复存在时，赔偿权并没有从被继承国转移到继承国。 |
| The Special Rapporteur cautioned, however, against the discriminatory treatment of States when continuity was disputed, considering that the distinction made between cases of dissolution and separation of a State was often based on broader political considerations rather than objective criteria. | 然而，特别报告员告诫，不应在连续性有争议时对国家采取区别待遇，他认为，对国家解体和分离情况的区分往往是基于更广泛的政治考量，而不是客观标准。 |
| Moreover, the idea of a “personal” right to claim reparation belonging only to the predecessor State seemed to reflect a traditional positivist doctrine, which viewed State responsibility as closely linked to legal personality, and not as a body of secondary rights and obligations. | 此外，要求赔偿的“个人”权利只属于被继承国的观点似乎反映了传统的实证主义思想，即认为国家责任与法律人格密切相关，而不是将其视为从属权利和义务的主体。 |
| 84. Further, the report provided an analysis of claims for reparation in different categories of succession of States based on State practice, mainly agreements and decisions of international courts and tribunals, which was narrow in scope due to the limited number of cases of succession of States. | 84. 此外，报告根据国家实践，主要是协议和国际性法院和法庭的裁决，对不同类别的国家继承中的赔偿要求进行了分析，由于国家继承案件数量有限，分析范围较窄。 |
| Draft articles 12 to 14 were informed by the above considerations, and based on the distinction between situations when the predecessor State continued to exist and when the predecessor State ceased to exist. | 第12至第14条草案是基于上述考虑，并根据被继承国继续存在和被继承国不复存在这两种情况的区别而提出的。 |
| The Special Rapporteur underlined that the expression “may request” used in those draft articles would rebut any allegation of automatic succession and simply reflected the idea that a successor State is able to present a claim or request for reparation. | 特别报告员强调，这些条款草案中使用的“可要求”一词将驳斥任何关于自动继承的说法，它只是反映了继承国可以提出主张或赔偿要求的观点。 |
| Such an approach was in accordance with the priority generally given to agreements followed by the Commission in this topic. | 这符合委员会在本专题中普遍对协议给予优先考虑的做法。 |
| Further, draft article 14, paragraph 2, recalled that any claims and agreements should take into consideration a nexus between the consequences of an internationally wrongful act and the territory or nationals of the successor State, an equitable proportion and other relevant factors, which could include the principle of unjust enrichment. | 此外，第14条草案第2款阐明，任何主张和协议都应顾及国际不法行为的后果与继承国的领土或国民之间的联系、公平比例和其他有关因素，其中可能包括不当得利原则。 |
| 85. The report also addressed the possible succession to the right to reparation in cases where an internationally wrongful act was committed against nationals of the predecessor State, on the basis of an analysis of more extensive State practice, including agreements and the practice of international courts and tribunals and of the United Nations Compensation Commission. | 85. 报告还在分析更广泛的国家实践――包括国际性法院和法庭以及联合国赔偿委员会的协定和做法――的基础上，讨论了对被继承国国民犯下国际不法行为的情况下，赔偿权的可能继承。 |
| It revealed that a claim for reparation by the successor State was not purely theoretical or rare, nor did it concern only inter-State relations. | 报告指出，继承国提出赔偿要求并不是纯理论的或罕见的，也不只涉及国家间的关系。 |
| Instead, there were important practical consequences for the effective exercise of diplomatic protection by States in cases of injury suffered before the date of succession by individuals who subsequently became their nationals. | 相反，若后来成为其国民的个人在继承日期前遭受损害，则国家有效行使外交保护将产生重要的实际后果。 |
| The Special Rapporteur further observed that, in modern practice and doctrine, a change of nationality resulting from succession of States was largely accepted as an exception to the traditional rule of continuous nationality. | 特别报告员进一步指出，在现代实践和学说中，国家继承导致的国籍变化基本上作为传统的持续国籍规则的例外而被接受。 |
| Draft article 15 was therefore proposed to that effect. | 因而，为此提出了第15条草案。 |
| The Special Rapporteur noted that this proposal was consistent with the articles on diplomatic protection in particular. | 特别报告员指出，该条尤其符合《外交保护条款》。 |
| Draft article 15, paragraph 1, recognized that the successor State may exercise diplomatic protection under special circumstances, while paragraph 2 provided that, under the same conditions, a claim in exercise of diplomatic protection initiated by the predecessor State may be continued after the date of succession by the successor State. | 第15条草案第1款承认，继承国可以在特殊情况下行使外交保护，而第2款规定，在相同条件下，被继承国在行使外交保护时提出的索赔，在继承日期之后可由继承国继续进行。 |
| Draft article 15, paragraph 3, clarified that paragraphs 1 and 2 were without prejudice to the application of the rules of State responsibility relating to the nationality of claims and the rules of diplomatic protection. | 第15条草案第3款澄清，第1款和第2款不影响国家责任规则中索赔者国籍相关内容的适用，以及外交保护规则的适用。 |
| 86. Part Three of the report focused on the scheme of the draft articles presented so far. | 86. 报告第三部分侧重迄今提出的条款草案的整体构架。 |
| The Special Rapporteur considered it useful to organize them into three parts and to include two draft articles to address the respective scopes of Parts Two and Three, namely draft articles X and Y. In relation to draft article 2 on “Use of terms”, a new paragraph (f) was proposed to define the term “States concerned”, which was often referred to in the draft articles and had a special meaning in the context of succession of States. | 特别报告员认为，宜将条款草案分成三部分，并增加分别阐述第二和第三部分范围的第X条和第Y条草案。 关于第2条草案――“用语”，建议增加一个新的(f)项，以定义“有关国家”一词，该词在条款草案中经常提及，在国家继承语境中有特定含义。 |
| 87. Regarding the future programme of work, the Special Rapporteur indicated that his fourth report would focus on forms and invocation of responsibility in the context of succession of States and also address procedural and miscellaneous issues, including problems arising in situations where there are several successor States and the issue of shared responsibility. | 87. 关于今后的工作方案，特别报告员表示，他的第四次报告将侧重国家继承情况下责任的形式和援引，并处理程序和杂项问题，包括在有多个继承国的情况下出现的问题和责任分担问题。 |
| It was hoped that the topic could be completed on first reading in 2020 or 2021. | 希望本专题能够在2020年或2021年完成一读。 |
| 2. Summary of the debate | 2. 辩论摘要 |
| (a) General comments | (a) 一般性评论 |
| 88. Members of the Commission generally welcomed the third report of the Special Rapporteur and expressed appreciation for the memorandum prepared by the Secretariat. | 88. 委员会委员普遍欢迎特别报告员的第三次报告，并对秘书处编写的备忘录表示赞赏。 |
| 89. Regarding the methodology of the report, several members commended the Special Rapporteur’s survey of relevant State practice, jurisprudence and doctrine, while others called for a closer analysis of such sources. | 89. 关于报告采用的方法，若干委员赞扬特别报告员对相关国家实践、判例和学说的通盘考虑，而其他委员则呼吁对这些来源进行更深入的分析。 |
| Caution was expressed against over-reliance on academic literature and the work of the Institute of International Law. | 对于过度依赖学术文献和国际法学会的工作提出了告诫。 |
| Members agreed with the Special Rapporteur’s assessment that State practice was diverse, context-specific, and sensitive. | 委员们同意特别报告员的这一评价，即国家实践多种多样，背景各异，且内容敏感。 |
| Some members also recalled that the scarcity of State practice had been highlighted during the debate in the Sixth Committee, and emphasized the need to take into account more geographically diverse sources of State practice. | 一些委员还回顾，在第六委员会的辩论中强调了国家实践的稀缺，并强调需要考虑更多不同地区的国家实践。 |
| A number of members also observed that special agreements or ex gratia payments by States were often a result of political or other non-legal considerations. | 一些委员还指出，国家的特殊协议或惠给金支付往往是出于政治或其他非法律考量的结果。 |
| Most of these cases did not evidence an opinio juris regarding a general rule in connection with State succession, but constituted context-specific arrangements. | 这些情况大多不能表明关于国家继承一般规则的法律确信，而只是具体情况下的安排。 |
| 90. Members agreed with the Special Rapporteur on the subsidiary nature of the draft articles and on the priority to be given to agreements between the States concerned. | 90. 委员们同意特别报告员关于条款草案的附属性质和应优先考虑有关国家之间协议的意见。 |
| It was suggested that the important role of agreements should be addressed in greater detail. | 故建议，应更详细地讨论协议的重要作用。 |
| Further, according to some members, the relationship between a lump sum agreement concluded before the date of succession of States and the principle of full reparation should be discussed. | 此外，一些委员认为，应讨论在国家继承日期之前达成的一次付清协议与充分赔偿原则之间的关系。 |
| In this regard, the view was expressed that the existence of a lump sum agreement did not necessarily indicate full reparation, since there were examples of decisions by national courts allowing claims for reparation despite the existence of a previous lump sum agreement. | 在这方面，有人认为，一次付清协议的存在未必意味着充分赔偿，因为存在这样的一些例子，即已有一次付清协议，但国家法院的裁决仍允许提出赔偿要求。 |
| 91. Several members emphasized the general rule of non-succession with some exceptions. | 91. 若干委员强调了不继承的一般规则，并提到了一些例外。 |
| While some members supported the flexible approach of the Special Rapporteur, others underlined the need to clarify whether such an approach would deviate from the general rule of non-succession. | 一些委员支持特别报告员的灵活做法，但另一些委员强调，需要澄清这种做法是否会偏离不继承的一般规则。 |
| It was suggested that the Commission could acknowledge the limited State practice in this area at the outset of its commentary or approach the project as an effort to develop a new convention, which would be subject to support from States. | 有与会者建议，委员会可以在评注开头就承认这一领域的国家实践有限，或通过努力制定一项新公约来推进该项目，不过这需要各国的支持。 |
| It was proposed that the Commission expressly indicate that it was engaging in progressive development of international law when proposing draft articles, taking best practices into account, including considering that lex ferenda should be based on solid grounds and not on policy preferences. | 有人提议，委员会在提出条款草案时应明确表示，它正在从事国际法的逐渐发展工作，同时将最佳做法纳入考虑，包括考虑到“应然法”应基于充分的理由而不是基于政策偏好。 |
| Moreover, the view was expressed that the work of the Commission was not adjudicatory in nature and should not seek to resolve pending disputes between States, and thus the proposed rules should be of general application. | 此外，有意见认为，委员会的工作不是裁决性质的，不应着眼于解决国家之间的未决争端，因此，一般应适用拟议的规则。 |
| 92. The importance of maintaining consistency, in terminology and substance, with the previous work of the Commission was reiterated. | 92. 委员们重申了在术语和实质内容上与委员会先前工作保持一致的重要性。 |
| It was recalled that different views had been expressed in the Sixth Committee regarding the extent to which provisions in the 1978 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties and the 1983 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts, such as those concerning newly independent States, should be replicated. | 有人回顾，对于应在多大程度上照搬1978年《关于国家在条约方面的继承的维也纳公约》 和1983年《关于国家在国家财产、档案和债务方面的继承的维也纳公约》 中的规定，例如关于新独立国家的规定，第六委员会内意见不一。 |
| It was also stressed that the proposed draft articles should be compatible with the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts and the articles on diplomatic protection. | 还有人强调，拟议的条款草案应与《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》 和《外交保护条款》保持一致。 |
| 93. Several members suggested changing the title of the topic to “State responsibility problems/aspects in cases of succession of States”, as suggested in the Sixth Committee, or to “Succession of States in matters of international responsibility”, as used by the Institute of International Law. | 93. 一些委员建议，按照第六委员会的建议，将本专题的标题改为“国家继承情况下的国家责任问题/方面”，或改为国际法学会使用的“国家在国际责任事项中的继承”。 |
| An alternative title proposed was “Reparation for injury arising from internationally wrongful acts in State succession”. | 建议的另一个标题是“国际不法行为所致损害在国家继承情况下的赔偿”。 |
| Several other members indicated their preference for retaining the current title of the topic. | 其他几名委员表示倾向于保留目前的标题。 |
| (b) Scheme of the draft articles | (b) 条款草案的整体构架 |
| 94. Support was voiced for the Special Rapporteur’s proposal to organize the draft articles in parts, as well as to include draft articles X and Y indicating the scope of each part. | 94. 有人表示支持特别报告员的建议：将条款草案分成几部分，并列入第X条和第Y条草案，说明每一部分的范围。 |
| Another proposal was made to organize the draft articles according to specific categories of succession of States and to address the possible transfer of rights and obligations together in the same draft articles. | 另一项建议是按照国家继承的具体类别编排条款草案，并在同一条款草案中一并述及权利和义务的可能转移。 |
| In this regard, members debated whether issues concerning rights and claims arising from an internationally wrongful act could be treated separately from issues concerning obligations arising from such act. | 关于这一点，委员们就是否可以分开处理国际不法行为引起的权利和索赔问题与此类行为引起的义务问题进行了辩论。 |
| While several members reiterated concerns that it might lead to unnecessary duplication of work, the view was expressed that the right to reparation was an “acquired right” transferable from a predecessor State to a successor State, while the concept of “acquired obligations” was not recognized in legal doctrine. | 一些委员重申担心这可能导致不必要的工作重复，但有意见认为，赔偿权是一项可以从被继承国转移给继承国的“既得权利”，而“既得义务”的概念在法律学说中并未得到承认。 |
| 95. Some members also agreed with the Special Rapporteur on the broad distinction between situations where the predecessor State continued to exist and where it ceased to exist, although it was questioned whether this distinction should be more nuanced. | 95. 一些委员还同意特别报告员的意见，即应大致区分被继承国继续存在与不复存在的情况，不过有人问这种区分是否应更加细微。 |
| Concerning the specific categories of succession of States, some members supported the formulation of draft article 12 in which three categories of succession of States were merged, whereas others expressed doubts in this regard. | 关于国家继承的具体类别，一些委员支持第12条草案的表述――将国家继承的三个类别合并，而另一些委员则对此表示怀疑。 |
| A proposal was made to define such categories of succession in draft article 2 on “Use of terms”. | 有人提议在第2条草案“用语”中界定继承类别。 |
| (c) Draft article 2 (f) | (c) 第2条草案(f)项 |
| 96. Some members questioned whether it was necessary to define the term “States concerned”, which might lead to confusion, and suggested that it would be sufficient to explain it in the commentary instead. | 96. 一些委员质疑是否有必要定义“有关国家”一词，认为这可能导致混淆，并建议改为在评注中解释即可。 |
| (d) Draft articles 12 to 14 | (d) 第12至第14条草案 |
| 97. While the overall approach to reparation in draft articles 12 to 14 was supported by some members, a number of other members considered that the expression “may request” was ambiguous. | 97. 虽然第12至第14条草案中关于赔偿的总体做法得到了一些委员的支持，但另一些委员认为，“可要求”一词意思不清楚。 |
| In this regard, various drafting proposals were made to distinguish the legal right to reparation from the procedural possibility of claiming reparation. | 关于这一点，提出了各种不同的起草建议，以区分获得赔偿的法律权利与要求赔偿在程序上的可能性。 |
| Nonetheless, some members questioned the usefulness of recognizing procedural possibilities without identifying substantive rights and obligations. | 尽管如此，一些委员质疑，承认程序上的可能性而不确定实质性权利和义务是否有用。 |
| Different views were expressed as to whether the terms “reparation” or “compensation” should be used in those draft articles and whether the reference to “injury” was appropriate, in the light of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 委员们结合《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》，就本条款草案应使用“赔偿”还是“补偿”，以及提及“损害”是否适当，表达了不同意见。 |
| 98. Several members considered that the principle of unjust enrichment could form the foundation for progressive development of international law in draft articles 12 to 14, although others questioned whether that would be appropriate or sufficient in the context of this topic. | 98. 若干委员认为，不当得利原则可以构成第12至第14条草案中国际法逐渐发展的基础，而另一些委员则质疑在本专题的背景下这样做是否适当或足够。 |
| It was also noted that the concept of unjust enrichment fell outside the rules of State responsibility. | 还有人指出，不当得利的概念不属于国家责任规则的范畴。 |
| 99. In relation to draft article 12, some members highlighted the need to clarify the meaning of “special circumstances” in paragraph 2. | 99. 关于第12条草案，一些委员强调，有必要澄清第2款中“特殊情况”一词的含义。 |
| In this regard, the work of the Institute of International Law referred to “special circumstances” only in the specific context of a potential sharing of responsibility by both the predecessor and successor States as an exceptional solution. | 在这方面，国际法学会仅在可能由被继承国和继承国分担责任的特定背景下才提到“特殊情况”，作为一种例外的解决办法。 |
| It was also suggested that reference be made to agreements between States in paragraph 2. | 还建议在第2款中提及国家间的协议。 |
| Further, consistency was required with the phrase “particular circumstances” as previously proposed in draft articles 7 to 9. | 此外，要求与先前在第7至第9条草案中使用的“具体情况”一词保持一致。 |
| The wording of draft article 12, paragraph 2, seemed to be broader than the requirement of a “direct link” between the internationally wrongful act or its consequences and the territory or nationals of the successor State in draft articles 7 to 9. | 第7至第9条草案要求国际不法行为或其后果与继承国领土或国民存在“直接联系”，相比之下，第12条草案第2款的措辞似乎更为宽泛。 |
| In contrast, draft article 14, paragraph 2, required a “nexus” between the consequences of an internationally wrongful act and the territory or nationals of the successor State. | 不过，第14条草案第2款要求在国际不法行为的后果与继承国的领土或国民之间有“联系”。 |
| Moreover, it was noted that the term “nationals” might be too restrictive and could be replaced with “persons under the jurisdiction of the successor State”. | 此外，有与会者指出，“国民”一词可能限制性过大，可以用“继承国管辖下的人”取代。 |
| At the same time, the question was raised whether a State newly independent as a result of the exercise of the right to self-determination could be considered as a successor injured State with direct rights. | 与此同时，还提出了这一问题：一个因行使自决权而新独立的国家是否可以被视为具有直接权利的继承受害国。 |
| It was suggested that the commentary distinguish between the right of a successor State to claim reparation and the potential right of individuals to claim reparation without intervention by the State. | 有委员建议，评注应区分继承国要求赔偿的权利与个人在无国家干预的情况下要求赔偿的潜在权利。 |
| 100. Some drafting proposals were also made regarding draft article 13. | 100. 委员们还就第13条草案提出了一些起草建议。 |
| In this connection, reference was made to article 13 of the resolution adopted the Institute of International Law. | 在这方面，有人提到国际法学会通过的决议第13条。 |
| It was suggested that cases of merger of States and cases of incorporation of a State into another existing State should be treated in separate draft articles. | 有人建议在不同的条款草案中分别处理国家合并和一国并入另一现有国家的情况。 |
| While draft article 13, paragraph 2, received support for reflecting the priority of any agreement between the States concerned, the view was expressed that it could be deleted. | 第13条草案第2款反映了有关国家之间任何协议的优先地位，因而得到部分委员的支持，但也有人表示该款可以删除。 |
| 101. As to draft article 14, it was proposed that paragraph 1 be redrafted to focus on the dissolution of a State without referring to separation of part of the State. | 101. 关于第14条草案，有人提议重新起草第1款，以侧重国家的解体，而不提及国家部分领土分离。 |
| The reference to agreements in draft article 14, paragraph 2, needed to be explained. | 需要对第14条草案第2款中提到的协议加以解释。 |
| It was opined that agreements between successor States should be considered as a priority over the other factors in paragraph 2. | 有委员认为，继承国之间的协议应被视为优先于第2款中提到的其他因素。 |
| It was suggested that the term “nexus” in paragraph 2 should be clarified, and that the phrase “other relevant factors” raised similar questions in relation to equitable considerations such as unjust enrichment. | 有人建议澄清第2款中的“联系”一词，并指出“其他有关因素”一词也提出了与公平考虑有关的类似问题，例如不当得利。 |
| A number of drafting suggestions regarding paragraph 3 were also made. | 还就第3款提出了一些起草建议。 |
| (e) Draft article 15 | (e) 第15条草案 |
| 102. Several members concurred with the Special Rapporteur’s approach of allowing an exception to the principle of continuous nationality in cases of succession of States to avoid situations in which an individual lacked protection. | 102. 一些委员同意特别报告员的做法，即在国家继承的情况下允许持续国籍原则有例外，以免出现个人缺乏保护的情况。 |
| In this regard, reference was made to the preamble of the articles on nationality of natural persons in relation to the succession of States, stating that due account should be taken both of the legitimate interests of States and those of individuals. | 在这方面，有人提到关于国家继承涉及的自然人国籍问题的条款序言， 指出应适当考虑国家和个人的合法利益。 |
| Some other members cautioned that the doctrine and practice in this area were not uniform. | 其他一些委员告诫说，这一领域的理论和实践并不统一。 |
| Some doubts were expressed as to whether issues of diplomatic protection should be addressed in this topic. | 有人对是否应在本专题中讨论外交保护问题提出质疑。 |
| The need to consider the comments of States in the Sixth Committee concerning the articles on diplomatic protection was stressed. | 有人强调需要考虑各国在第六委员会就《外交保护条款》发表的评论。 |
| 103. Some members observed that draft article 15 was consistent with article 5, paragraph 2, of the articles on diplomatic protection, as well as article 10, paragraph 1, of the resolution of the Institute of International Law. | 103. 一些委员认为，第15条草案与《外交保护条款》第5条第2款以及国际法学会决议第10条第1款相一致。 |
| Nonetheless, it was underlined that the draft articles proposed by the Special Rapporteur should not conflict with the articles on diplomatic protection. | 尽管如此，有人强调，特别报告员提出的条款草案不应与《外交保护条款》相抵触。 |
| Further analysis of their interaction was called for. | 需要进一步分析它们之间的相互作用。 |
| It was proposed that draft article 15, or its commentary, should include the safeguards stated in article 5, paragraphs 3 and 4, of the articles on diplomatic protection, which were intended to avoid abuses and prevent “nationality shopping” if the rule of continuous nationality was lifted. | 有人提议，第15条草案或其评注应包括《外交保护条款》第5条第3款和第4款中所述的保障措施，这些保障措施旨在避免滥用，并防止在取消持续国籍规则的情况下出现“国籍选购”。 |
| 104. Clarification was sought regarding the reference to “the corporation” in draft article 15, paragraph 1. | 104. 有人要求对第15条草案第1款中提到的“公司”一词作出澄清。 |
| In this connection, reference was made to article 10, paragraph 1, of the articles on diplomatic protection. | 在这方面，有人提到了《外交保护条款》第10条第1款。 |
| It was also noted that draft article 15, paragraph 2, did not follow the approach of distinguishing between whether the predecessor State continued to exist or not. | 还有人指出，第15条草案第2款没有遵循区分被继承国是否继续存在的方法。 |
| The view was expressed that draft article 15, paragraphs 1 and 2, should reflect the conditions for the exercise of diplomatic protection by predecessor and successor States. | 有意见认为，第15条草案第1和第2款应反映被继承国和继承国行使外交保护的条件。 |
| In addition, it was suggested that draft article 15, paragraph 3, or the commentary thereto, should explain that diplomatic protection was not the only recourse for the vindication of rights by individuals, who could not be deprived of the right to reparation due to territorial changes in all circumstances. | 此外，有人建议，第15条草案第3款或其评注应解释，外交保护不是个人维护权利的唯一途径，在任何情况下都不能因领土变更而剥夺个人获得赔偿的权利。 |
| Moreover, it was proposed that draft article 15 address the case of diplomatic protection on behalf of a person with dual nationality, one of the predecessor State and one of the successor State, in the light of the articles on diplomatic protection, which covered cases of multiple nationality. | 此外，有人提议，鉴于《外交保护条款》涵盖多重国籍的情况，第15条草案应处理对具有双重国籍的人，即兼具被继承国和继承国国籍者的外交保护的情况。 |
| A proposal was made to expressly state that a successor State shall not use force for diplomatic protection, or at least to restate, in draft article 2 (use of terms), the definition of diplomatic protection as contained in article 1 of the articles on diplomatic protection. | 有人提议，应明确说明继承国不得使用武力进行外交保护，或至少在第2条草案(用语)中重申《外交保护条款》第1条所载的外交保护的定义。 |
| (f) Final form | (f) 最终形式 |
| 105. A number of members questioned whether draft articles were the most appropriate outcome for the topic, taking into account the comments by some States that preferred draft guidelines, principles, conclusions, model clauses, or an analytical report as alternatives. | 105. 一些国家倾向于采取准则草案、原则草案、结论草案、示范条款草案或分析报告的形式，考虑到这些意见，一些委员质疑条款草案是否是这一专题最适当的成果。 |
| It was suggested that the Special Rapporteur consider making a recommendation on this issue in his next report. | 有人建议特别报告员考虑在下一次报告中就这一问题提出建议。 |
| (g) Future programme of work | (g) 今后的工作方案 |
| 106. Members generally agreed with the future programme of work proposed by the Special Rapporteur, while some cautioned that the Commission should not be hasty in its consideration of the topic. | 106. 委员们普遍同意特别报告员提出的今后工作方案，但一些委员告诫说，委员会审议这一专题不宜操之过急。 |
| The Special Rapporteur was asked to clarify whether he would discuss specific forms of reparation in his fourth report. | 请特别报告员澄清他是否将在第四次报告中讨论具体的赔偿形式。 |
| Suggestions were also made that the Special Rapporteur consider addressing the relationship between succession of States and State responsibility in relation to damage caused by crimes under international law, and the possible relevance of the topic of general principles of law, including principles of fairness. | 还有人建议特别报告员考虑阐述国家继承与国际法规定的罪行所致损害方面的国家责任之间的关系，以及与一般法律原则(包括公平原则)专题可能的相关性。 |
| 3. Concluding remarks of the Special Rapporteur | 3. 特别报告员的总结 |
| 107. The Special Rapporteur welcomed the prevailing sense of the debate, which focused on how to approach the topic in order to achieve a balanced and generally acceptable outcome. | 107. 特别报告员对辩论的普遍基调表示欢迎，辩论的重点是如何处理这一专题，以便取得平衡和普遍接受的成果。 |
| 108. Concerning the need to ensure consistency with the previous work of the Commission, the Special Rapporteur affirmed his readiness to resolve issues of terminology and substance in the Drafting Committee. | 108. 关于需要确保与委员会以前的工作相一致，特别报告员申明，他愿意在起草委员会中解决术语和实质问题。 |
| The articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts continued to be the basis for the work on the topic, which aimed to clarify the legal consequences of an internationally wrongful act for a predecessor State or a successor State after the date of succession of States. | 《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》仍然是本专题工作的基础，本专题旨在澄清国际不法行为在国家继承日期之后对被继承国或继承国的法律后果。 |
| In particular, the use of the terms “injury” and “injured State” in the proposed draft articles were intended to be consistent with Parts Two and Three of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 特别是，拟议条款草案中“损害”和“受害国”等词的使用，意在与《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第二部分和第三部分保持一致。 |
| 109. The Special Rapporteur agreed with members who expressed the view that the topic could and should include elements of progressive development of international law. | 109. 特别报告员同意一些委员的看法，即本专题可以且应该包括国际法逐渐发展的要素。 |
| This could be stated at the outset of the general commentary to the draft articles and, where necessary, in relation to specific provisions. | 这一点可以在条款草案的总评注开头说明，必要时还可以结合具体条款加以说明。 |
| Further, the work on the topic could proceed based on a cautious analysis of State practice, which would be explained in the commentary. | 此外，本专题的工作可以在对国家实践作出审慎分析的基础上进行，这将在评注中加以解释。 |
| While the Special Rapporteur had tried to include relevant State practice from more diverse sources, he would welcome further examples from members of the Commission and from States. | 特别报告员已努力将更多不同来源的相关国家实践纳入其中，但是仍欢迎委员会委员和各国提供更多的例子。 |
| He also agreed with some members that the topic could draw on general principles of law, including those concerning acquired rights, unjust enrichment, fairness and reasonableness. | 他还同意一些委员的意见，认为本专题可以参考一般法律原则，包括有关既得权利、不当得利、公平合理等原则。 |
| However, cautious consideration of the role of general principles of law was required. | 然而，需谨慎考虑一般法律原则的作用。 |
| For example, some principles existing in international investment law might not apply to other areas of international law. | 例如，国际投资法中的一些原则可能不适用于国际法的其他领域。 |
| Nevertheless, general principles of law could still be relevant, along with State practice, case law and agreements, and could evolve into custom over time or inform the negotiation of agreements between States. | 尽管如此，一般法律原则与国家实践、判例法和协议一样，仍然可能具有相关性，并且可随着时间的推移而演变为实践，或为国家间协议的谈判提供参考。 |
| 110. While the Special Rapporteur acknowledged that it was difficult to affirm the existence of a general rule, he did not agree with the view that the inconclusiveness of State practice would point towards a “clean slate” rule. | 110. 虽然特别报告员承认很难断言存在普遍规则，但他不同意国家实践的不确定性意味着应适用“白板”规则。 |
| In particular, the “clean slate” rule in the 1978 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties concerned newly independent States and did not apply to other categories of succession of States, whereas the 1983 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts contained only specific rules for different categories of succession of States in relation to the different areas of State property, archives and debts. | 特别是，1978年《关于国家在涉及新独立国家的条约方面的继承的维也纳公约》中的“白板”规则并不适用于其他类别的国家继承，而1983年《关于国家财产、档案和债务方面的国家继承的维也纳公约》只包含在国家财产、档案和债务等不同领域的不同类别国家继承的具体规则。 |
| Since the previous work of the Commission confirmed several specific rules rather than a general rule, the “clean slate” rule should not be elevated as a general rule in this topic, particularly in situations where the predecessor State continued to exist. | 由于委员会先前的工作确认了若干具体规则，而不是一般规则，因此不应当将“白板”规则拔高为本专题的一般规则，特别是在被继承国继续存在的情况下。 |
| Moreover, even if obligations arising from an internationally wrongful act did not transfer to a newly independent successor State, the position was different with respect to invocation of rights, especially in circumstances where the consequences of such act affected the territory or population of the newly independent State. | 此外，即使国际不法行为产生的义务不转移给新独立的继承国，在援引权利方面的立场也是不同的，特别是当这种行为的后果影响到新独立国家的领土或人口时。 |
| This also justified the separate treatment of obligations and rights in the draft articles. | 这也是本条款草案中将义务和权利分开处理的原因。 |
| In addition, although the Special Rapporteur’s approach to the topic was based on the rules relating to succession of States and the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, the doctrine of acquired rights could support such an approach. | 此外，尽管特别报告员对这一专题的做法是基于关于国家继承和国家对国际不法行为的责任的规则，但既得权利理论也可以为这种做法提供支持。 |
| 111. Regarding the structure of the draft articles, the Special Rapporteur concurred with the proposal that different categories of succession of States where the predecessor State continued to exist could be merged into a single draft article to avoid unnecessary repetitions, whereas those categories of succession of States where the predecessor State ceased to exist could be addressed in separate draft articles. | 111. 关于条款草案的结构，特别报告员同意以下建议：可以将被继承国继续存在的不同类别的国家继承并入同一项条款草案，以避免不必要的重复，而被继承国不复存在的国家继承类别可以在单独的条款草案中处理。 |
| The Special Rapporteur indicated that it would be useful to continue addressing the category of newly independent States in the draft articles, as illustrated by the pronouncements of the International Court of Justice in its Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965. | 特别报告员表示，继续在本条款草案中处理新独立国家这一类别是有益的，从国际法院在关于1965年查戈斯群岛从毛里求斯分离的法律后果的咨询意见中的声明就可以看出。 |
| 112. The Special Rapporteur welcomed most drafting proposals concerning draft articles 12, 13, 14 and 15. | 112. 特别报告员欢迎委员们就第12、第13、第14和第15条草案提出的大多数起草建议。 |
| Concerning the expression “may request reparation” in draft articles 12, 13 and 14, he indicated that it was intended to be flexible enough to reflect both lex lata and lex ferenda without a sharp distinction, since some lex ferenda rules might evolve into lex lata rules over time. | 关于第12、第13和第14条草案中的“可要求赔偿”一词，他表示，其目的旨在足够灵活，既反映实然法也反映应然法，而不做明确区分，因为一些应然法规则可能随时间的推移而演变成实然法规则。 |
| This approach was also in accordance with the subsidiary nature of the draft articles. | 这种做法也符合本条款草案的附属性质。 |
| Based on the Special Rapporteur’s analysis of agreements between States, such a flexible formulation presented advantages from the perspective of enabling States to reach agreement, such as on the restitution of objects or compensation, without any reference to responsibility for an internationally wrongful act. | 根据特别报告员对国家间协议的分析，从使各国能够达成协议――例如关于归还物品或赔偿的协议――的角度来看，这种灵活的表述具有优势，因为没有提及对国际不法行为的责任。 |
| Further, the Special Rapporteur agreed to clarify the reference to “special” or “particular” circumstances in the draft articles, and to consider replacing the term “nationals” with “population” in draft article 12, paragraph 2. | 此外，特别报告员同意澄清条款草案中关于“特殊”或“具体”情况的提法，并考虑在第12条草案第2款中将“国民”一词改为“人民”。 |
| He also acknowledged the need to replace the term “compensation” in draft article 12, paragraph 3, and draft article 14, paragraph 3, since those provisions did not address reparation from the responsible State to the injured State but rather some kind of settlement, set-off, arrangement or repayment as between the predecessor and successor States or between two successor States. | 他还承认需要将第12条草案第3款和第14条草案第3款中的“补偿”一词换掉，因为这些规定并不涉及责任国对受害国的赔偿，而是涉及被继承国和继承国之间或两个继承国之间的某种解决、抵销、安排或偿还。 |
| 113. While the Special Rapporteur was sympathetic to the view that the draft articles should address the potential right of individuals to claim reparation independent of intervention by a State, he noted that it might have broader ramifications for this topic, the scope of which was set out in draft article 1. | 113. 特别报告员理解关于本条款草案应处理个人独立于国家干预而要求赔偿的潜在权利的观点，但他指出，这可能对本专题产生更广泛的影响，第1条草案规定了专题范围。 |
| In that connection, the main focus of draft article 15 was on diplomatic protection. | 在这方面，第15条草案的主要重点是外交保护。 |
| He indicated that draft article 15 was intended to be consistent with the articles on diplomatic protection and the work of the Institute of International Law. | 他表示，第15条草案旨在与《外交保护条款》和国际法学会的工作保持一致。 |
| Regarding the safeguards provided in draft article 5, paragraphs 3 and 4, of the articles on diplomatic protection, he considered it sufficient to include a without prejudice clause referring to other rules of diplomatic protection and to explain the need for safeguards in the commentary. | 关于《外交保护条款》草案第5条第3和第4款中提供的保障措施，他认为，列入一个提及其他外交保护规则的不妨碍条款并在评注中解释保障措施的必要性即可。 |
| In this regard, he observed that the risk of nationality shopping might be less significant in cases of succession of States that involve involuntary change of nationality. | 在这方面，他指出，当国家继承涉及非自愿改变国籍时，国籍选购的风险可能没有那么大。 |
| 114. The Special Rapporteur indicated his preference for retaining the current title of the topic for consistency with the previous work of the Commission. | 114. 特别报告员表示，他倾向于保留本专题的目前标题，以便与委员会以前的工作保持一致。 |
| In particular, he did not find words such as “aspects”, “problems” and “issues” to be suitable for the title of a Commission’s topic. | 特别是，他认为，“方面”、“问题”和“议题”等词不适合用于委员会专题的标题。 |
| While other proposals merited consideration, he suggested to return to the question of the title at a later stage after the provisional adoption of all the draft articles. | 虽然其他建议值得考虑，但他建议在暂时通过所有条款草案后再讨论标题。 |
| 115. Regarding the outcome of the topic, the Special Rapporteur agreed with those members who stated that the Commission should decide on the most suitable option at a later stage. | 115. 关于本专题的成果，特别报告员同意一些委员的意见，即委员会应在稍后阶段决定最合适的选择。 |
| He reiterated that the preparation of draft articles was a standard method of work by the Commission, which did not prejudge the final outcome. | 他重申，编写条款草案是委员会的标准工作方法，这种方法不会预判最终结果。 |
| While he did not wish to change the form of the draft articles to draft conclusions, guidelines, principles, or to an analytical report, he was open to the proposal of drafting model clauses or compiling an annex of clauses based on existing agreements, which would be compatible with a set of draft articles. | 他不希望将条款草案的形式改为结论草案、准则草案、原则草案或分析报告，但他对在现有协议的基础上起草示范条款或汇编条款附件的建议持开放态度，因为这样也符合条款草案的形式。 |
| 116. In relation to the future programme of work, the Special Rapporteur agreed with comments that the Commission should have sufficient time and could still aim to complete its work on first reading by the end of the quinquennium. | 116. 关于今后的工作方案，特别报告员同意这一评论，即委员会应该有足够的时间，仍然可以争取在本五年期结束前完成一读。 |
| He indicated that his next report would focus on the forms of responsibility (in particular, restitution, compensation and guarantees of non-repetition) and could also address procedural and miscellaneous issues, including those arising in situations of several successor States. | 他表示，他的下一份报告将侧重责任的形式(特别是恢复原状、赔偿和保证不再发生)，还可以探讨程序问题和杂项问题，包括在多个继承国情况下出现的问题。 |
| C. Text of the draft articles on succession of States in respect of State responsibility adopted so far by the Commission | C. 委员会迄今为止暂时通过的关于国家责任方面的国家继承的条款草案案文 |
| 1. Text of the draft articles | 1. 条款草案案文 |
| 117. The text of the draft articles provisionally adopted so far by the Commission is reproduced below. | 117. 委员会迄今为止暂时通过的条款草案案文载录如下。 |
| Succession of States in respect of State responsibility | 国家责任方面的国家继承 |
| Article 1 Scope | 第1条 范围 |
| 1. The present draft articles apply to the effects of a succession of States in respect of the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 1. 本条款草案适用于国家对国际不法行为的责任方面国家继承的效果。 |
| 2. The present draft articles apply in the absence of any different solution agreed upon by the States concerned. | 2. 本条款草案在有关国家未商定任何不同解决办法的情况下适用。 |
| Article 2 Use of terms | 第2条 用语 |
| For the purposes of the present draft articles: | 就本条款草案而言： |
| (a) “succession of States” means the replacement of one State by another in the responsibility for the international relations of territory; | (a) “国家继承”指一国对领土的国际关系所负责任由另一国取代； |
| (b) “predecessor State” means the State which has been replaced by another State on the occurrence of a succession of States; | (b) “被继承国”指发生国家继承时被另一国取代的国家； |
| (c) “successor State” means the State which has replaced another State on the occurrence of a succession of States; | (c) “继承国”指发生国家继承时取代另一国的国家； |
| (d) “date of the succession of States” means the date upon which the successor State replaced the predecessor State in the responsibility for the international relations of the territory to which the succession of States relates; | (d) “国家继承日期”指在国家继承所涉领土的国际关系责任方面被继承国由继承国取代的日期； |
| Article 5 Cases of succession of States covered by the present draft articles | 第5条 本条款草案所涵盖的国家继承情况 |
| The present draft articles apply only to the effects of a succession of States occurring in conformity with international law and, in particular, the principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations. | 本条款草案只适用于依照国际法尤其是《联合国宪章》所体现的国际法原则而发生的国家继承的效果。 |
| 2. Text of the draft articles and commentaries thereto provisionally adopted by the Commission at its seventy-first session | 2. 委员会第七十一届会议暂时通过的条款草案案文及其评注 |
| 118. The text of the draft articles and commentaries thereto provisionally adopted by the Commission at its seventy-first session is reproduced below. | 118. 委员会第七十一届会议暂时通过的条款草案案文及其评注载录如下。 |
| Succession of States in respect of State responsibility | 国家责任方面的国家继承 |
| Article 1 Scope | 第1条 范围 |
| 1. The present draft articles apply to the effects of a succession of States in respect of the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 1. 本条款草案适用于国家对国际不法行为的责任方面国家继承的效果。 |
| 2. The present draft articles apply in the absence of any different solution agreed upon by the States concerned. | 2. 本条款草案在有关国家未商定任何不同解决办法的情况下适用。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) This draft article sets forth the scope of the present draft articles in two respects, which are dealt with successively in paragraphs 1 and 2. | (1) 本条草案从两个方面阐述了本条款草案的范围，分别在第1和第2款中述及。 |
| (2) Paragraph 1 identifies the material scope of the present draft articles as limited to matters of succession of States in respect of responsibility of States. | (2) 第1款确认了本条款草案的实质范围应限于国家责任方面的国家继承问题。 |
| The interaction between these two sets of rules is captured by the phrase “the effects of a succession of States in respect of the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts”. | 这两套规则之间的相互作用体现在“国家对国际不法行为的责任方面国家继承的效果”这句话中。 |
| This is consistent with the Commission’s approach to the study of impacts of the factual situation of succession of States in respect of treaties and in respect of State property, archives and debts as reflected in the 1978 and 1983 Vienna Conventions. | 这与1978年和1983年《维也纳公约》所反映的委员会研究条约以及国家财产、档案和债务方面国家继承的事实情况时采用的方法相一致。 |
| (3) The draft articles deal with rules that belong to two areas of international law, i.e. the law of State responsibility and the law of succession of States. It aims at clarifying their mutual relations, in particular if and to what extent cases of succession of States have effects on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | (3) 本条款草案涉及国际法的两个领域――国家责任法和国家继承法――的规则，目的是澄清二者之间的相互关系，特别是国家继承情况是否以及在多大程度上影响国家对国际不法行为的责任。 |
| The draft articles refer to those concepts in their usual meaning. | 本条款草案提及这些概念时用的是它们的通常含义。 |
| (4) The term “succession of States” is defined in subparagraph (a) of draft article 2. | (4) “国家继承”一词的定义见第2条草案(a)项。 |
| Draft article 5 further specifies those cases of succession of States to which the present draft articles are limited. | 第5条草案进一步说明了本条款草案仅限于哪些国家继承情况。 |
| (5) The notion of “responsibility of States” is used in the sense of the Commission’s 2001 articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | (5) 这里所用的“国家继承”概念与委员会2001年《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》 中的意义相同。 |
| According to the commentary to article 1 of the those articles, the term “international responsibility” in article 1 “covers the relations which arise under international law from the internationally wrongful act of a State, whether such relations are limited to the wrongdoing State and one injured State or whether they extend also to other States or indeed to other subjects of international law”. | 根据《国家责任条款》第1条的评注，第1条中的“国际责任”一词“涵盖国际法中由一国的国际不法行为产生的各种关系，无论这些关系是否限于违法国和一受害国，或者也扩大到包括其他国家或甚至扩大到其他国际法主体”。 |
| (6) Paragraph 1 makes it clear that the present draft articles only apply to the effects of a succession of States in respect of the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | (6) 第1款明确指出，本条款草案仅适用于国家对国际不法行为的责任方面国家继承的效果。 |
| Consequently, the scope of the present topic does not extend to any issues of international liability for injurious consequences arising out of acts not prohibited by international law. | 因此，本专题范围不涉及非国际法所禁止的行为导致的损害性后果引发的任何国际赔偿责任问题。 |
| (7) Paragraph 2 clarifies the subsidiary character of the present draft articles. | (7) 第2款澄清了本条款草案的附属性质。 |
| The Commission adopted paragraph 2 of draft article 1, providing that “[t]he present draft articles apply in the absence of any different solution agreed upon by the States concerned”. | 委员会通过了第1条草案第2款，规定“本条款草案在有关国家未商定任何不同解决办法的情况下适用”。 |
| In the same vein, the general commentary to the articles on State responsibility underlines that: | 同样，《国家责任条款》的总评注强调： |
| Being general in character, they are also for the most part residual. | 条款既是一般性的，也多半是备用性的。 |
| In principle, States are free, when establishing or agreeing to be bound by a rule, to specify that its breach shall entail only particular consequences and thereby to exclude the ordinary rules of responsibility. | 原则上，国家在制定或同意遵守某一规则时，可以指明：违犯此规则，只引起特定后果，从而把普通责任规则排除在外。 |
| This is made clear by article 55. | 第55条对此作出了明确规定。 |
| (8) The draft articles would only apply in cases where the States concerned have not arrived at a different solution among themselves. | (8) 本条款草案仅适用于有关国家之间未达成不同解决办法的情况。 |
| The words “any different solution” are intended to capture the vast array of possible solutions that the parties may adopt in a situation of succession of States. | “任何不同解决办法”一词旨在涵盖在国家继承情况下当事方可能采用的各种可能的解决办法。 |
| Such solutions may be expressed in a variety of forms, which could include, for example, international agreements, unilateral declarations, or a combination thereof. | 这类解决办法可能表现为各种形式，可包括例如国际协定、单方面声明或二者的结合。 |
| In this regard, the words “agreed upon” are to be understood in a broad sense and do not refer only to the consent to be bound by a treaty. | 在这方面，“商定”一词应从广义上理解，而不仅仅是指同意受条约约束。 |
| The term “States concerned” may refer to the predecessor State or States, the successor State or States, as well as any State injured by an internationally wrongful act occurred before the date of succession. | “有关国家”可指一个或多个被继承国、一个或多个继承国，以及因继承日期之前发生的国际不法行为而受到损害的任何国家。 |
| Article 2 Use of terms | 第2条 用语 |
| For the purposes of the present draft articles: | 就本条款草案而言： |
| (a) “succession of States” means the replacement of one State by another in the responsibility for the international relations of territory; | (a) “国家继承”指一国对领土的国际关系所负责任由另一国取代； |
| (b) “predecessor State” means the State which has been replaced by another State on the occurrence of a succession of States; | (b) “被继承国”指发生国家继承时被另一国取代的国家； |
| (c) “successor State” means the State which has replaced another State on the occurrence of a succession of States; | (c) “继承国”指发生国家继承时取代另一国的国家； |
| (d) “date of the succession of States” means the date upon which the successor State replaced the predecessor State in the responsibility for the international relations of the territory to which the succession of States relates; | (d) “国家继承日期”指在国家继承所涉领土的国际关系责任方面被继承国由继承国取代的日期； |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) The definitions in subparagraphs (a), (b), (c) and (d) are identical to the respective definitions contained in article 2 of the 1978 and 1983 Vienna Conventions. | (1) (a)、(b)、(c)和(d)项中的定义与1978年和1983年《维也纳公约》第2条中的相关定义相同。 |
| The Commission decided to leave the definitions unchanged so as to ensure consistency in the use of terminology across its work on questions relating to the succession of States. | 委员会决定保留定义不变，以确保开展国家继承问题相关工作时的用语一致。 |
| (2) The term “succession of States” is used “as referring exclusively to the fact of the replacement of one State by another in the responsibility for the international relations of territory, leaving aside any connotation of inheritance of rights or obligations on the occurrence of that event”. | (2) “国家继承”一词在此处“专门指一国对领土的国际关系所负责任被另一国所取代的事实，而不考虑这种事件中权利或义务的继承意义”。 |
| Unlike the previous work of the Commission relating to succession of States, the present draft articles deal with the effects of such succession on the rules of State responsibility. | 与委员会过去关于国家继承的工作不同，本条款草案处理的是此种继承对于国家责任规则的影响。 |
| Consequently, the term does not imply an automatic transfer of rights or obligations. | 因此，该词并不意味着权利或义务的自动转移。 |
| Such transfer is only possible under certain circumstances and according to the rules set forth in the draft articles. | 只在某些情况下才有可能进行这种转移，且必须根据本条款草案规定的规则进行。 |
| (3) The meaning of the terms “predecessor State”, “successor State” and “date of succession” merely follow from the meaning given to “succession of States”. | (3) “被继承国”、“继承国”和“国家继承日期”等用语的含义不过是依据“国家继承”的含义而定。 |
| It should be noted that, in some cases of succession of a part of a territory, the predecessor State is not replaced in its entirety by the successor State, but only in respect of the territory affected by the succession. | 应当指出的是，在继承部分领土的某些情况下，被继承国并非完全由继承国取代，而是仅在受继承影响的领土方面被取代。 |
| Article 5 Cases of succession of States covered by the present draft articles | 第5条 本条款草案所涵盖的国家继承情况 |
| The present draft articles apply only to the effects of a succession of States occurring in conformity with international law and, in particular, the principles of international law embodied in the Charter of the United Nations. | 本条款草案只适用于依照国际法尤其是《联合国宪章》所体现的国际法原则而发生的国家继承的效果。 |
| Commentary | 评注 |
| (1) The inclusion of draft article 5 in the present draft articles is in line with a long-established practice of the Commission on matters of succession of States. | (1) 将第5条草案列入本条款草案符合委员会在国家继承问题上的既定惯例。 |
| In fact, this provision mutatis mutandis reproduces the text of article 6 of the 1978 Vienna Convention, article 3 of the 1983 Vienna Convention and article 3 of the articles on nationality of natural persons in relation to the succession of States. | 实际上，这一规定套用了1978年《维也纳公约》第6条、1983年《维也纳公约》第3条和国家继承涉及的自然人国籍问题条款第3条。 |
| (2) The provision of draft article 5 is in conformity with the principle of ex injuria jus non oritur and with the Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. | (2) 第5条草案的规定符合不法行为不产生权利原则和《关于各国依联合国宪章建立友好关系及合作之国际法原则之宣言》。 |
| Draft article 5 is also in line with an abundant practice of United Nations bodies. | 第5条草案还与联合国机构的大量做法相一致。 |
| Unlawful territorial situations are not instances of succession of States precisely due to their underlying illegality. | 非法领土情况不是国家继承的实例，正是由于其根本上的非法性。 |
| (3) Draft article 5 does not provide any advantage to a State violating international law. | (3) 第5条草案没有为违反国际法的国家提供任何有利因素。 |
| To the contrary, it does not give any legal effect to unlawful territorial situations. | 相反，它没有赋予非法领土情况任何法律效力。 |
| General rules of international law on State responsibility, including the obligation of non-recognition, continue to apply to such situations. | 有关国家责任的国际法一般规则，包括不承认义务，继续适用于非法领土情况。 |
| Chapter VIII Immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction | 第八章 国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免 |
| A. Introduction | A. 导言 |
| 119. The Commission, at its fifty-ninth session (2007), decided to include the topic “Immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction” in its programme of work and appointed Mr. Roman A. Kolodkin as Special Rapporteur. | 119. 委员会在第五十九届会议(2007年)上决定将“国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免”专题列入工作方案，并任命罗曼·阿·科洛德金先生为特别报告员。 |
| At the same session, the Commission requested the Secretariat to prepare a background study on the topic, which was made available to the Commission at its sixtieth session (2008). | 同届会议上，委员会请秘书处编写一份关于本专题的背景研究报告，该研究报告提交给了委员会第六十届会议(2008年)。 |
| 120. The Special Rapporteur submitted three reports. | 120. 特别报告员提交了三次报告。 |
| The Commission received and considered the preliminary report at its sixtieth session (2008) and the second and third reports at its sixty-third session (2011). | 委员会第六十届会议(2008年)收到并审议了初步报告，第六十三届会议(2011年)收到并审议了第二次和第三次报告。 |
| The Commission was unable to consider the topic at its sixty-first (2009) and sixty-second (2010) sessions. | 委员会第六十一届会议(2009年)和第六十二届会议(2010年)未能审议本专题。 |
| 121. The Commission, at its sixty-fourth session (2012), appointed Ms. Concepción Escobar Hernández as Special Rapporteur to replace Mr. Kolodkin, who was no longer a member of the Commission. | 121. 委员会第六十四届会议(2012年)任命康塞普西翁·埃斯科瓦尔·埃尔南德斯女士代替不再是委员会委员的科洛德金先生担任特别报告员。 |
| The Commission received and considered the preliminary report of the Special Rapporteur at the same session (2012), her second report during the sixty-fifth session (2013), her third report during the sixty-sixth session (2014), her fourth report during the sixty-seventh session (2015), her fifth report, which was considered during the sixty-eighth (2016) and sixty-ninth sessions (2017), and her sixth report, which was considered during the seventieth (2018) and the current seventy-first (2019) sessions. | 委员会同届会议(2012年)收到并审议了该特别报告员提交的初步报告，第六十五届会议(2013年)收到并审议了她的第二次报告，第六十六届会议(2014年)收到并审议了她的第三次报告，第六十七届会议(2015年)收到并审议了她的第四次报告，第六十八届会议(2016年)和第六十九届会议(2017年)收到并审议了她的第五次报告，第七十届会议(2018年)和目前第七十一届会议(2019年)收到并审议了她的第六次报告。 |
| On the basis of the draft articles proposed by the Special Rapporteur in the second, third, fourth and fifth reports, the Commission has thus far provisionally adopted seven draft articles (see sect. C, below) and commentaries thereto. | 委员会在特别报告员第二、第三、第四和第五次报告提出的条款草案基础上，迄今为止暂时通过了七条条款草案(见下文C节)及其评注。 |
| Draft article 2 on definitions is still being developed. | 关于定义的第2条草案案文仍在拟订中。 |
| B. Consideration of the topic at the present session | B. 本届会议审议此专题的情况 |
| 122. The Commission had before it the sixth report (A/CN.4/722), on which debate had not been completed at the seventieth session, and the seventh report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/729). | 122. 委员会收到了特别报告员的第六次报告(A/CN.4/722)和第七次报告(A/CN.4/729)。 在第七十届会议上曾对第六次报告进行过辩论，但未完成。 |
| The sixth report had summarized the debates in the Commission and the Sixth Committee on draft article 7, dealing with crimes under international law in respect of which immunity ratione materiae should not apply. | 第六次报告总结了委员会和第六委员会对第7条草案的辩论，该条草案涉及不应适用属事豁免的国际法罪行。 |
| It then started to address the procedural aspects of immunity from foreign criminal jurisdiction, focusing in particular on: (a) timing; | 报告随后讨论了外国刑事管辖豁免的程序方面，尤其侧重于：(a) 时间； |
| (b) the kinds of acts affected by immunity; | (b) 受豁免影响的行为种类； |
| and (c) the determination of immunity. | (c) 豁免的确定。 |
| The report did not include any proposals for new draft articles. | 报告未列入新的条款草案建议。 |
| The seventh report summarized the debates in the Commission at the seventieth session and in the Sixth Committee at the seventy-third session of the General Assembly and completed the examination of the procedural aspects of immunity regarding the relationship between jurisdiction and the procedural aspects of immunity. | 第七次报告总结了委员会第七十届会议和联大第七十三届会议第六委员会的辩论，并就管辖权与豁免的程序方面的关系，完成了对豁免的程序方面的审查。 |
| To that end, two draft articles concerning the consideration of immunity by the forum State and determination of immunity were proposed (draft articles 8 and 9). | 为此，提出了关于法院地国考虑豁免问题和豁免的确定这两项条款草案(第8条和第9条草案)。 |
| In addition, the seventh report addressed the remaining procedural aspects identified in the sixth report, including questions concerning the invocation of immunity and the waiver of immunity and two draft articles were proposed (draft articles 10 and 11). | 此外，第七次报告讨论了第六次报告中确定的其余程序方面，包括有关援引豁免和放弃豁免的问题，并提出了两项条款草案(第10条和第11条草案)。 |
| It also examined aspects concerning procedural safeguards related to the State of the forum and the State of the official, communication between the forum State and the State of the official, including the duty to notify to the official’s State the intent to exercise jurisdiction by the forum State; | 它还审查了与法院地国和官员所属国有关的程序保障方面，法院地国与官员所属国之间的沟通，包括将法院地国行使管辖权的意图通知官员所属国的义务； |
| exchange of information between the State of the official and the forum State; | 官员所属国与法院地国之间的信息交换； |
| and cooperation and international legal assistance between the State of the official and the forum State, in particular the transfer of criminal proceedings from the forum State to the State of the official. | 官员所属国与法院地国之间的合作和国际司法协助，特别是将刑事诉讼程序从法院地国转移至官员所属国。 |
| In this regard, four draft articles were proposed (draft articles 12, 13, 14 and 15). | 在这方面，提出了四项条款草案(第12、13、14和15条草案)。 |
| Further, the report considered the procedural rights of the official, focusing on fair treatment and one draft article was proposed (draft article 16). | 此外，报告审议了官员的程序性权利，重点是公平待遇，并提出了一项条款草案(第16条草案)。 |
| The report also addressed the future work plan, anticipating work on first reading to be completed in 2020, at which also an eighth report would be submitted. | 报告还谈到了未来的工作计划，预计一读工作将于2020年完成，届时还将提交第八次报告。 |
| It would consider remaining issues of a general nature, including: the possible implication on procedural rules of the relationship between the immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction and international criminal jurisdiction; | 第八次报告将审议余下的一般性问题，包括：国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免与国际刑事管辖权之间的关系对程序规则可能产生的影响； |
| the possibility of establishing some mechanism for the settlement of disputes; | 建立某种争端解决机制的可能性； |
| and the possible inclusion of recommended good practices. | 以及可能将建议的良好做法纳入报告的问题。 |
| 123. The Commission considered the sixth and seventh reports at its 3481st to 3488th meetings, from 15 to 19, 22 and 23 July 2019. | 123. 委员会在2019年7月15日至19日、22和23日举行的第3481至第3488次会议上审议了第六和第七次报告。 |
| 124. Following its debate on the reports, the Commission, at its 3488th meeting, on 23 July 2019, decided to refer draft articles 8 to 16, as contained in the Special Rapporteur’s seventh report, to the Drafting Committee, taking into account the debate, as well as proposals made, in the Commission. | 124. 对两份报告进行辩论后，委员会在2019年7月23日举行的第3488次会议上，决定根据委员会里的辩论情况和所提出的建议，将特别报告员第七次报告所载的第8至第16条草案转交起草委员会。 |
| 125. At its 3501st meeting, on 6 August 2019, the Chair of the Drafting Committee presented the interim report of the Drafting Committee on “Immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction”, containing draft article 8 ante provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee at the seventy-first session (A/CN.4/L.940), which can be found on the website of the Commission. | 125. 在2019年8月6日第3501次会议上，起草委员会主席介绍了起草委员会关于“国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免”的临时报告，其中载有起草委员会在第七十一届会议上暂时通过的第8(前)条草案(A/CN.4/L.940)，可在委员会网站上找到。 |
| The Commission took note of the interim report of the Drafting Committee on draft article 8 ante, which was presented to the Commission for information only. | 委员会注意到起草委员会关于第8(前)条草案的临时报告，该报告提交委员会仅供参考。 |
| 1. Introduction by the Special Rapporteur of the sixth and seventh reports | 1. 特别报告员介绍第六和第七次报告 |
| 126. The Special Rapporteur recalled that the Commission had not concluded its debate on the sixth report at the seventieth session last year, and it remained open for comments at the present session. | 126. 特别报告员回顾说，委员会在去年第七十届会议上未完成对第六次报告的辩论，本届会议仍在征求意见。 |
| Such comments could be made together with those concerning the seventh report, as both reports formed part of a comprehensive treatment of procedural aspects of immunity. | 这种意见可以与关于第七次报告的意见一起提出，因为这两份报告都属于对豁免程序方面的全面处理。 |
| In addition, the Special Rapporteur recalled that definitions with regard to the concepts of “criminal jurisdiction” and “immunity” are still pending for consideration in the Drafting Committee. | 此外，特别报告员回顾说，“刑事管辖权”和“豁免”概念的定义仍有待起草委员会审议。 |
| 127. The Special Rapporteur recalled further that the sixth report had identified a number of issues to be addressed relating to procedural aspects, of which only the procedural implications for immunity arising from the concept of jurisdiction, in particular the “when”, the “what” and the “who”, were addressed in that report, by examining: (a) the timing of the consideration of immunity; | 127. 特别报告员还回顾说，第六次报告 确定了需处理的一些与程序方面有关的问题，其中只有管辖权概念对豁免产生的程序影响，特别是“何时”、“什么”和“谁”的问题在该报告中得到了处理，为此审查了下列几点：(a) 何时考虑豁免； |
| (b) the acts of the authorities of the forum State that may be affected by immunity; | (b) 可能受豁免影响的法院地国当局的行为； |
| and (c) the identification of the organ competent to decide whether immunity applies, without any draft articles being proposed. | 以及(c) 确定有权决定是否适用豁免的机关，但报告未提出任何条款草案。 |
| Accordingly, the seventh report completed the consideration of these aspects. | 因此，第七次报告完成了对这些方面的审议。 |
| 128. The Special Rapporteur explained that the seventh report was divided into an introduction and five chapters. | 128. 特别报告员解释说，第七次报告分为导言和五个章节。 |
| The purpose of the introduction was to describe the current state of affairs of the topic and, above all, to present a summary of the debates on the Sixth Report held in 2018 (both in the Commission and the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly). | 导言的目的是说明该专题的现状，首先是概述2018年(国际法委员会和联大第六委员会)就第六次报告进行的辩论。 |
| Chapter I revisited the issue of the concept of jurisdiction and its impact on the procedural aspects of immunity that was included in the sixth report. | 第一章再度探讨了第六次报告述及的管辖权概念及其对豁免程序方面的影响。 |
| It contains two draft articles (8 and 9) that are based on the review conducted in seventh report. | 其中载有两项条款草案(第8条和第9条)，这两项条款草案以第七次报告中的综述为基础。 |
| Chapter II is devoted entirely to considering the invocation and the waiver of immunity and it too includes two draft articles devoted to the said legal concepts (10 and 11). | 第二章专门论述豁免的援引和放弃，其中也载有针对这两个法律概念的两项条款草案(第10条和第11条)。 |
| Chapter III addresses a set of issues that, in essence, are procedural safeguards operating between the forum State and the State of the official, namely: the notification to the State of the official of the forum State’s intention to exercise jurisdiction over a foreign official; | 第三章述及一系列问题，实质上是法院地国和官员所属国之间的程序保障，即：法院地国向官员所属国通知其打算对外国官员行使管辖权； |
| the exchange of information between both States; | 两国之间的信息交换； |
| the possibility for the forum State to transfer the proceedings to the State of the official; | 法院地国将诉讼移交给官员所属国的可能性； |
| and – lastly – the conduct of consultations between both States. | 以及最后，两国之间开展协商。 |
| The analysis of these issues provides the basis of draft articles 12, 13, 14 and 15. | 对这些问题的分析为第12、13、14和15条草案提供了基础。 |
| Chapter IV is devoted to the analysis of the procedural rights and safeguards of the official, and is the basis of draft article 16. | 第四章专门分析官员的程序性权利和保障，是第16条草案的基础。 |
| 129. The Special Rapporteur underlined that an examination of the procedural aspects was justified considering particularly that the foreign criminal court in which immunity would be invoked would apply procedural rules, principles and processes that could hardly be ignored. | 129. 特别报告员强调，尤其考虑到在外国刑事法院援引豁免时，该外国刑事法院会适用无法忽视的程序规则、原则和程序，对程序方面加以审议是有道理的。 |
| Such proceedings necessarily involved a foreign national, whose status as a State official, and whether his acts were “performed in an official capacity” for immunity ratione materiae would be matters of determination. | 这种诉讼必然涉及某一外国国民，他的国家官员身份、以及他的行为就属事豁免而言是否是“以官方身份”而实施的，将是要确定的问题。 |
| Moreover, such consideration had implications on the principle of sovereign equality in the relations between the forum State and the State of the official, which implied the need to strike a proper balance between the right of the forum State to exercise jurisdiction and the right of the State of the official to see the immunity of its officials respected. | 此外，这种考虑会影响到法院地国和官员所属国之间关系中的主权平等原则，这意味着需要在法院地国行使管辖权的权利和官员所属国确保其官员豁免权得到尊重的权利之间达成适当的平衡。 |
| Also in balance was the respect for the immunity of State officials and the necessity of ensuring accountability for the commission of serious crimes under international law. | 另一个平衡点是一方面要尊重国家官员的豁免权，另一方面必须确保根据国际法追究严重罪行的责任。 |
| Additionally, it was useful to ensure that, under all circumstances, State officials who may be affected by the action of a foreign jurisdiction were guaranteed procedural rights recognized under international human rights law. | 此外，有必要确保在任何情况下，可能受到外国管辖行动影响的国家官员都得到国际人权法承认的程序性权利的保障。 |
| 130. Ultimately, the consideration of procedural aspects would not only provide certainty to both the forum State and the State of the official and help to reduce political considerations and potential abuse of process for political purposes or motives but also foster neutrality, thereby building trust between the forum State and the State of the official. | 130. 最终，对程序方面的审议不仅会为法院地国和官员所属国提供确定性，并有助于减少政治考虑和出于政治目的或动机滥用程序的可能性，还会促进中立性，从而在法院地国和官员所属国之间建立信任。 |
| This would mitigate any potential instability in international relations among States. | 这将缓解国家间国际关系的任何潜在不稳定。 |
| Thus, the consideration of the procedural aspects would assist to ensure a proper balance in safeguarding legal principles and values of the international community. | 因此，对程序方面的审议将有助于确保在维护国际社会的法律原则和价值观方面取得适当平衡。 |
| 131. In introducing the various draft articles, the Special Rapporteur stressed that the draft articles contained in her seventh report were designed to apply to the draft articles as a whole, including draft article 7, thereby responding to the concern of some members of the Commission that there is a need to ensure a simultaneous treatment of exceptions to immunity and the formulation of procedural guarantees. | 131. 特别报告员在介绍各条款草案时强调，她第七次报告中所载的条款草案旨在适用于整个条款草案，包括第7条草案，从而回应了委员会一些委员的关切――有必要确保同时处理豁免例外和制订程序保障的问题。 |
| 132. The Special Rapporteur noted that draft articles 8 and 9 addressed the procedural aspects of immunity associated with the concept of criminal jurisdiction. | 132. 特别报告员指出，第8和第9条草案涉及豁免问题与刑事管辖这一概念相关的程序方面。 |
| Draft article 8 referred to the consideration of immunity by the forum State, in particular, the timing at which it must be taken into account by the authorities of that State. | 第8条草案 提到法院地国对豁免的考虑，特别是该国主管当局必须考虑豁免的时间点。 |
| This meant that immunity would be considered at the earliest possible time as soon as the State authorities became aware that a foreign official may be affected by the exercise of jurisdiction by the forum State. | 这意味着一旦国家主管当局意识到外国官员可能受到法院地国行使管辖权的影响，就要尽早考虑豁免。 |
| In any event, such consideration had to be before the indictment of the official and the commencement of the trial phase. | 无论如何，这种考虑必须在该官员被起诉和审判阶段开始之前进行。 |
| The draft article was based on the assumption that immunity may also be assessed at earlier phases if coercive measures or other measures of constraining authority were taken that directly affected the official or had an impact on the performance of his functions. | 该条草案依据了这样的假设――如果采取了直接影响官员或影响其履行职能的强制措施或其他限制权力的措施，豁免也可以在早期阶段得到评估。 |
| 133. Draft article 9 was based on the recognition that the determination of immunity was for the courts of the State of the forum. | 133. 第9条草案 基于这样一种认识，即豁免的确定应由法院地国的法院决定。 |
| This was without prejudice to the possible participation of other institutions or authorities of the forum State as determined under its legal system. | 这不影响法院地国法律制度确定的法院地国其他机构或主管机关的可能参与。 |
| Domestic law continued to be particularly relevant for the purposes of defining the procedure for determining immunity, which should be done in the light of the rules set out in the draft articles, taking into account also whether the State of the official had invoked or had waived immunity, as well as any information that the authorities of the forum State and the State of the official may have provided to the competent courts to rule on the immunity. | 国内法对于界定确定豁免的程序仍然特别相关，应根据条款草案中规定的规则来确定豁免，同时考虑到官员所属国是否援引或放弃豁免，以及法院地国和官员所属国主管机关可能向负责裁定豁免的主管法院提供的任何信息。 |
| 134. Draft articles 10 and 11 addressed matters of invocation and waiver of immunity. | 134. 第10条和第11条草案涉及援引豁免和放弃豁免的问题。 |
| The Special Rapporteur stressed that the invocation and waiver of immunity ought not be confused with exceptions or limitations to immunity. | 特别报告员强调，援引豁免和放弃豁免不应与豁免的例外或限制相混淆。 |
| Invocation involved the assertion of the right to immunity, while waiver denoted a renunciation. | 援引涉及主张豁免权，而放弃意味着摈弃。 |
| Draft article 10, according to the Special Rapporteur, recognized the right of any State to invoke the immunity of its officials against a State seeking to exercise jurisdiction. | 特别报告员认为，第10条草案 承认，任何国家有权向打算行使管辖权的国家为其官员援引豁免。 |
| It was observed that invocation of immunity must be made as soon as the State of the official becomes aware that the forum State intended to exercise jurisdiction. | 有人指出，一旦官员所属国意识到法院地国意图行使管辖权，就必须立即援引豁免。 |
| Thus, the draft article contained a set of procedural rules for invoking immunity in order to guarantee legal certainty. | 因此，该条款草案载有一套援引豁免的程序规则，以保证法律的确定性。 |
| 135. Concerning the form and procedure, the Special Rapporteur stated that invocation must be made in writing, and identify the official who would benefit from the immunity, as well as specify the type of immunity (whether ratione personae or ratione materiae). | 135. 关于形式和程序，特别报告员指出，援引必须以书面形式提出，同时说明将受益于豁免的官员的身份，以及具体说明豁免的类型(是属人豁免还是属事豁免)。 |
| It was also stressed that, taking into account the diversity of legal systems, the draft article did not identify the invocation of immunity as being necessarily a judicial act alone. | 她还强调，考虑到法律制度的多样性，该条草案没有将援引豁免确定为必然是一种单独的司法行为。 |
| It offered sufficient flexibility to facilitate that the invocation of immunity through judicial authorities or the diplomatic channel. | 它提供了足够的灵活性，便于通过司法当局或外交渠道援引豁免。 |
| Further, it was noted that draft article 10 drew upon the distinction between immunity ratione personae and immunity ratione materiae. | 此外，特别报告员指出，第10条草案述及属人豁免和属事豁免之间的区别。 |
| While the invocation was unnecessary for the former as it had to be considered proprio motu, it was considered a procedural requirement for the latter. | 对前者来说，援引并不必要，因为它必须被认为是自动的，但对后者而言，援引被认为是一项程序性要求。 |
| 136. Draft article 11 considered waiver of immunity as a right of the State of the official. | 136. 第11条草案 认为放弃豁免是官员所属国家的权利。 |
| It must be express, clear and unequivocal, with the mention of the official concerned and, where applicable, the acts to which the waiver referred. | 必须明示、明确和毫不含糊，提及有关官员，并酌情提及放弃赦免所涉及的行为。 |
| The draft article did not provide for implicit waiver. | 该条款草案没有规定可以默示放弃。 |
| Even in the case of a waiver deriving from a treaty, such a waiver was express if it could be deduced clearly and unequivocally from the terms of the treaty to which both the forum State and the State of the official are parties. | 即使是源于条约的放弃，如果从法院地国和官员所属国均为缔约国的条约条款中可明确无疑地推断出来，那么这种放弃也是明示的。 |
| 137. Regarding the form and procedure of waiver, the Special Rapporteur noted that they were the same as those set out in draft article 10. | 137. 关于放弃的形式和程序，特别报告员指出，它们与第10条草案中规定的相同。 |
| 138. With respect to the effects of waiver, the Special Rapporteur observed that, to ensure legal certainty, waiver of immunity was irrevocable. | 138. 关于放弃的影响，特别报告员指出，为了确保法律确定性，放弃豁免是不可撤销的。 |
| To this end, (a) once immunity was waived, the waiver applied to any act and any stage of the proceedings (including appeals and other legal recourse, as well as any arrest warrants or imprisonment) that might occur as a result of the exercise of criminal jurisdiction by the forum State; | 为此，(a) 一旦豁免被放弃，放弃适用于法院地国行使刑事管辖权可能导致的任何行为和诉讼的任何阶段(包括上诉和其他法律追索权，以及任何逮捕令或监禁)； |
| and (b) the waiver was solely and exclusively in relation to the official and the acts to which the waiver related. | (b) 放弃仅与放弃所涉及的官员及行为有关。 |
| 139. Draft articles 12, 13, 14 and 15 deal with procedural safeguards applicable between the forum State and the State of the official, and were proposals de lege ferenda constituting progressive development of international law. | 139. 第12、13、14和15条草案涉及法院地国和官员所属国之间适用的程序保障，是构成国际法逐渐发展的拟议法提案。 |
| The Special Rapporteur recalled the need for procedural safeguards was justified to prevent the political or abusive use of criminal jurisdiction against a foreign official, a matter stressed in both the Commission and in debates of the Sixth Committee. | 特别报告员回顾，必须要有程序保障，以防止为政治目的对外国官员使用或滥用刑事管辖权，这是委员会和第六委员会辩论中都在强调的一个问题。 |
| Such safeguards were aimed at protecting the interests of both the forum State and the State of the official. | 这种保障措施旨在保护法院地国和官员所属国双方的利益。 |
| Moreover, they ought to be understood in a broad sense so as to, inter alia, (a) allow for the State of the official to invoke and waive immunity, which require knowledge of the intention to exercise jurisdiction by the forum State; | 此外，上述条款草案应当从广义上加以理解，以便除其他外，(a) 使官员所属国能够援引和放弃豁免，为此需要知道法院地国有意行使管辖权； |
| (b) enable exchange of information between the authorities of the forum State and of the State of the official; | (b) 促成法院地国当局和官员所属国当局之间的信息交换； |
| (c) facilitate the exercise of criminal jurisdiction over the official by his own State; | (c) 便利官员所属国对所涉官员行使刑事管辖权； |
| and (d) permit consultations between the forum State and the State of the official. | 以及(d) 允许法院地国和官员所属国之间进行协商。 |
| The Special Rapporteur highlighted that it was extremely difficult to find uniformity in State practice and that treaty practice was varied and had its own peculiarities. | 特别报告员强调指出，很难在国家实践中找到同一性，条约实践多种多样，各有自身的特点。 |
| 140. The Special Rapporteur stressed that the draft articles sought to assist to build mutual trust between the forum State and the State of the official; | 140. 特别报告员强调，条款草案的目的在于：帮助在法院地国和官员所属国之间建立互信； |
| offer legal certainty to both; | 为双方提供法律确定性； |
| and help to eliminate the risk of politicization of the prosecution and of creating instability in inter-State relations. | 帮助消除起诉政治化和造成国家间关系不稳定的风险。 |
| 141. On draft article 12, the Special Rapporteur underscored that it constituted an essential guarantee for the respect of the immunity of foreign officials by establishing the duty to notify any attempt to exercise jurisdiction over them to the State of the official. | 141. 关于第12条草案，特别报告员强调，这是尊重外国官员豁免权的一项基本保障，因为它规定了向官员所属国通报对官员行使管辖权的任何意图的义务。 |
| The duty to notify was seen as the first guarantee for a State to safeguard its interests by invoking or waiving the immunity. | 通知义务被视为一个国家通过援引或放弃豁免来维护其利益的首要保障。 |
| It was noted that notification should be made as soon as the competent authorities of the forum State have sufficient information to conclude the presence of a foreign official who could be subject to its criminal jurisdiction and such notification should contain all the elements allowing the State of the official to assess its interests. | 据指出，一旦法院地国主管当局有足够信息认定，出现了可能受其刑事管辖的外国官员，就应发出通知，这种通知应包含允许该官员所属国评估其利益的所有要素。 |
| 142. As to the form and procedure for notification, the Special Rapporteur observed that a model similar to the invocation and waiver of immunity had been used. | 142. 关于通知的形式和程序，特别报告员注意到，使用了类似于援引和放弃豁免的模式。 |
| Recourse to the diplomatic channel was subsidiary. | 诉诸外交途径是辅助的。 |
| 143. The Special Rapporteur noted that draft article 13 was premised on the recognition that the forum State would need information from the State of the official in order to decide on immunity, in particular with respect to immunity ratione materiae. | 143. 特别报告员指出，第13条草案 的前提是承认法院地国需要官员所属国提供信息，以便就豁免(特别是属事豁免)做出决定。 |
| Nevertheless, the Special Rapporteur underlined that the mechanism under the draft article provided a procedural guarantee that favoured both the forum State and of the State of the official. | 然而，特别报告员强调，条款草案下的机制提供了一个程序保障，既有利于法院地国，也有利于官员所属国。 |
| Paragraphs 4 and 6 contained provisions regarding refusal by the State of the official. | 本条草案第4和第6款载有关于官员所属国予以拒绝的规定。 |
| The form and procedure for the request of information were modelled on the provisions on invocation, waiver and notification. | 请求提供信息的形式和程序仿效了关于援引、放弃和通知的规定。 |
| 144. Draft article 14 addressed the transfer of the criminal proceedings from the forum State to the State of the official. | 144. 第14条草案 涉及刑事诉讼程序从法院地国转移到官员所属国。 |
| This mechanism is conceived in the draft article as a right of the forum state and not as an obligation. | 本条草案将这一机制设想为法院地国的权利，而不是义务。 |
| Therefore, the transfer of proceedings will be subjected to the national laws of the forum State and, where appropriate, to the conventions of international judicial assistance which bind both States. | 因此，转移诉讼将受法院地国国内法的约束，并酌情受约束两国的国际司法援助公约的约束。 |
| The effect of the referral is materialized in the “suspension” of the exercise of the jurisdiction of the forum State, which is now subject to the pronouncement of the State of the official on the exercise of its own jurisdiction. | 转移的效果体现为法院地国“暂停”行使管辖权，此时这取决于该官员所属国关于行使其管辖权的声明。 |
| It was worth highlighting that – despite creating a right and not an obligation for the forum State – it is a useful instrument under certain circumstances to avoid the issue of immunity, or to solve the problems that may come up between affected states in relation to the determination of the applicability of immunity. | 值得强调的是，尽管为法院地国设定了权利而不是义务，但在某些情况下，它是避免豁免问题或者解决所涉国家之间在确定豁免适用性方面可能出现的问题的有用工具。 |
| And, in any case, it can operate as a useful instrument to avoid the problem of politicization or abuse of the exercise of jurisdiction by the forum State through the channel of allowing the State of the official to exercise its own jurisdiction. | 而且，无论如何，它可以作为一个有用的工具，通过允许官员所属国行使其管辖权这一途径，避免法院地国行使管辖权的政治化或滥用问题。 |
| 145. Draft article 15, couched in general terms, regulated a flexible mechanism for consultations to facilitate the search for solutions when problems of any kind arose in the process of determining the applicability of immunity in a particular case or, if that was not possible, to agree on some avenue of dispute settlement existing under international law. | 145. 第15条草案 措辞笼统，规定了一种灵活的协商机制，以便在确定豁免在特定案件中的适用性过程中出现任何问题时促进寻求解决办法，或者在无法达成解决办法的情况下，商定国际法规定的某种争端解决途径。 |
| It was stressed that it was a two-way mechanism (consultations) of bilateral nature (forum State – State of the official). | 有人强调，这是一个双边性质(法院地国――官员所属国)的双向机制(协商)。 |
| 146. The Special Rapporteur noted that draft article 16 addressed procedural rights and safeguards applicable to the foreign official. | 146. 特别报告员指出，第16条草案 涉及适用于外国官员的程序性权利和保障措施。 |
| Although immunity was for the benefit of the State of the official, the exercise of jurisdiction by the forum State had a direct bearing on the State official. | 虽然豁免是为了官员所属国的利益，但法院地国行使管辖权对国家官员有直接影响。 |
| The draft article recognized the right of the State official to benefit from all fair treatment guarantees, including procedural rights and safeguards related to a fair and impartial trial. | 该条款草案承认国家官员有权受益于所有公平待遇保障，包括与公平和公正审判有关的程序性权利和保障。 |
| The draft article was modelled on the provision adopted by the Commission in the draft articles on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity. | 该条款草案以委员会在关于防止和惩治危害人类罪的条款草案中通过的规定为范本。 |
| 147. Regarding the future programme of work on the topic, the Special Rapporteur recalled that her sixth report referred to the need of tackling, in a future report, the obligation to cooperate with an international criminal court and its possible impact on the immunity of foreign criminal jurisdiction of state officials. | 147. 关于这一专题未来的工作方案，特别报告员回顾说，她在第六次报告中提到需要在未来的报告中处理与国际刑事法院合作的义务及这项义务对国家官员外国刑事管辖豁免的可能影响。 |
| Besides, in her seventh report she mentioned that this issue had arisen before the International Criminal Court in relation to the Appeal request introduced by Jordan relating to the arrest warrant and surrender of the then President Al-Bashir. | 此外，她在第七次报告中提到，国际刑事法院在约旦就逮捕和移交时任总统巴希尔一事提出上诉请求时，遇到了这个问题。 |
| Regarding the decision of the International Criminal Court Appeals Chamber issued on 6 May 2019, she believed it was not necessary or useful for the current work of the Commission to start a discussion on this judgment. | 关于国际刑事法院上诉分庭2019年5月6日发布的裁决， 她认为，就此项裁决进行讨论，对于委员会目前的工作来说，既无必要，也无益处。 |
| Moreover, it was worth noting that the decision of the General Assembly on the request of an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice in relation to the immunity of Heads of State and its relationship with the duty to cooperate with the International Criminal Court was still pending. | 此外，值得注意的是，关于要求国际法院就国家元首的豁免及此种豁免和与国际刑事法院合作的义务之间的关系发表咨询意见一事，联大仍未做出决定。 |
| Therefore, she did not believe it was necessary to submit any specific proposal to the Commission at this point during the current session. | 因此，她认为没有必要在本届会议的这个时候向委员会提交任何具体建议。 |
| Nonetheless, she keeps the option of coming back to this question in the next session from a broader perspective, which must not necessarily be referred exclusively to exceptions of immunity or procedural aspects (including procedural guarantees) of this topic. | 尽管如此，她保留在下一届会议上从更广泛的角度再度讨论这一问题的选择，这不一定完全指豁免的例外或这一专题的程序方面(包括程序保障)。 |
| On the other hand, the Special Rapporteur also solicited views of members on (a) the possibility of dealing with the settlement of disputes; | 另一方面，特别报告员还征求了委员们对以下问题的意见：(a) 处理解决争端的可能性； |
| and (b) the desirability and the usefulness of addressing “good practices,” which could examine such issues as the referral of power to decide on the application of immunity to the highest courts; | (b) 处理“良好做法”的可取性和有用性，可以就此研究将决定豁免适用的权力移交最高法院等问题； |
| the definition of the functions of the Prosecutor; | 检察官职能的定义； |
| and the preparation of manuals for the authorities and organs of the State dealing with issues of immunity. | 以及为处理豁免问题的国家主管部门和机关编写手册。 |
| 2. Summary of the debate | 2. 辩论摘要 |
| 148. The present summary relates to the debate on the sixth and seventh reports of the Special Rapporteur at the present session. | 148. 本摘要涉及本届会议对特别报告员第六和第七次报告的辩论。 |
| It should be read together with the summary of the debate on the sixth report at the seventieth session. | 应与第七十届会议关于第六次报告的辩论摘要一起阅读。 |
| (a) General comments | (a) 一般评论 |
| 149. Members commended the Special Rapporteur for her extensive work on the seventh report which, together with the sixth report, provided a rich and detailed review and analysis of State practice, case law and academic literature relevant to procedural aspects. | 149. 委员们赞扬特别报告员就第七次报告所做的大量工作，该报告与第六次报告一起，对与程序方面有关的国家实践、判例和学术文献进行了丰富和详细的审查和分析。 |
| Some members pointed to the relevance of the work of the previous Special Rapporteur, as well as the memorandum by the Secretariat (A/CN.4/596 and Corr.1). | 一些委员指出前任特别报告员的工作以及秘书处备忘录(A/CN.4/596和Corr.1)的相关性。 |
| While several members observed that the draft articles proposed in the seventh report should be more closely based on practice, members also appreciated the deductive methodology employed by the Special Rapporteur to provide de lege ferenda proposals in the progressive development of international law. | 一些委员认为，第七次报告中提出的条款草案应更紧密地以实践为基础，但委员们也赞赏特别报告员采用演绎方法，在国际法的逐渐发展中提出拟议法提案。 |
| The acknowledgment by the Special Rapporteur regarding the status of the proposals as constituting progressive development of international law was welcomed. | 特别报告员承认这些提案具有构成国际法的逐渐发展的地位，这一点受到欢迎。 |
| The importance of taking into account State practice from more diverse regions was nevertheless underlined by some members. | 然而，一些委员强调了考虑来自更多样化区域的国家实践的重要性。 |
| In that connection, a number of members offered relevant examples including domestic legislation, case law and bilateral agreements. | 在这方面，一些委员提供了相关例子，包括国内立法、判例和双边协定。 |
| The convenience to maintain consistency with the work of the Commission on other related topics such as crimes against humanity and peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), as well as the topic of universal criminal jurisdiction on the long-term programme of work, was also highlighted. | 还强调了与委员会其他相关专题的工作保持一致的便利，例如危害人类罪和一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，以及长期工作方案中的普遍刑事管辖专题。 |
| 150. Concerning the approach to the procedural aspects of the topic, members underlined the importance of balancing essential legal interests, including respect for the sovereign equality of States, the need to combat impunity for international crimes, as well as the protection of State officials from the politically motivated or abusive exercise of criminal jurisdiction. | 150. 关于该专题程序方面的处理办法，委员们强调平衡基本法定权益的重要性，包括尊重国家主权平等、打击国际罪行有罪不罚现象的必要性以及保护国家官员免受出于政治动机或滥用刑事管辖权的影响。 |
| In this regard, concerns expressed in the debates of the Commission and the Sixth Committee regarding the overpoliticization or abuse of the exercise of criminal jurisdiction over State officials were reiterated. | 在这方面，委员们重申了委员会和第六委员会辩论中关于对国家官员行使刑事管辖权过度政治化或发生滥用表示的关切。 |
| In order to achieve a careful balance between those important interests, several members indicated that the procedural safeguards proposed in the draft articles should be strengthened. | 为了在这些重要利益之间实现谨慎的平衡，一些委员表示，条款草案中提议的程序保障应当得到加强。 |
| 151. Members also highlighted the crucial link between the procedural aspects of the topic and the exceptions to immunity in respect of serious crimes under international law set out in draft article 7, which had been provisionally adopted by the Commission. | 151. 委员们还强调了该专题的程序方面与委员会暂时通过的第7条草案所述不适用豁免的国际法规定的严重罪行之间的重大关联。 |
| In this connection, several members concurred with the Special Rapporteur, as she had explained in her introduction of the seventh report, that the procedural guarantees and safeguards proposed in draft articles 8 to 16 were applicable to the draft articles as a whole. | 在这方面，正如特别报告员在介绍第七次报告时解释的那样，一些委员同意特别报告员的意见，即第8至第16条草案中提议的程序性保证和保障适用于整个条款草案。 |
| Other members expressed concerns that draft articles 8 to 16, as presently drafted, did not sufficiently establish a link between the proposed procedural guarantees and safeguards and the application of draft article 7 nor address fully the procedures and guarantees necessary to avoid politically motivated prosecutions. | 其他一些委员表示关切的是，目前起草的第8至第16条草案没有充分确立拟议的程序性保证和保障与第7条草案的适用之间的联系，也没有充分处理为避免出于政治动机的起诉所必需的程序和保障。 |
| The divergent views expressed by members in respect of the adoption of draft article 7 were reiterated. | 委员们再度重申了对通过第7条草案表达的不同意见。 |
| While the need to avoid reopening the debate on draft article 7 was stressed by a number of members, it was recalled by several members that States were evenly divided in their positions on draft article 7, taking into account the distinction between lex lata and lex ferenda. | 虽然一些委员强调有必要避免重开关于第7条草案的辩论，但若干委员回顾说，考虑到现行法和拟议法之间的区别，各国对第7条草案的不同立场势均力敌。 |
| Therefore, some members emphasized the paramount importance of designing specific procedural safeguards to address concerns regarding the application of draft article 7. | 因此，一些委员强调，设计具体的程序保障措施以解决对适用第7条草案的关切至关重要。 |
| At the same time, it was cautioned by several members that the content of draft article 7 should not be undermined. | 同时，一些委员告诫说，第7条草案的内容不应受到损害。 |
| It was noted in any event that further meaningful discussion of the topic was bound to entail an elaboration of a draft similar to draft article 7. | 有人指出，无论如何，对这一专题的进一步有意义的讨论必然需要拟订一份类似于第7条草案的草案。 |
| Some other members doubted that the use of procedural safeguards could sufficiently cure the substantive flaws inherent in draft article 7, noting further that the draft article remained an obstacle to agreement within the Commission on the topic. | 其他一些委员怀疑使用程序保障措施能否充分解决第7条草案固有的实质性缺陷，并进一步指出，该条草案仍然是委员会内部就这一专题达成一致的障碍。 |
| Nonetheless, it was recognised by several members that certain proposals made by members in previous debates on the topic merited detailed consideration and provided a good basis for further discussion. | 尽管如此，一些委员承认，委员们在以前关于这一专题的辩论中提出的某些建议值得详细审议，并为进一步讨论提供了良好的基础。 |
| 152. In this connection, some support was expressed for a proposal to clarify that the general procedural provisions and safeguards under draft articles 8 to 16 were applicable to the situations covered in draft article 7, and to formulate specific safeguards in relation to draft article 7. | 152. 在这方面，有的委员表示支持这一提议：明确第8至第16条草案下的一般程序规定和保障措施适用于第7条草案所涵盖的情况，并就第7条草案拟订具体保障措施。 |
| Three conditions for the exercise of jurisdiction by the forum State over a foreign State official pursuant to draft article 7 were proposed, namely: (a) the decision to institute criminal proceedings must be taken at the highest level of government or prosecutorial authority; | 他们提出了法院地国根据第7条草案对外国官员行使管辖权的三个条件，即：(a) 提起刑事诉讼的决定必须在政府或检察机关的最高级别作出； |
| (b) the evidence that the official committed the alleged offence must be fully conclusive; | (b) 证明该官员犯下所指控罪行的证据必须完全确凿； |
| and (c) the forum State must have notified the State of the official of the intention to exercise jurisdiction and must have offered to transfer the proceedings to the courts of the State of the official or to an international criminal court or tribunal. | (c) 法院地国必须已将行使管辖权的意图通知官员所属国，并已提出将诉讼移交给官员所属国的法院或国际刑事法院或法庭。 |
| Further, a view was expressed that the presence of the concerned State official in the territory of the forum State was also crucial. | 此外，有的委员认为，有关国家官员在法院地国境内的存在也至关重要。 |
| It was also considered by some members that there should be a presumption of immunity until determination of its absence was made. | 一些委员还认为，在确定豁免不存在之前，应推定豁免。 |
| Moreover, some members viewed as imperative judicial review of any decision on immunity. | 此外，一些委员认为，对任何豁免决定进行司法审查势在必行。 |
| Additional proposals were made in relation to the transfer of proceedings to the State of the official (see paragraphs 173–175 below). | 还就向官员所属国转移诉讼提出了其他一些建议(见下文第173至175段)。 |
| On the other hand, some alternative suggestions were made regarding the notion of “fully conclusive” as an evidentiary standard, including “reliable and sufficient” or “prima facie”, given that this was a matter that had to be considered as a preliminary matter before actual trial. | 另一方面，有的委员就作为证据标准的“完全确凿”概念提出了一些替代建议，包括“可靠和充分”或“初步证据”，因为这是一个在实际审判之前必须作为初步事项考虑的问题。 |
| 153. Further, some members stressed the need to achieve a balance between the interests of the forum State and those of the State of the official, in line with the principle of reciprocity. | 153. 此外，一些委员强调，需要根据对等原则，在法院地国的利益与官员所属国的利益之间达成平衡。 |
| According to some members, draft articles 8 to 16 seemed to place more weight on the right to exercise jurisdiction of the forum State over the right to immunity of the State of the official. | 一些委员认为，第8至第16条草案似乎更加重视法院地国行使管辖权的权利，而不是官员所属国的豁免权。 |
| In this regard, it was suggested that more discretion should be granted to the State of the official in asserting immunity, although the possibility of abuse by the State of the official in blocking the exercise of jurisdiction by the forum State also raised concerns. | 在这方面，有人建议，应给予官员所属国更多的酌处权来主张豁免，不过官员所属国有可能滥用权利阻止法院地国行使管辖权的问题也引起了关切。 |
| Several members considered that draft articles 8 to 15 reflect a correct balance between the safeguards offered to the forum State and to the State of the official, and that they are a good basis for the Commission’s work on procedural provisions and safeguards. | 一些委员认为，第8至第15条草案体现了向法院地国和官员所属国提供的保障之间的妥善平衡，它们为委员会就程序性条款和保障开展工作奠定了良好基础。 |
| 154. Another issue that required clarification was the extent to which the distinction between immunity ratione personae and immunity ratione materiae was reflected in draft articles 8 to 16. | 154. 另一个需要澄清的问题是，属人豁免和属事豁免之间的区别在第8至第16条草案中得到了何种程度的体现。 |
| Some members considered that all the procedural safeguards in draft articles 8 to 16 would apply to both types of immunity, while other members preferred to have separate draft articles addressing the different procedural aspects of immunity reflecting the difference between immunity ratione personae and immunity ratione materiae. | 一些委员认为，第8至第16条草案中的所有程序保障都将适用于这两类豁免，而另一些委员则倾向于制定单独的条款草案，处理豁免的不同程序性问题，体现属人豁免和属事豁免之间的区别。 |
| 155. Members generally agreed that draft articles 8 to 16 could be streamlined and simplified. | 155. 委员们普遍同意，对第8至第16条草案可加以梳理和简化。 |
| It was also considered important to cover all key points with sufficient clarity and detail to ensure that they are effective and operational. | 同样重要的是以足够清晰和详细的方式涵盖所有要点，以确保它们的有效性和可操作性。 |
| Some members viewed it appropriate for the draft articles to address only those procedural aspects that were directly related to the immunity of foreign State officials and to leave aside other issues to be regulated by existing treaties. | 一些委员认为，条款草案应只处理那些与外国官员豁免直接相关的程序性问题，而将其他问题交由现有条约管辖。 |
| The view was expressed regarding an apparent over-reliance in the draft articles on the judiciary in criminal procedure in civil law systems at the expense of other systems where executive and prosecutorial authorities played a more prominent role. | 有意见认为，条款草案明显过度依赖民法体系刑事诉讼中的司法机关，忽略了行政和检察机关发挥更加突出作用的其他体系。 |
| Various proposals were also made to reorder the draft articles so that the proposed procedures would be better linked, adopting a new ordering that might start with draft articles 8, 12, 10, 11 and then draft article 9. | 委员们还提出了对条款草案重新排序的各种建议，以使拟议的程序能够更好地相互联系，为此，可采用一种新的排序，先是第8、第12、第10和第11条草案，然后是第9条草案。 |
| (b) Specific comments | (b) 具体评论 |
| Draft articles 8 and 9 (Consideration and determination of immunity) | 第8和第9条草案(考虑和确定豁免) |
| 156. Since national legal systems were varied and it was the prerogative of States to adopt internal procedures relating to immunity, it was noted by some members that the draft articles should aim to provide States with a common procedural framework to adopt in their domestic law without being overly prescriptive. | 156. 国家法律制度各不相同，而且采用与豁免有关的国内程序是各国的特权，因此，一些委员指出，条款草案应旨在向各国提供一个共同的程序框架，供其在国内法中采用，但不要过于刻板。 |
| In this regard, it was suggested that a simpler provision based on article 32, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations would suffice. | 在这方面，有人建议，以《维也纳外交关系公约》第三十二条第1和第2款为基础拟订更简单的条款，就足够了。 |
| References to phrases like “consider immunity”, “affected by criminal proceedings” were considered vague and unclear. | “考虑豁免”、“受到刑事诉讼的影响”等短语被认为失之含混。 |
| While it was observed that the consideration of immunity as proposed in draft article 8 could be framed in general terms taking into account the circumstances of each State, a proposal was made to provide that States should make efforts to enact or amend national laws governing procedures concerning determination of immunity in draft article 9. | 虽然有人指出，第8条草案中提议的考虑豁免可以根据每个国家的情况进行一般性阐述，但有人提议规定各国应努力颁布或修订国内法，管理第9条草案中确定豁免的程序。 |
| The relevance of applicable rules of international law in the determination of immunity under draft article 9 was also raised. | 委员们还提出了适用的国际法规则在根据第9条草案确定豁免方面的相关性。 |
| Another view was that reference to national and international law could result in confusion. | 另一种观点认为，提及国内法和国际法可能会导致混淆。 |
| 157. Several members remarked that draft articles 8 and 9 should provide for a more flexible approach concerning the relevant organs of the forum State in the consideration and determination of immunity. | 157. 一些委员指出，在法院地国有关机关考虑和确定豁免的问题上，第8和第9条草案应采取更灵活的办法。 |
| Some members considered it sufficient to refer to the competent authorities of the forum State, while others preferred to simply refer to the forum State. | 一些委员认为提及法院地国的主管当局就足够了，而另一些委员则倾向于仅提及法院地国。 |
| At the same time, some members welcomed the acknowledgment that the courts of the forum State usually had the primary authority to determine immunity, as reflected in draft article 9. | 与此同时，一些委员欢迎承认法院地国法院通常拥有确定豁免的首要权力，如第9条草案中所体现的那样。 |
| The concern was expressed that the courts of the forum State should be independent from, not subordinated to, the executive branch. | 有人表示关切的是，法院地国的法院应当独立于行政部门，而不是从属于行政部门。 |
| In this regard, clarification was sought regarding the obligation by the courts of the forum State to consider information provided by other authorities. | 在这方面，有人要求澄清法院地国的法院考虑其他当局所提供的信息这项义务。 |
| 158. Further, the need to address the role of the prosecutor in the process of consideration and determination of immunity, as well as the issue of control of prosecutorial discretion, was underlined. | 158. 此外，也有人强调了需要处理检察官在考虑和确定豁免过程中的作用，以及控制检察机关的酌处权等问题。 |
| It was suggested that draft article 8 (consideration of immunity) be redrafted to include the consideration of immunity at the different stages of investigation, particularly with respect to different forms of detention in respect of immunity ratione materiae, and trial. | 有人建议重新起草第8条草案(考虑豁免)，以包括在调查的不同阶段考虑豁免，特别是就涉及属事豁免和审判方面的不同拘留形式而言。 |
| Some members expressed the view that some limitations should be apply to draft article 8 in order to avoid a negative impact on the investigation. | 一些委员认为，应当对第8条草案适用一些限制，以避免对调查产生负面影响。 |
| 159. A proposal was made to specify in draft article 9 that whatever State organ is involved, the determination of immunity should be made at a relatively high level. | 159. 有人提议在第9条草案中具体规定，无论涉及哪个国家机关，都应在相对较高的层级上确定豁免。 |
| Given the importance of determining whether any exception to immunity was applicable under draft article 7, it was suggested that such determination be made by the courts of the forum State, including the possibility of appeal to the highest courts. | 确定是否可根据第7条草案适用豁免例外很重要，因此，有人建议由法院地国的法院作出这种确定，包括向最高法院上诉的可能性。 |
| It was also noted that the determination of immunity by the forum State could be subject to a decision by an international criminal court or a treaty binding upon the forum State. | 还有人指出，法院地国对豁免的确定可取决于国际刑事法院的决定或对法院地国具有约束力的条约。 |
| 160. A number of members supported the requirement in draft article 8 for consideration of immunity at an early stage of the proceedings, even though there was need for precision as to the moment when such determination had to be made, such as “without delay”. | 160. 一些委员支持第8条草案中关于在诉讼的早期阶段考虑豁免的要求，但仍需要明确何时必须作出这种决定，例如“毫不拖延地”。 |
| Similarly, it would be useful for draft article 9 (Determination of immunity) to indicate at which stage of the proceedings determination of immunity should take place. | 同样，第9条草案(豁免的确定)也宜指明应在诉讼的哪个阶段确定豁免。 |
| Nonetheless, several members concurred with the principle that questions of immunity are of a preliminary nature which must be expeditiously decided in limine litis. | 无论如何，一些委员同意这样一个原则，即豁免问题具有“初步性质”，必须在诉讼开始时迅速决定。 |
| It was also mentioned that the consequences of consideration of immunity by the forum State could include the immediate requirements of determination of immunity and notification of the State of the official by linking draft article 8 to draft articles 9 and 12. | 还有人提到，法院地国考虑豁免的后果，可以包括立刻要求确定豁免和通知官员所属国等，为此，可将第8条草案与第9和第12条草案联系起来。 |
| 161. In addition, several members agreed with the condition in draft article 8, paragraph 3, that immunity shall be considered before the forum State intends to take any coercive measures against the foreign State official. | 161. 此外，一些委员同意第8条草案第3款的条件，即在法院地国打算对外国官员采取任何强制措施之前，应考虑豁免。 |
| In this regard, it was suggested that examples be provided to illustrate acts of the forum State, including coercive measures, that would be affected by immunity, noting that special attention ought to be given to immunity ratione materiae. | 在这方面，有人建议举例说明法院地国将受到豁免影响的行为，包括强制措施，并指出应特别注意属事豁免。 |
| Some members pointed out that consideration of immunity in such cases should not be limited to situations when the foreign State official was on official duty. | 一些委员指出，在这种情况下，考虑豁免不应局限于外国官员执行公务的情况。 |
| Moreover, if the foreign State official was presumed to be immune from coercive measures prior to the determination of immunity, that should be clarified in draft article 9. | 此外，如果假设在确定豁免之前外国官员不受强制措施的影响，则应在第9条草案中澄清这一点。 |
| 162. A broader question was raised as to whether draft articles 8 and 9 should be reformulated to reflect the distinction between immunity ratione personae and immunity ratione materiae. | 162. 有人提出了一个更宽泛的问题，即是否应重新拟订第8和第9条草案，以体现属人豁免和属事豁免之间的区别。 |
| Depending on the type of immunity involved, the timing of consideration of immunity by the forum State may vary (see paragraph 172 below). | 根据所涉豁免的类型，法院地国考虑豁免的时间可能有所不同(见下文第172段)。 |
| Draft articles 10 and 11 (Invocation and waiver of immunity) | 第10和第11条草案(援引和放弃豁免) |
| 163. A number of members agreed in substance with draft article 10 (Invocation of immunity), whereas there were differing opinions regarding a differentiated approach between immunity ratione personae and immunity ratione materiae. | 163. 一些委员基本上同意第10条草案(援引豁免)，但对于属人豁免和属事豁免之间的区别办法有不同意见。 |
| In particular, it appeared from draft article 10, paragraph 6, that the forum State shall decide proprio motu in a case concerning immunity ratione personae, whereas the State of the official was expected to invoke immunity ratione materiae before consideration by the forum State. | 特别是，从第10条草案第6款来看，法院地国应在涉及属人豁免的案件中自行作出决定，而官员所属国则应在法院地国考虑豁免之前援引属事豁免。 |
| Not all members supported such a distinction. | 并非所有委员都支持这种区分。 |
| 164. A proposal was made to indicate that, in a case where immunity ratione materiae was not invoked, the forum State should likewise consider or decide proprio motu as soon as it was aware of the status of the foreign State official or of the acts involved. | 164. 有人提议指出，在没有援引属事豁免的情况下，法院地国也应在知悉外国官员的地位或所涉行为后，立即自动考虑或决定豁免。 |
| Another proposal was that, for the purposes of immunity ratione materiae, the acts of the foreign State official should be considered separable, with the effect that invocation or waiver of immunity may be applicable to some acts but not others. | 另一项提议是，就属事豁免而言，外国官员的行为应被看作是可分离的，也即援引或放弃豁免可能适用于某些行为，但不适用于其他行为。 |
| 165. It was acknowledged that the right to invoke or waive immunity belonged to the State of the official, not to the official. | 165. 人们承认，援引或放弃豁免的权利属于官员所属国，而非官员。 |
| However, some members noted that, as a practical matter, it was often the official who would be first to claim the immunity in practice. | 然而，一些委员指出，实际上，通常是官员在实践中首先要求豁免。 |
| In this regard, it was suggested that States might be advised to stipulate the competent organ to invoke immunity in their domestic law. | 在这方面，有人提出，可以建议各国在其国内法中规定援引豁免的主管机关。 |
| The obligations of the forum State should also be clarified in the event that immunity was claimed by the official but denied by the State, such as when for example a crime was committed by the official on the orders of the State. | 如果官员要求豁免但被国家拒绝，例如在官员根据国家命令实施犯罪的情况中，法院地国的义务也应得到澄清。 |
| 166. Some members considered that the invocation of immunity was not a prerequisite for its application, as immunity existed as a matter of international law and others pointed out that there was no obligation to immediately invoke immunity. | 166. 一些委员认为，援引豁免不是适用豁免的先决条件，因为豁免是作为国际法事项存在的，其他委员指出，没有义务立即援引豁免。 |
| The view was expressed that there should be a presumption of immunity unless the State of the official clarified the lack of immunity or waived immunity. | 有人认为，除非官员所属国表明不援引豁免或放弃豁免，否则应推定豁免。 |
| Another view was that the lack of invocation of immunity could serve an evidentiary purpose to that effect, but it should not preclude the State of the official from invoking immunity at a later stage. | 另有人认为，不援引豁免可以达到这重证据目的，但不应排除官员所属国在稍后阶段援引豁免。 |
| It was stressed that non-invocation of immunity should not be interpreted as a waiver. | 有人强调，不援引豁免不应被解释为放弃。 |
| Nonetheless, it was mentioned that there might be an exceptional possibility where the State of the official is presumed to have waived the immunity of its official if it fails to invoke immunity within a reasonable time after having been notified or made aware of the proceedings against the official. | 尽管如此，有人提到，如果官员所属国在接到通知或知悉针对该官员的诉讼后未能在合理时间内援引豁免，则可能存在例外情况，即推定官员所属国放弃了其官员的豁免。 |
| In the view of some members, it was hoped that the consequences of failing to invoke immunity would be clarified. | 一些委员认为，希望对未能援引豁免的后果作出澄清。 |
| 167. In relation to draft article 11 (waiver of immunity), several members agreed that waiver of immunity must be express as a general rule. | 167. 关于第11条草案(放弃豁免)，一些委员同意，作为一项一般规则，放弃豁免必须明示。 |
| Some considered that waiver must be express in all cases. | 有些人认为，在所有情况下都须明示放弃。 |
| Reference was also made to the view of the former Special Rapporteur, Mr. Kolodkin, who concluded that waiver of immunity should be express for the troika, but waiver could be either express or implied for other officials enjoying immunity ratione personae or immunity ratione materiae. | 还有人提到前任特别报告员科洛德金先生的观点，他的结论是，豁免的放弃对“三巨头”而言必须明示，但对其他享有属人豁免或属事豁免的官员，则可以明示或默示。 |
| Moreover, the issue of the appearance of a State before the courts of another State was raised for further consideration, although the view was also expressed that such appearance should not be interpreted as an express waiver of immunity. | 此外，提出了一国在另一国法院出庭的问题供进一步审议，尽管也有人认为，这种出庭不应被解释为明示放弃豁免。 |
| In respect of draft article 11, paragraph 4, it was doubted by several members that a treaty provision applicable between the forum State and the State of the official could be interpreted as an implied or express waiver. | 关于第11条草案第4款，一些委员怀疑法院地国和官员所属国之间适用的某项条约规定可以被解释为默示或明示放弃。 |
| In this regard, drafting a without prejudice clause to this effect was mentioned as an alternative. | 在这方面，有人提到为此起草一项不妨碍条款作为替代办法。 |
| It was also suggested this matter be treated in a separate provision as this was in effect a treaty exception. | 还有人建议可单独作出规定处理这一事项，因为这实际上是一项条约例外。 |
| 168. As to the form of communication between the forum State and the State of the official, it was mentioned by some members that the requirement of invocation of immunity in writing did not necessarily reflect the international practice. | 168. 关于法院地国和官员所属国之间的沟通形式，一些委员提到，以书面形式援引豁免的要求不一定反映国际惯例。 |
| Moreover, several members highlighted the central role of the diplomatic channel in communications between the forum State and the State of the official. | 此外，一些委员强调了外交渠道在法院地国和官员国之间沟通中的核心作用。 |
| The conduct of diplomacy through third-parties, such as intermediaries, was also mentioned. | 还提到了通过第三方，例如中间人展开外交。 |
| Support was generally expressed for a drafting proposal to emphasize the use of the diplomatic channel in a broader sense, in the context of invocation and waiver of immunity under draft articles 10 and 11, as well as the processes of notification, exchange of information and consultations under draft articles 12, 13 and 15 respectively. | 与会者普遍支持起草提案，强调就草案分别在第10和第11条规定的援引和放弃豁免以及第12、第13和第15条草案规定的通知、交换信息和协商等问题而言，更广泛地使用外交渠道的重要性。 |
| It was further noted that the States concerned should be free to decide on the most appropriate channel for communication. | 人们还进一步指出，有关国家应自由决定哪些沟通渠道最为妥善。 |
| 169. It was proposed that invocation of immunity would trigger consultations between the two States concerned, with the effect of suspending the proceedings for a reasonable period during such consultations. | 169. 有人提议，援引豁免将触发两个有关国家之间的协商，效果是协商期间可在一段合理的时间内暂停诉讼。 |
| In addition, it was suggested to clarify that the participation of the State of the official in the processes of exchange of information and consultations with the forum State could not be construed as an implied waiver of immunity. | 此外，有人建议澄清，官员所属国参与同法院地国交流信息和协商的过程不能被解释为默示放弃豁免。 |
| 170. Various positions were expressed on the irrevocability of waiver of immunity. | 170. 对于放弃豁免的不可撤销性，与会者表达了不同的立场。 |
| Members generally supported the wording of draft article 11, paragraph 6, expressing the view that waiver should be presumed to be irrevocable, unless otherwise indicated by the State of the official. | 委员们普遍支持第11条草案第6款的措辞，认为除非官员所属国另有说明，放弃应被推定为不可撤销。 |
| The need for consideration of such a provision was also highlighted, since revocation might be justified on other grounds such as concerning vital national interests. | 委员们也强调了考虑这样一项条款的必要性，因为撤销可能有其他理由，如涉及重大国家利益。 |
| Draft articles 12 to 15 (Procedural safeguards between the forum State and the State of the official) | 第12至第15条草案(法院地国和官员所属国之间的程序保障) |
| 171. Several members placed emphasis on the relevance of domestic law and the use of the diplomatic channel in the application of draft articles 12 to 15. | 171. 一些委员强调国内法和使用外交渠道在适用第12至第15条草案中的相关性。 |
| Regarding draft article 12, members generally recognised the crucial relevance of notification into the general framework of procedural safeguards. | 关于第12条草案，委员们普遍认识到通知对于程序保障的总体框架至关重要。 |
| Some members questioned whether a legal obligation upon the forum State to notify the State of the official, particularly in relation to immunity ratione materiae, could be established. | 一些委员对法院地国是否有法律义务通知官员所属国提出质疑，特别是在属事豁免方面。 |
| It was observed that certain treaty provisions cited in the seventh report concerned notification of various States for the purpose of exercise of criminal jurisdiction by those States, not for the purpose of invocation of immunity, its determination or its waiver. | 有人指出，第七次报告中引用的某些条约条款，涉及各国为行使刑事管辖权的目的，而不是为了援引、确定或放弃豁免的目的而进行通知。 |
| Questions were also raised as to the practical implementation of the obligation of notification, such as whether the courts of a State would provide information to its executive branch, and whether the central authority of a State for mutual legal assistance would be the relevant authority for communicating notification with respect to immunity. | 还就通知义务的实际履行提出了疑问，例如一国的法院是否会向其行政部门提供信息，以及一国司法协助方面的中央机关是否是转达豁免通知的相关机关。 |
| Other members expressed support for imposing a limited obligation of notification. | 其他委员表示支持规定有限的通知义务。 |
| In particular, it was suggested by some members that notification of information be excluded in circumstances which could create a risk that victims and potential witnesses might be harmed, evidence might be damaged or tampered with, or the official might abscond. | 特别是，一些委员建议，在可能导致受害者和潜在证人受到伤害，证据被损坏或篡改，或官员潜逃的情况下，应拒绝通知信息。 |
| Further, notification could be subject to conditions of confidentiality, as recognised in draft article 13, paragraph 5. | 此外，正如第13条草案第5款所承认的那样，通知可以受保密条件的限制。 |
| 172. In respect of draft article 13 (Exchange of information), it was suggested that the scope of information that may be requested from the State of the official should be limited to the information necessary for the forum State to decide upon the application of immunity. | 172. 关于第13条草案(交换信息)，有人建议，要求官员所属国提供的信息范围应限于法院地国决定豁免的适用时所必需的信息。 |
| Further, some members observed in respect of draft article 13, paragraph 4, that the grounds for refusal of a request for information were not necessarily limited to situations affecting sovereignty, public order, security or essential public interests, but might include other reasons, such as cases involving the political crime exception, violations of human rights, harassment or discrimination. | 此外，一些委员就第13条草案第4款指出，拒绝提供信息的理由不一定限于影响主权、公共秩序、安全或基本公共利益的情况，还可能包括其他原因，例如涉及政治犯罪例外、侵犯人权、骚扰或歧视的情况。 |
| Alternatively, it was proposed that the State of the official should have the right to refuse a request for information for any reasons without providing an explanation. | 也或者，有人提议，官员所属国应有权以任何理由拒绝提供信息的请求，而无须作出解释。 |
| 173. Concerning draft article 14 (Transfer of criminal proceedings), a number of members agreed with the Special Rapporteur that the transfer of proceedings to the State of the official was a useful tool in ensuring individual criminal responsibility of State officials while achieving a balance between respecting the sovereign equality of the State of the official and the right of the forum State to exercise criminal jurisdiction. | 173. 关于第14条草案(转移刑事诉讼)，一些委员同意特别报告员的意见，即向官员所属国转移诉讼是确保国家官员承担个人刑事责任的有用工具，同时可在尊重官员所属国主权平等和法院地国行使刑事管辖权的权利之间达成平衡。 |
| The principles of complementarity and subsidiarity of the jurisdiction of the forum State, in relation to the primacy of the jurisdiction of the State of the official, were reiterated. | 重申了相对于官员所属国管辖权的首要性而言，法院地国管辖权的补充性和辅助性原则。 |
| In this regard, reference was made to State practice illustrating the transfer of proceedings from the forum State to the State of the official, conditioned upon the effective exercise of jurisdiction by the latter. | 在这方面提到了国家实践，阐明诉讼程序如何从法院地国转移到官员所属国，条件是后者能够有效行使管辖权。 |
| In addition, how the principle of subsidiarity would operate in the context of the exercise of jurisdiction based particularly on the passive nationality principle was raised, and highlighted. | 此外，有人提出并强调了辅助原则如何在特别是基于被动国籍原则行使管辖权的背景下运作的问题。 |
| 174. Several members suggested that draft article 14 should expressly provide that the State of the official may request a transfer of proceedings relating to its official from the forum State. | 174. 一些委员建议，第14条草案应明确规定，官员所属国可要求从法院地国转移与其官员有关的诉讼。 |
| In relation to draft article 14, paragraph 2, it was proposed that a request for the transfer of proceedings, either by the State of the official or the forum State, should have the effect of suspending the proceedings until the State concerned decides on such a request. | 关于第14条草案第2款，有人提议，由官员所属国或法院地国提出的转移诉讼的请求应具有暂停诉讼的效力，直至有关国家就该项请求作出决定。 |
| 175. A number of proposals were also made with the aim of preventing the potential abuse of the transfer of proceedings. | 175. 委员们还提出了一些建议，目的是防止滥用诉讼转移的可能。 |
| It was suggested that restrictions could be placed where the State of the official was unwilling or unable genuinely to investigate or prosecute its official, based on article 17 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. | 有人建议，根据《国际刑事法院罗马规约》第十七条，如果官员所属国不愿意或确实不能调查或起诉其官员，则可以施加限制。 |
| Likewise, the State of the official could be required to provide assurances in this regard as a condition for the transfer of proceedings. | 同样，可以要求官员所属国提供这方面的保证，作为转移诉讼的条件。 |
| Further, in the case of a transfer of proceedings, the State of the official should be obliged to conduct such proceedings in good faith and in accordance with the highest recognized international judicial standards. | 此外，在转移诉讼的情况下，官员所属国有义务本着诚意并按照公认的最高国际司法标准进行此类诉讼。 |
| Another proposal, inspired by article 20 of the Rome Statute, was to permit the official to be retried before the courts of the forum State if the proceedings transferred to the State of the official were for the purpose of shielding the official from criminal responsibility or conducted in a manner which was inconsistent with an intent to bring the official concerned to justice. | 受《罗马规约》第二十条启发的另一项提议是，如果转移给官员所属国的诉讼是为了使该官员免负刑事责任，或者采用的方式不符合将该官员绳之以法的目的，则允许在法院地国的法院再度审判该官员。 |
| In this connection, it was important to bear in mind the overall situation in the State of the official. | 在这一方面，重要的是注意官员所在国的整体情况。 |
| The importance of the principle of non-refoulement was also mentioned. | 还提到了不驱回原则的重要性。 |
| The inclusion of a provision to ensure that a forum State could not arbitrarily deny a request for the transfer of proceedings was suggested as well. | 还有人建议列入一项条款，以确保法院地国不能任意拒绝转移诉讼的请求。 |
| 176. Emphasis was placed on the central role of consultations between the States concerned, as reflected in draft article 15. | 176. 委员们强调了第15条草案所反映的有关国家之间协商的重要作用。 |
| Drafting proposals were made to link or merge draft articles 13 and 15. | 提出了起草建议，以将第13和第15条草案相关联或合并在一起。 |
| Draft article 15 was generally supported, even though a suggestion was made to consider the timing of the consultations further. | 第15条草案得到普遍支持，尽管有人建议进一步考虑协商的时间安排。 |
| Draft article 16 (Procedural rights and safeguards pertaining to the official) | 第16条草案(与官员有关的程序性权利和保障) |
| 177. While some members questioned whether the inclusion of draft article 16 was necessary, others found it useful for its emphasis on the procedural rights and safeguards pertaining to the foreign State official, particularly in the context of protecting the official from politically motivated proceedings. | 177. 一些委员质疑是否有必要列入第16条草案，另一些委员认为，该条强调与外国官员有关的程序性权利和保障措施是有益的，特别是在保护该官员免受出于政治动机的诉讼的情况下。 |
| Several members agreed with the Special Rapporteur that procedural rights and safeguards relating to fair treatment before an impartial tribunal were well-recognized in international law, including international human rights law, international criminal law and international humanitarian law. | 一些委员同意特别报告员的意见，即与公正法庭公平待遇有关的程序性权利和保障已在国际法(包括国际人权法、国际刑法和国际人道法)中得到确认。 |
| At the same time, it was suggested that it would be helpful to clarify the content of the procedural rights and safeguards proposed. | 与此同时，有人建议，对拟议的程序性权利和保障的内容作出澄清是有益的。 |
| The need to link such rights and safeguards to the application of draft article 7 was also mentioned. | 还提到有必要将这些权利和保障与第7条草案的适用联系起来。 |
| It was further suggested that draft article 16 might be extended to provide procedural safeguards for foreign State officials regardless of whether immunity is being examined in a particular case. | 还有人建议，第16条草案可以扩展到为外国官员提供程序保障，而不管豁免是否正在某一特定案件中受到考虑。 |
| 178. Concerning draft article 16, paragraph 3, it was observed that the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, which codified customary international law, only required consular notification upon the request of the detained individual. | 178. 关于第16条草案第3款，有人指出，编纂习惯国际法的《维也纳领事关系公约》只要求应被拘留者的请求作出领事通知。 |
| While it was noted by one member that a general right to consular assistance was not established under customary international law, the view was expressed by several members that more emphasis should be placed on consular assistance, particularly if the forum State intended to exercise criminal jurisdiction against an individual who has ceased to be a State official and the situation would be brought to the attention of the State of the official through consular assistance. | 一名委员指出，习惯国际法没有确立获得领事援助的一般权利，但一些委员认为，应更加强调领事援助，特别是如果法院地国有意对已不再是国家官员的个人行使刑事管辖权，而有关情况将通过领事援助提请该官员所属国注意时。 |
| 179. A number of drafting proposals were made. | 179. 委员们提出了一些起草建议。 |
| For the purpose of consistency, it was suggested by several members that similar language to draft article 11 of the draft articles on crimes against humanity be used. | 为了保持一致，一些委员建议使用与危害人类罪条款草案第11条类似的措辞。 |
| (c) Future programme of work | (c) 未来工作方案 |
| 180. Members generally supported the plan to complete the first reading of the draft articles in 2020, although sufficient time was needed for substantial consideration of the draft articles by the Commission. | 180. 委员们普遍支持在2020年完成条款草案一读的计划，虽然委员会需要足够的时间对条款草案进行实质性审议。 |
| While some members welcomed the consideration of certain definitions, including “criminal jurisdiction,” proposed for draft article 2 (definitions), others preferred to do so at a later stage. | 一些委员欢迎审议某些定义，包括第2条草案(定义)中的“刑事管辖权”，另一些委员则倾向于在稍后阶段这样做。 |
| Moreover, it was suggested that the Commission should address in its future work the issues of the ultra vires acts of State officials, the questions concerning inviolability in relation to immunity, considerations concerning recognition, as well as to revisit the question of the tort exception clause and its implications on criminal jurisdiction. | 此外，有人建议，委员会应在其今后的工作中处理国家官员的越权行为问题、与豁免相关的不可侵犯性问题、对承认的考虑因素，以及重新审议侵权例外条款及其对刑事管辖权的影响。 |
| 181. Taking into account the position of the Special Rapporteur in her introduction of the seventh report, most members agreed that the Commission did not need to enter into a debate on the judgment dated 6 May 2019 of the Appeals Chamber of the International Criminal Court in the case involving Jordan, although some members saw a need to address the relationship between the immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction and the obligation of States to cooperate with international criminal courts or tribunals. | 181. 考虑到特别报告员在介绍第七次报告时的立场，大多数委员同意，委员会不需要就国际刑事法院上诉分庭2019年5月6日对涉及约旦的案件的判决进行辩论，尽管一些委员认为有必要处理国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免同国家与国际刑事法院或法庭合作的义务之间的关系。 |
| It was noted that the Appeals Chamber judgment was, in any event, not the final word on the matter since African States were considering proposing that the General Assembly request an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice on the consequences of legal obligations of States under different sources of international law with respect to immunities of Heads of State and Government and other senior officials. | 有人指出，上诉分庭的判决无论如何都不是有关这一事项的最后定论，因为非洲国家正在考虑建议联大要求国际法院就各国根据不同国际法渊源在国家元首和政府首脑及其他高级官员豁免方面承担的法律义务的后果发表咨询意见。 |
| Some members voiced concerns about the possibility that the Special Rapporteur might consider this issue from a broad perspective, while other members were in favour of or did not oppose such an approach. | 一些委员对特别报告员可能从广泛的角度审议这一问题表示关切，其他委员则赞成或不反对这一做法。 |
| Some members opined that this issue fell outside the scope of the topic, as reflected in draft article 1. | 一些委员认为，如第1条草案所示，这一问题不属于本专题的范围。 |
| Some other members reserved their position in this regard. | 其他一些委员保留他们在这方面的立场。 |
| 182. Members held differing views in relation to the question of whether the Special Rapporteur should propose a mechanism for the settlement of disputes between the forum State and the State of the official in the draft articles. | 182. 关于特别报告员是否应在条款草案中提出一个机制，以解决法院地国和官员所属国之间争端的问题，委员们持有不同意见。 |
| A number of members were open to such a proposal, whereas some other members did not support it. | 一些委员对这一提议持开放态度，而另一些委员则不支持。 |
| It was recalled that consideration of this issue had been requested by African States within the context of discussions on universal jurisdiction. | 有人回顾说，非洲国家曾在关于普遍管辖权的讨论的背景下要求审议这一问题。 |
| Some members suggested that a dispute settlement mechanism could be developed based on similar provisions prepared by the Commission in other topics, namely, draft article 15 of the draft articles on crimes against humanity, and draft conclusion 21 of the draft conclusions on peremptory norms of international law (jus cogens). | 一些委员建议，可以根据委员会在其他专题中编写的类似条款，即关于危害人类罪的条款草案第15条和关于国际法强制性规范(强行法)的结论草案21, 制定一个争端解决机制。 |
| Concerns were also raised in relation to the feasibility and suitability of a dispute settlement mechanism that would operate other than as a treaty provision, and the need to avoid potentially undermining the draft articles as a whole. | 还有人对不是作为条约规定运作的争端解决机制的可行性和适当性以及需要避免整体上对条款草案的潜在损害表示关切。 |
| 183. As to the possible inclusion of recommended best practices on the topic, several members noted that it could be useful to States, particularly in reducing the risk of any abusive or politically motivated exercise of jurisdiction over State officials. | 183. 关于列入该专题的建议最佳做法的可能性，一些委员指出，这可能对各国有用，特别是为了降低风险，以避免针对国家官员滥用或出于政治动机行使管辖权。 |
| At the same time, a number of members pointed out that this would need to be decided by the Commission depending on the final form envisaged by the Special Rapporteur. | 与此同时，一些委员指出，这需要由委员会根据特别报告员设想的最后形式来决定。 |
| 184. A view was expressed that the Commission should adopt a clear position on the final outcome of work on the topic, noting in particular that a recommendation to elaborate a treaty would assist in overcoming some of the differences that relate to procedures and that some of the proposals made sense in relation to a treaty as an outcome. | 184. 有人认为，委员会应对该专题工作的最终结果采取明确的立场，并特别指出，关于拟定一项条约的建议将有助于克服与程序有关的一些分歧，对于作为工作结果的条约而言，一些提议是可行的。 |
| 3. Concluding remarks of the Special Rapporteur | 3. 特别报告员的总结 |
| 185. In her summary of the debate, the Special Rapporteur expressed her satisfaction with the wide-ranging and substantive discussion of the sixth and seventh reports in 2018 (16 statements) and in 2019 (28 statements). | 185. 特别报告员在对辩论进行总结时说，她对第六和第七次报告在2018年(16次发言)和2019年(28次发言)得到广泛和实质性讨论表示满意。 |
| The debate was rich and constructive both in 2018 and at the present session. | 2018年和本届会议的辩论内容丰富，富有建设性。 |
| She noted that the debate confirmed the importance of consideration of provisions on procedural guarantees and safeguards in the context of the topic, whose inclusion in the draft articles is an innovative proposal that could significantly help States. | 她指出，辩论证实了在该专题背景下审议程序保障和保障措施规定的重要性，将这些规定纳入条款草案是一项创新性建议，可对各国大有助益。 |
| She noted the broad support offered by the members of the Commission with respect to draft articles 8 to 16. | 她注意到委员会委员对第8至第16条草案的广泛支持。 |
| She also acknowledged the comments, suggestions, and criticisms made, and additional proposals on the substance, some of which could be addressed in the Drafting Committee. | 她还感谢就实质内容提出的评论、建议和批评以及其他提议，其中一些可以在起草委员会中处理。 |
| Regarding the suggestion made by the members of the Commission related with the reordering of the draft articles, she proposed to follow this sequence: draft articles 8, 12, 10, 11, 13, 9, 14, 15 and 16. | 关于委员会委员就条款草案的重新排序提出的建议，她提议遵循以下顺序：第8、12、10、11、13、9、14、15和16条草案。 |
| 186. The Special Rapporteur reiterated that the draft articles on procedural provisions and safeguards should be considered as a whole in relation to the application of immunity. | 186. 特别报告员重申，关于程序规定和保障的条款草案必须结合豁免的适用作为一个整体来考虑。 |
| Their purpose was not to provide safeguards solely in respect of a specific case in which the question of immunity arose (especially in relation to draft article 7), but in respect of all situations where the application of immunity might arise. | 它的职能不仅仅是为出现豁免问题的特定情况(特别是与第7条草案有关的情况)提供保障，而是为可能出现适用豁免问题的所有情况提供保障。 |
| Their aim was to provide for mechanisms that ensured a balance among the various norms, principles and interests at play and to provide safeguards that ensured a balance between the forum State and the State of the official. | 其目的是设计各种机制，保证现有不同规范、原则和利益之间的平衡，并确保法院地国和官员所属国之间的平衡。 |
| Accordingly, she reaffirmed that the proposed draft articles applied to the draft articles taken as a whole, including draft article 7. | 因此，她重申拟议的条款草案适用于整个条款草案，包括第7条草案。 |
| 187. In that regard, she stated that she did not share the opinions expressed by some members of the Commission to the effect that draft articles 8 to 16 were not applicable to situations addressed in draft article 7. | 187. 她就此指出，她不同意委员会一些委员表达的第8至16条草案不适用于第7条草案所处理情况的意见。 |
| She said that the provisions concerning consideration of immunity, notification, invocation and waiver of immunity, exchange of information, determination of immunity, transfer of proceedings, consultations and the right of the foreign official to fair treatment applied to situations addressed in draft article 7. | 她指出，关于考虑豁免、通知、援引和放弃豁免、交换信息、确定豁免、转移诉讼、协商和外国官员获得公平待遇的权利的规定适用于第7条草案所处理的情况。 |
| Nonetheless, the Special Rapporteur referred to the concern that some members of the Commission had expressed about the need to adopt special safeguards for draft article 7 and the proposals that some members had made in that regard. | 然而，特别报告员提到委员会一些委员对需要通过第7条草案的特别保证表示的关切，以及一些委员在这方面提出的建议。 |
| In that sense, she expressed her willingness for those specific proposals to be considered by the Drafting Committee when it examined the draft articles contained in her seventh report. | 在这方面，她表示愿意让起草委员会在审查第七次报告所载条款草案时审议这些具体建议。 |
| 188. With regard to the terminology employed in draft articles 8 (Consideration of immunity) and draft article 9 (Determination of immunity), the Special Rapporteur said that the use of separate terms was deliberate, as each draft article referred to a different issue. | 188. 关于第8条草案(“考虑豁免”)和第9条草案(“豁免的确定”)中使用的术语，特别报告员指出，使用不同的术语是有意为之，因为每条草案所指问题不同。 |
| The expression “consideration of immunity” was used to refer to the obligation of the forum authorities to initiate examination of the question of immunity as soon as they established that a foreign official was involved. | “考虑豁免”一词是指法院地国当局一旦确认外国官员涉案，就有义务开始审查豁免问题。 |
| The expression “determination of immunity” was used to refer to the act of deciding whether or not immunity applied in a specific case. | “豁免的确定”一词是指就特定案件中是否适用豁免作出决定。 |
| Thus, while draft article 8 was principally temporal in scope, draft article 9 focused on which authority was competent to take a decision on whether immunity applied, the normative elements that the authority concerned must take into account in reaching that decision, and whether certain circumstances pertained, such as whether immunity had been invoked, which could be essential to deciding whether immunity applied or not. | 因此，第8条草案主要涉及时间范畴，而第9条草案强调哪个主管机构有权决定是否适用豁免，强调该机构在作出这种决定时必须考虑的规范性要素，以及某些因素是否相关，例如是否已经援引豁免，这对于决定豁免是否适用可能至关重要。 |
| Accordingly, she said that she did not consider it appropriate to use the same term in both articles, although she was open to considering different terminology in each case, such as for example “examination of the issue of immunity” (draft article 8) or “ruling on the applicability of immunity” (draft article 9). | 因此，她说她认为不宜在这两个条款中使用相同的术语，但她也表示愿意考虑在每种情况下采用其他术语，例如“审查豁免问题”(第8条草案)或“宣布豁免的适用性”(第9条草案)。 |
| In any case, she was opposed to merging draft articles 8 and 9 into a single draft article. | 无论如何，她反对将第8和第9条草案合二为一。 |
| 189. In relation to draft article 8, she said that the majority of members of the Commission had supported the flexible approach it reflected, under which immunity should always be examined before the indictment of the official and/or the commencement of oral proceedings (i.e. in the judicial phase), or even earlier if the authorities of the forum State intended to take any coercive measure against the foreign official that might affect the performance of his or her functions. | 189. 关于第8条草案，她指出，委员会大多数委员支持其中所反映的灵活办法，根据这一办法，如果法院地国当局打算对外国官员采取任何可能影响其行使职能的强制措施，应始终在官员受到起诉和(或)口头诉讼开始(即司法阶段)之前审查豁免问题，甚至更早于此。 |
| However, she took note of the comments of some members that the issue of considering immunity in relation to purely executive activities and in relation to any investigative activity should be examined in more detail, along with the need to consider the issue of the inviolability of the foreign official. | 然而，她注意到一些委员的意见，即应更详细地审查只涉及行政活动和任何调查活动的外国官员豁免问题，以及有必要审查外国官员的不可侵犯性问题。 |
| With regard to those comments, she said that many of the issues raised could be dealt with in the context of defining the concept of “criminal jurisdiction”, to which end she had already made a proposal in 2013 that was with the Drafting Committee pending consideration. | 关于这些评论，她指出，提出的许多问题可以在界定“刑事管辖权”这一概念的范围内解决，她已于2013年就此提出了一项建议，目前正待起草委员会审查。 |
| And she expressed satisfaction because the preparation of that definition had received wide support from members of the Commission. | 她对这一定义的拟订得到委员会委员的广泛支持表示满意。 |
| Similarly, she expressed her willingness to consider using the expression “without delay” instead of “at an early stage”. | 同样，她表示愿意考虑使用“毫不拖延地”而不是“在早期阶段”一词。 |
| Lastly, the Special Rapporteur said that she was also open to considering using the alternative expressions “competent authorities”, “authorities of the forum State” or simply “forum State”. | 最后，特别报告员表示同样愿意考虑使用“主管当局”、“法院地国当局”、或仅仅是“法院地国”这些替代用法。 |
| 190. With regard to draft article 9, the Special Rapporteur reiterated, first and foremost, her conviction that it was for the courts of the forum State to determine immunity, although she took note of the comments of a certain number of members of the Commission on variations in national legal regimes and the fact that in some States such determinations were made by authorities other than the courts, even in some cases the executive authorities. | 190. 关于第9条草案，特别报告员首先重申，她深信确定豁免的决定应由法院地国的法院作出，尽管她注意到委员会一些委员关于各国法律制度多样性的意见，以及在一些国家，决定是由法院以外的当局作出，甚至是由属于行政部门的当局作出。 |
| She was therefore open to the Drafting Committee considering broader wording that would cover all the possible situations that might arise in national law. | 因此，起草委员会若能够审查反映各国法律中可以找到的所有可能情况的更广泛、更全面的措辞，她会持欢迎态度。 |
| However, she emphasized that the internal judicial effects of a decision on the applicability of immunity would not permit such a decision to be classed as a mere “political act” or “act of government” that could be excluded from judicial review. | 然而，她强调，关于豁免适用与否的决定，其内部法律效力不能够使此种决定被归类为可排除在司法审查之外的纯粹的“政治行为”或“政府行为”。 |
| With regard to what law applied in determining whether immunity was applicable, she reiterated that the decision should necessarily take into account the law of the forum State, the rules incorporated into the Commission’s draft articles defining the normative elements of immunity ratione personae and immunity ratione materiae, and other norms of international law that applied to the case in question. | 关于哪些法律适用于确定豁免是否适用，她重申，相关决定必须考虑到法院地国的法律、委员会条款草案中纳入的界定属人豁免和属事豁免规范性要素的规则以及适用于具体案件的其他国际法规范。 |
| 191. The Special Rapporteur said that draft article 9 was the appropriate framework within which to consider the proposal on strengthening procedural guarantees in respect of draft article 7 that had been made by a member of the Commission in his statement to plenary, as the aim of that proposal was to establish certain additional safeguards for determining whether immunity applied or not in the event that any of the crimes under international law listed in that draft article were alleged. | 191. 特别报告员指出，适于在第9条草案的框架内审查委员会一名委员在全体会议上发言时提交的关于加强第7条草案程序保障的提案，因为该提案的目的是，为确定豁免是否适用于据称犯下第7条草案所列国际法规定的某些罪行的情况，建立一些额外的保障。 |
| In respect of those safeguards, the Special Rapporteur expressed agreement with the requirement that immunity should be decided by the competent authorities of the forum State at the highest level. | 关于这些保障，特别报告员表示赞同此项要求――豁免决定应由法院地国最高主管当局做出。 |
| She said that it would also be desirable for the determination of immunity to be undertaken only if there was sufficient evidence that the foreign official could have committed the crimes imputed to him or her, but said that the use of the phrase “the alleged offence is fully conclusive” was not suitable, particularly because it implied that proceedings would be too far advanced to be compatible with the requirement that immunity must be considered at an early stage. | 她指出，同样可取的是，只有在有充分迹象表明该外国官员可能犯下了归咎于他的罪行时，才能进行豁免的确定，但她说，使用“被指控罪行是完全确凿的”一语不适当，主要原因是这种措辞暗示，诉讼进展阶段已经过于深入，不符合必须在早期阶段考虑豁免这项要求。 |
| Lastly, the Special Rapporteur said that she could also consider the question of the transfer of proceedings to the State of the official, which could be examined either in relation to draft article 9 or in the context of draft article 14, which already provided for a transfer mechanism. | 最后，特别报告员指出，她还可以考虑将诉讼移交官员所属国的问题，这一问题可结合第9条草案进行分析，也可在已经规定移交机制的第14条草案的框架内进行分析。 |
| In any event, the Special Rapporteur said that, in her view, the supplementary safeguards should apply to all cases in which it was necessary to determine whether immunity ratione materiae of a State official applied (including if the applicability of draft article 7 was at issue), without there being any grounds at all to restrict it to cases involving the possible commission of a crime under international law. | 无论如何，特别报告员指出，她认为这些补充保障应适用于必须确定国家官员属事豁免是否适用的所有情况(包括对第7条草案的适用出现争议的情况)，没有任何理由将其限定于可能犯下国际法罪行的情况。 |
| Lastly, the Special Rapporteur said that she did not consider it appropriate to include the requirement that the State official must be on the territory of the forum State, as it did not take account of the wide variation in State legal systems in that regard. | 最后，特别报告员指出，她认为不宜列入国家官员必须身处法院地国境内的要求，因为这没有考虑到各国法律制度在这一问题上存在的巨大差异。 |
| 192. With regard to draft article 11, the Special Rapporteur reiterated her position with regard to the separate procedures that should apply to invocation in the cases of immunity ratione personae and immunity ratione materiae, recalling that the same position had also been adopted by the previous Special Rapporteur, Mr. Kolodkin. | 192. 关于第11条草案，特别报告员重申了她关于在属人豁免和属事豁免情况下适用于援引的不同程序的立场，并回顾说，前任特别报告员科洛德金也采取了上述立场。 |
| However, she said that she was open to considering wording that would enable the distinction to be made more flexible for cases in which the authorities of the forum State were directly aware that the individual over whom they intended to exercise jurisdiction was a foreign official, for which purpose wording from the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations could be used. | 然而，她表示愿意考虑能使这种区分变得更加灵活的措辞，用于法院地国当局直接了解他们打算对其行使管辖权的个人是外国官员的情况，为此可使用《维也纳领事关系公约》中的语言。 |
| With regard to the time at which immunity should be invoked, she accepted the suggestion made by various members of the Commission to amend the wording of paragraph 2 of the draft article so as to take into consideration the different situations in which a State might find itself at the point of deciding whether to invoke the immunity of one of its officials. | 关于应在什么时候援引豁免，她接受了委员会若干委员提出的修改该条草案第2款措辞的建议，以便考虑到一国在决定是否援引其官员豁免时可能面临的各种情况。 |
| In any case, she reiterated that not invoking immunity could not automatically be understood as a waiver of immunity. | 无论如何，她重申，不援引豁免不能自动理解为放弃豁免。 |
| 193. With respect of draft article 11, she reiterated that waiver of immunity was a right of the State of the official, which could not produce retroactive effects and which must be express and clear, while indicating her willingness for the Drafting Committee to explore the most appropriate way to refer to the manner in which a treaty could give rise to a waiver of immunity. | 193. 关于第11条草案，她重申放弃豁免是官员所属国的一项权利，不产生追溯效力，而且必须明示和明确。 她表示愿意让起草委员会分析最适当的形式，以提及国际条约产生放弃豁免的方式。 |
| She also stated that it would be useful for the Drafting Committee to examine the proposal put forward by a member of the Commission to the effect that the State of the official should waive immunity or offer to itself prosecute if it was alleged that the official concerned had committed serious crimes under international law. | 她还指出，起草委员会审查委员会一名委员提出的下述建议将是有益的，即当有关官员被指控犯有国际法规定的严重罪行时，该官员所属国应放弃豁免或提出由本国起诉。 |
| 194. Concerning the procedural elements common to both invocation and waiver of immunity, the Special Rapporteur drew attention to the broad consensus within the Commission with respect to the form of both acts and the organ competent to perform them. | 194. 关于援引和放弃豁免的共同程序要素，特别报告员提请注意，关于此两种行为的形式和实施行为的主管机构，委员会中存在的广泛共识。 |
| In that regard, she reiterated that both invocation and waiver should be formulated in writing and be precise as to content, and that the organ competent to invoke or waive immunity should be part of the judicial system of each State. | 在这方面，她重申，援引和放弃均应以书面形式提出，并有确切的内容，援引或放弃豁免的主管机构应属于各国的司法体系。 |
| With respect to the channel to be used to communicate to the forum State both invocation and waiver of immunity, she pointed out that the reference to mutual legal assistance mechanisms was justified on grounds of efficiency, without that entailing any prejudice to communication through the diplomatic channel. | 关于通过何种渠道向法院地国通报豁免的援引和放弃，她强调，出于效率原因，提及司法协助机制是合理的，但并不妨碍通过外交渠道进行沟通。 |
| In that regard, she said that she was open to considering new wording that emphasized that invocation and waiver were habitually communicated through the diplomatic channel. | 在这方面，她说，她愿意考虑使用新的措辞强调援引和放弃通常通过外交渠道进行。 |
| The Special Rapporteur also referred in similar terms to communication via the diplomatic channel in connection with draft articles 12 and 13. | 特别报告员以类似措辞提到第12和第13条草案中通过外交渠道进行的沟通。 |
| 195. With regard to draft articles 12 to 15, the Special Rapporteur noted that in general they had received broad support. | 195. 关于第12至第15条草案，特别报告员指出，总的来说，这几条得到了广泛支持。 |
| Regarding draft article 12 (notification), she reiterated its essential role in the proper functioning of the system of procedural guarantees, although she stated that the definition of the limits of the obligation of notification should be examined by the Drafting Committee. | 关于第12条草案(通知)，她重申了该条对于程序保障制度正常运作的根本重要性，同时也指出，如何界定对通知义务的限定，应由起草委员会审查。 |
| 196. With respect to draft article 13, the Special Rapporteur recalled that the exchange of information constituted an essential element for considering and determining immunity, in particular immunity ratione materiae. | 196. 关于第13条草案，特别报告员回顾说，信息交换是考虑和确定豁免，特别是属事豁免的一个基本要素。 |
| Regarding the refusal of the State of the Official to transmit the requested information, she reiterated that it would be useful to enumerate the grounds for such a refusal, or at least establish that the State of the Official “must consider the request in good faith”. | 关于官员所属国拒绝传递所要求的资料的问题，她重申，列举拒绝的理由或至少规定官员所属国“必须善意地考虑该请求”，将是有益的。 |
| In any event, she insisted that refusing to transmit the requested information cannot be the reason to declare that immunity does not apply. | 无论如何，她坚持认为，拒绝传递所要求的资料不能成为宣布豁免不适用的理由。 |
| Moreover, she affirmed that draft article 13 could be supplemented by an explicit reference stating that the provision of information may in no case be interpreted as waiver of immunity or of recognition of the criminal jurisdiction of the forum State. | 此外，她申明，对第13条草案可加以补充，明确提及提供信息在任何情况下都不得解释为放弃豁免或承认法院地国的刑事管辖权。 |
| The Special Rapporteur reiterated her opinion that the exchange of information provided for in draft article 13 can function in a bidirectional manner. | 特别报告员重申，她认为第13条草案规定的信息交换可以双向进行。 |
| 197. Regarding draft article 14, the Special Rapporteur emphasized the broad support it had received, with members of the Commission considering that the transfer of criminal proceedings to the State of the official was a useful instrument and an important element in the system of procedural safeguards. | 197. 关于第14条草案，特别报告员强调了该条获得的广泛支持。 委员会委员们认为，将刑事诉讼移交官员所属国是一个有用的工具，也是程序保障制度的重要组成部分。 |
| With regard to that mechanism, the Special Rapporteur clarified that the transfer of proceedings could take place both in situations where immunity did not apply and in those where it did. | 关于这一机制，特别报告员澄清说，在不适用豁免和适用豁免的情况下，都可以转移诉讼。 |
| She also clarified that draft article 14 allowed for the transfer request to be made by either the forum State or the State of the official, although it would always be for the competent authorities of the forum State to decide on whether or not to transfer the proceedings to the State of the official. | 她还澄清说，第14条草案允许由法院地国或官员所属国提出移交请求，不过永远要由法院地国主管当局决定是否将诉讼移交官员所属国。 |
| The Special Rapporteur stated that transfer of proceedings was based on the principles of subsidiarity and complementarity, since if the State of the official exercised its own jurisdiction to prosecute the official, it seemed logical that such jurisdiction should have priority over the jurisdiction of the forum State. | 特别报告员指出，转移诉讼是基于辅助性和互补性原则，因为如果官员所属国行使本国管辖权起诉该官员，则看起来符合逻辑的理解是，此种管辖权优先于法院地国的管辖权。 |
| However, she expressed the view – put forward by a good number of Commission members – that transfer of proceedings must not become an instrument for exempting the official from prosecution, which would constitute fraudulent use of the institution of “transfer of proceedings”, invalidate its useful effect and might have the undesired effect of facilitating impunity for the most serious international crimes. | 然而，她表达了委员会多名委员提出的看法，即转移诉讼决不能成为使官员免于起诉的工具，这将构成对“转移诉讼”制度的欺诈性使用，摧毁其效用，并可能产生助长最严重国际罪行有罪不罚现象的不良效果。 |
| She therefore supported the proposal put forward by various Commission members to the effect that transfer of proceedings should be subject to the condition that the State of the official was genuinely able and willing to exercise jurisdiction and actually did so. | 因此，她支持委员会若干委员提出的建议，即转移诉讼必须以该官员所属国确实能够并且希望行使管辖权并实际行使了管辖权为条件。 |
| The Special Rapporteur did not consider it necessary at the current stage to take a position on the transfer of criminal proceedings to an international criminal court. | 特别报告员认为现阶段没有必要就将刑事诉讼移交国际刑事法院的问题宣示立场。 |
| 198. With respect to draft article 15, the Special Rapporteur emphasized the broad support that the institution of consultations had received from Commission members, who had considered it a wide-ranging instrument that could even be useful in the context of the settlement of disputes. | 198. 关于第15条草案，特别报告员强调指出，委员会委员对协商机制予以广泛支持，认为协商是一项用途广泛的工具，甚至可能在解决争端领域发挥作用。 |
| Accordingly, she said that consultations should receive separate treatment in the draft articles and that she was opposed to merging draft article 15 with any other procedural provision. | 因此，她说，协商应在条款草案中单独处理，并表示她认为不应将第15条草案与其他程序性条款合并。 |
| 199. Regarding draft article 16, the Special Rapporteur affirmed its importance and its essential character, since it ensured that the foreign official would receive fair and impartial treatment from the forum authorities, both in the process of considering and determining immunity and also subsequently, if the authorities of the forum State considered that immunity did not apply. | 199. 关于第16条草案，特别报告员申明该条款十分重要而且必不可少，因为它确保外国官员能获得法院地国当局的公平公正待遇，无论是在法院地国当局考虑和确定豁免的过程中，还是在当局认为豁免不适用之后。 |
| With regard to the content of the draft article and its relationship with other similar provisions recently adopted by the Commission within the framework of other topics, the Special Rapporteur indicated that those aspects could be dealt with by the Drafting Committee, taking into account the specificities of each topic. | 关于这条草案的内容及其与委员会最近在其他专题的框架内通过的其他类似条款的关系，特别报告员指出，起草委员会可以考虑到每个专题的特殊性来处理这一问题。 |
| 200. Concerning future work, the Special Rapporteur reiterated her wish to provide a brief analysis, in general terms, on the relationship of the present topic with international criminal jurisdiction, bearing in mind the possibility of transfer the proceeding to an international tribunal. | 200. 关于今后的工作，特别报告员重申，她希望就本专题与国际刑事管辖权的关系提供一份一般性简要分析，考虑到将诉讼移交国际法庭的可能性。 |
| She confirmed that she will address the question of dispute settlement mechanisms, as well as best practices focusing on operational rather than normative aspects. | 她确认，她将处理争端解决机制的问题，以及侧重于业务而非规范方面的最佳做法。 |
| She noted that questions concerning ultra vires acts and other remaining issues would be addressed in the commentaries. | 她指出，涉及越权行为的问题和其他剩余问题将在评注中处理。 |
| 201. In relation to the final form of the project, the Special Rapporteur noted that it was premature for the Commission to decide on whether or not a treaty was being elaborated; | 201. 关于本项目的最后形式，特别报告员指出，委员会决定是否正在拟订一项条约还为时过早； |
| the current form of draft articles sufficed. | 目前的条款草案形式就足够了。 |
| Chapter IX General principles of law | 第九章 一般法律原则 |
| A. Introduction | A. 导言 |
| 202. The Commission, at its seventieth session (2018), decided to include the topic “General principles of law” in its programme of work and appointed Mr. Marcelo Vázquez-Bermúdez as Special Rapporteur. | 202. 委员会第七十届会议(2018年)决定将“一般法律原则”专题列入工作方案，并任命马塞洛·巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生为特别报告员。 |
| B. Consideration of the topic at the present session | B. 本届会议审议此专题的情况 |
| 203. At the present session, the Commission had before it the first report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/732). | 203. 委员会本届会议收到了特别报告员的第一次报告(A/CN.4/732)。 |
| In his first report, the Special Rapporteur addressed the scope of the topic and the main issues to be addressed in the course of the work of the Commission. | 特别报告员在第一次报告中述及本专题的范围和委员会工作中应处理的主要问题。 |
| The report also addressed previous work of the Commission related to general principles of law and provided an overview of the development of general principles of law over time, as well as an initial assessment of certain basic aspects of the topic. | 报告还述及委员会以往与一般法律原则有关的工作，概述了随着时间的推移一般法律原则的发展情况，并对本专题的某些基本方面做了初步评估。 |
| The Special Rapporteur proposed three draft conclusions. | 特别报告员提出了三项结论草案。 |
| He also made suggestions for the future programme of work on the topic. | 他还就本专题的今后工作方案提出了建议。 |
| 204. The Commission considered the report at its 3488th to 3494th meetings, from 23 to 30 July 2019. | 204. 委员会在2019年7月23日至30日第3488至第3494次会议上审议了该报告。 |
| 205. At its 3494th meeting, on 30 July 2019, the Commission decided to refer draft conclusions 1 to 3, as contained in the Special Rapporteur’s first report, to the Drafting Committee, taking into account the views expressed in the plenary. | 205. 在2019年7月30日第3494次会议上，考虑到全体会议表达的意见，委员会决定将特别报告员第一次报告所载结论草案1至3送交起草委员会。 |
| 206. At its 3503rd meeting, on 7 August 2019, the Chair of the Drafting Committee presented an interim oral report of the Drafting Committee on draft conclusion 1, provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee. | 206. 在2019年8月7日第3503次会议上，起草委员会主席提出了一份关于起草委员会暂时通过的结论草案1的临时口头报告。 |
| The report was presented for information only and is available on the website of the Commission. | 该报告仅供参考，可在委员会网站查阅。 |
| 207. At its 3507th meeting, on 9 August 2019, the Commission requested the Secretariat to prepare a memorandum surveying the case law of inter-State arbitral tribunals and international criminal courts and tribunals of a universal character, as well as treaties, which would be particularly relevant for its future work on the topic. | 207. 在2019年8月9日第3507次会议上，委员会请秘书处编写一份备忘录，评述国家间仲裁法庭、普遍性国际刑事法院和法庭的判例法，以及不同条约，这将对委员会今后关于这一专题的工作特别重要。 |
| 1. Introduction by the Special Rapporteur of the first report | 1. 特别报告员介绍第一次报告 |
| 208. The Special Rapporteur introduced his report by making some general observations. | 208. 特别报告员介绍了他的报告，提出了若干一般性意见。 |
| He noted that general principles of law are an important component of the international legal system and that this source of international law could be usefully clarified by the Commission almost a century after its inclusion in Article 38 of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice. | 特别报告员指出，一般法律原则是国际法律体系的一个重要组成部份，在被列入《常设国际法院规约》第三十八条近一个世纪后，委员会澄清国际法的这一渊源是有益的。 |
| 209. The Special Rapporteur stressed that, by adopting a cautious and rigorous approach, the Commission could provide guidance to States, international organizations, courts and tribunals, and all those called upon to use general principles of law as a source of international law. | 209. 特别报告员强调，委员会可以通过采取积极慎重的办法，向各国、国际组织、法院和法庭，以及被要求将一般法律原则作为国际法渊源之一加以应用的其他各方提供指导。 |
| 210. The Special Rapporteur noted that reactions by Member States in the Sixth Committee to the inclusion of the topic in the programme of work of the Commission were generally very positive, with only one Member State expressing concern that there was insufficient State practice to study it appropriately. | 210. 特别报告员指出，第六委员会会员国对将本专题列入委员会工作方案的反应总体而言非常积极，只有一个会员国表示关切，理由是国家实践不够充分，无法进行充分的研究。 |
| He mentioned that many delegations welcomed the Commission’s decision to address the topic, which will complement its work in relation to other sources of international law. | 他提到，许多代表团欢迎委员会决定处理该专题，从而充实委员会有关国际法其他渊源的工作。 |
| He added that several delegations also considered that the Commission may provide an authoritative clarification of the nature, scope and functions of general principles of law, as well as the criteria and methods for their identification. | 他补充说，若干代表团还认为，委员会可以对一般法律原则的性质、范围和作用及其识别标准和方法作出权威说明。 |
| The Special Rapporteur also noted the considerable interest for the topic demonstrated by a study group of the International Law Association and through the various academic publications and events organized on the topic. | 特别报告员还注意到，国际法协会的一个研究组对本专题表现出了相当大的兴趣，此外，还有各种学术出版物以及有关本专题的活动。 |
| 211. The Special Rapporteur drew the attention of members of the Commission to the French and Spanish versions of his first report. | 211. 特别报告员提请委员会委员注意其第一次报告的法文和西班牙文本。 |
| The Spanish version of the report contains the terminology “principios generales del derecho” whilst Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, refers to “principios generales de derecho”. | 报告西班牙文本的用语是“principios generales del derecho”，而《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项是“principios generales de derecho”。 |
| The French version of the report refers to “principes généraux du droit”, while the Statute of the Court refers to “principes généraux de droit”. | 报告法文本用的是“principes généraux du droit”，而《法院规约》是“principes généraux de droit”。 |
| In his view, these differences were not substantive and the terminology used in the report could be maintained, since these expressions (“del derecho” and “du droit”) have been used in international instruments, such as the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, in doctrine and by the Commission itself in its recent work, including in the topic “Identification of customary international law”. | 他认为，这些差异并非实质性差异，报告所用术语可以保留，因为这些表述(“del derecho”和“du droit”)已用于各项国际文书，如《国际刑事法院罗马规约》、有关学说以及委员会本身最近的工作，包括“习惯国际法的识别”专题。 |
| 212. The Special Rapporteur explained that the first report was preliminary and introductory in nature, and that its main purpose was to lay the foundation of the Commission’s work on the topic and to obtain the views of members of the Commission and States in this regard. | 212. 特别报告员解释说，第一次报告是初步的和介绍性的，主要目的是为委员会关于本专题的工作奠定基础，并征求各位委员和各国的意见。 |
| 213. The Special Rapporteur indicated that the report was divided into five parts: Part One deals with general matters; | 213. 特别报告员指出，报告分为五部分：第一部分涉及一般事项； |
| Part Two deals with the Commission’s previous work on the topic; | 第二部分涉及委员会以前关于本专题的工作； |
| Part Three with the development of the topic over time; | 第三部分涉及随着时间的推移本专题的发展情况； |
| Part Four provides an initial assessment of certain basic aspects of the topic, namely the elements and origins of general principles of law; | 第四部分对本专题的某些基本方面――一般法律原则的要素和起源――做了初步评估； |
| and Part Five sets forth a tentative future programme of work. | 第五部分阐述了暂定的今后工作方案。 |
| The report also proposed three draft conclusions. | 报告还提出了三项结论草案。 |
| 214. Part One of the report sets forth the scope of the topic and raised four interrelated issues to be considered by the Commission: (i) the legal nature of general principles of law as a source of international law and the meaning of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice; | 214. 报告第一部分阐述了本专题的范围，并提出了供委员会审议的四个相互关联的问题：(一) 作为国际法渊源之一的一般法律原则的法律性质和《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项的含义； |
| (ii) the origins of general principles of law; | (二) 一般法律原则的起源； |
| (iii) the functions of general principles of law and their relationship with other sources of international law; | (三) 一般法律原则的作用以及与国际法其他渊源的关系； |
| and (iv) the identification of general principles of law. | (四) 一般法律原则的识别。 |
| Certain aspects related to methodology were also highlighted, namely how to select relevant materials for the study of the topic in light of the imprecise terminology employed in the literature and in practice (e.g. “principle”, “general principle”, “general principle of law”, “general principle of international law”, “fundamental principle of international law”), and a non-exhaustive list of factors to be considered to determine the relevance of materials. | 还强调了某些方法问题，即在文献和实践所用术语不确切的情况下(如“原则”、“一般原则”、“一般法律原则”、“国际法的一般原则”、“国际法的基本原则”)，如何选择本专题研究的相关材料，以及一份确定材料相关性应考虑因素的非详尽清单。 |
| The Special Rapporteur further considered that, as in the case of the topic “Identification of customary international law”, the examples of general principles of law that may be referred to in the work of the Commission must be illustrative only and contained in the commentaries to the draft conclusions, and that the Commission should not delve into their substance. | 特别报告员还认为，与“习惯国际法的识别”专题一样，委员会在工作中可能提到的一般法律原则的例子必须只为举例说明，收录在结论草案的评注中，且委员会不应深入探讨其实质内容。 |
| 215. Part Two of the report addresses the Commission’s previous work related to the topic. | 215. 报告第二部分论述了委员会以往与本专题有关的工作。 |
| The Special Rapporteur noted that general principles of law have appeared in the work of the Commission since its early years; | 特别报告员指出，一般法律原则在委员会早年的工作中就已出现； |
| that general principles of law seem to have been codified in the context of some topics, such as the law of treaties and responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts; | 并似乎在某些专题――例如条约法和国家对国际不法行为的责任――下得到了编纂； |
| and that certain aspects of the present topic had been previously studied or discussed, albeit in general briefly, by the Commission, such as in the topics on fragmentation of international law, and identification of customary international law. | 委员会已研究或讨论了本专题的某些方面，尽管一般是泛泛而谈，如在国际法不成体系和习惯国际法的识别专题中。 |
| He stressed that the previous work of the Commission must be taken into account in an appropriate manner. | 他强调，委员会以前的工作必须以适当的方式加以考虑。 |
| 216. Part Three of the report, which deals with the development of general principles of law over time, had two main objectives: (i) to provide context to the topic and (ii) to provide relevant materials for the study of general principles of law by members of the Commission. | 216. 报告第三部分涉及随着时间的推移一般法律原则的发展，这一部分有两个主要目的：(一) 为本专题提供背景参考； (二) 为委员会委员研究一般法律原则提供相关材料。 |
| The Special Rapporteur highlighted that section A focused on references to general principles of law in international instruments while section B addressed general principles of law in the case law of international courts and tribunals. | 特别报告员着重指出，A节侧重各项国际文书对一般法律原则的提及，B节则涉及国际性法院和法庭判例法中的一般法律原则。 |
| The Special Rapporteur stressed that, while section B focused almost exclusively on examples from judicial settlement of disputes, this did not mean that this is the only context in which general principles of law applied. | 特别报告员强调，虽然B节几乎完全侧重司法解决争端的例子，但并不意味着这是适用一般法律原则的唯一情况。 |
| As a source of international law, they apply to the relations between subjects of international law generally. | 作为国际法的一个渊源，一般法律原则普遍适用于国际法主体之间的关系。 |
| He added that the materials referred to in this section were not exhaustive and that, taking into account the materials available, there was sufficient State and international judicial practice for the Commission to address this topic adequately. | 他补充说，该节提到的材料并非详尽无遗，从现有材料来看，国家和国际司法实践已经很充分，委员会可充分研究这一专题。 |
| The Special Rapporteur also indicated that the first report briefly mentioned practice related to general principles of law of a regional scope and the practice of international administrative tribunals, and indicated that he would welcome the views of members as to whether these should be studied further. | 特别报告员还指出，第一次报告简要提到了与区域范围一般法律原则有关的实践以及国际行政法庭的实践，并表示他欢迎委员们对是否应进一步研究这些实践提出意见。 |
| 217. Part Four of the report provides first an initial assessment of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, which refers to “the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations”. | 217. 报告第四部分首先对《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项做了初步评估，其中提到“一般法律原则为文明各国所承认者”。 |
| The Special Rapporteur identified three interrelated elements, namely “general principles of law”, “recognized” and “civilized nations”. | 特别报告员提出了三个相互关联的要素，即“一般法律原则”、“承认”和“文明各国”。 |
| Part Four also addressed the question of the origins of general principles of law. | 第四部分也述及一般法律原则的起源问题。 |
| The Special Rapporteur stressed that the position of the Commission on this latter question would be decisive as to how the topic would be addressed in the future. | 特别报告员强调，委员会关于后一问题的立场将对今后如何处理这一专题具有决定性意义。 |
| 218. The Special Rapporteur raised the question whether “general principles of law” in the sense of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice share any characteristics with the “general principles” that exist in national legal systems. | 218. 特别报告员提出了《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项意义上的“一般法律原则”与国家法律体系中存在的“一般原则”是否有任何共同特征的问题。 |
| He noted that, while it may be said that they share some common features, such as their function of filling gaps, their characteristics are probably to be distinguished due to the structural differences between the international legal system and national legal systems. | 他指出，虽然可以说它们有一些共同特点，如填补空白的作用，但由于国际法律体系与国家法律体系之间的结构差异，可能应当区分二者的特征。 |
| Another issue that the Special Rapporteur pointed to for consideration by the Commission is the possible distinction between the terms “principle” and “rule” or “norm”. | 特别报告员指出供委员会审议的另一个问题是，或许可以区分“原则”与“规则”或“规范”。 |
| The Special Rapporteur indicated that the doctrine is not unanimous on this matter. | 特别报告员指出，关于这一问题，存在不同学说。 |
| He recalled that both the International Court of Justice and the Commission have expressed that the term “principle” refers to a more “general” and “fundamental” norm than other norms of international law. | 他回顾说，国际法院和委员会都表示，“原则”一词指的是比国际法其他规范更“一般”和“基本”的规范。 |
| The report preliminarily concludes that, while general principles of law may have a more “general” and “fundamental” character, it cannot be excluded, having regard to existing practice, that there may exist general principles of law which do not have these characteristics. | 报告初步得出结论称，虽然一般法律原则可能具有更“一般”和“基本”的性质，但考虑到现有实践，不能排除可能存在不具有这些特征的一般法律原则。 |
| Another issue addressed in Part Four of the report is the relationship between general principles of law and “general international law”. | 报告第四部分探讨的另一个问题是一般法律原则与“一般国际法”之间的关系。 |
| The Special Rapporteur indicated that it is clear that the term “general international law” includes general principles of law, as has been recently reiterated by the Commission in the commentary of the draft conclusions on the identification of customary international law, which implies that they are universally applicable. | 特别报告员指出，“一般国际法”一词显然包含一般法律原则，正如委员会最近在习惯国际法的识别结论草案的评注中重申的，这意味着一般法律原则普遍适用。 |
| However, a reference to “general international law” is not to be necessarily understood as a reference to general principles of law. | 不过，提及“一般国际法”未必应理解为提及一般法律原则。 |
| Each case should thus be examined in its context. | 因此，应根据具体情况研究个案。 |
| 219. Part Four of the report also addressed the meaning of the term “recognized” in Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. | 219. 报告第四部分还探讨了《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项中“承认”一词的含义。 |
| The Special Rapporteur stated that recognition was the essential condition for the existence of a general principle of law, in accordance with the text of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice and the travaux préparatoires of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice. | 特别报告员说，从《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项的案文和《常设国际法院规约》的准备工作文件来看，承认是一般法律原则存在的基本条件。 |
| The Special Rapporteur indicated that the drafters of the Statute considered that the formal validity of general principles of law would be based on their recognition by “civilized nations”. | 特别报告员指出，《规约》的起草者认为，一般法律原则在形式上的有效性取决于是否得到“文明各国”的承认。 |
| This recognition would constitute an objective basis that would address the drafters’ concern not to afford to a judge excessive discretion in the determination of the law. | 这种承认将构成一个客观基础，达到起草者所希望的不予以法官在确定法律时过多酌处权的目的。 |
| This objective could be achieved with the recognition of a principle by States in general, a condition that did not depend on the subjective view of a judge or a particular State. | 这一目的可以通过要求一项原则为各国普遍承认来实现，这一条件不取决于法官或特定国家的主观看法。 |
| The Special Rapporteur also stressed that the essential condition of recognition of general principles of law differs clearly from the essential conditions for the identification of customary international law, namely a general practice and its acceptance as law (opinio juris). | 特别报告员还强调，承认一般法律原则的必要条件明显不同于识别习惯国际法的必要条件――作为一种一般实践并被接受为法律(法律确信)。 |
| 220. As to the term “civilized nations”, the Special Rapporteur considered that it should not cause major difficulties for the work of the Commission. | 220. 关于“文明各国”一词，特别报告员认为，这应当不会给委员会的工作造成很大困难。 |
| He noted that, while this term may have had a particular meaning in the past, it has become anachronistic and should be avoided. | 他指出，虽然该词过去可能具有特定含义，但已经过时，应予避免。 |
| Taking into account existing practice and the principle of sovereign equality, this term must be understood as referring to all States of the international community. | 考虑到现有实践和主权平等原则，这一术语必须理解为指国际社会的所有国家。 |
| The Special Rapporteur indicated that this conclusion did not exhaust all the questions that arise regarding whose recognition is required, and that he would welcome the views of members of the Commission on issues that would need to be addressed in a future report, such as the degree of recognition that a general principle of law must have, whether international organizations could also contribute to the formation of general principles of law, and the particular role that international courts and tribunals may play in this matter. | 特别报告员指出，这一结论并没有彻底解决需要谁承认的所有问题，他欢迎委员会委员就需要在今后报告中探讨的问题发表意见，如一般法律原则必须得到承认的程度、国际组织是否也能够对一般法律原则的形成做出贡献，以及国际性法院和法庭在这方面可能发挥的特殊作用。 |
| 221. Section II of Part Four of the first report deals with the origins of general principles of law and corresponding categories. | 221. 第一次报告第四部分第二节涉及一般法律原则的起源和相应类别。 |
| The Special Rapporteur reiterated that this fundamental issue would determine the work of the Commission in the future. | 特别报告员重申，这一根本问题将决定委员会今后的工作。 |
| In view of existing practice and literature, the report addresses two categories of general principles of law: those derived from national legal systems and those formed within the international legal system. | 鉴于现有实践和文献，报告论述了两类一般法律原则：源自国家法律体系的原则和在国际法律体系内形成的原则。 |
| The Special Rapporteur indicated that other categories have been proposed in doctrine, but that they were somewhat vague, could allow excessive discretion and did not find sufficient support in practice, at least in a clear manner, and therefore were not addressed in the first report. | 特别报告员指出，学说中提出了一些其他类别，但有些含糊不清，可能赋予过多酌处权，在实践中没有足够的支持，至少没有足够明确的支持，因此第一次报告未探讨其他类别。 |
| 222. The category of general principles of law derived from national legal systems finds support in the practice prior to the adoption of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, in the travaux préparatoires of the Statute, as well as broadly in current State and international judicial practice. | 222. 源自国家法律体系的一般法律原则这一类别在《常设国际法院规约》通过之前的实践、《规约》的准备工作文件以及当前的国家和国际司法实践中都得到广泛支持。 |
| The Special Rapporteur indicated that the identification of principles falling within this category required a two-step analysis: (i) the identification of a principle common to the generality of national legal systems or principal legal systems of the world; | 特别报告员指出，识别这一类别的原则需要做两步分析：(一) 识别国家法律体系或世界主要法律体系普遍共有的原则； |
| and (ii) the determination of whether such principle is applicable in the international legal system (sometimes referred to as “transposition”). | (二) 确定这一原则是否适用于国际法律体系(有时称为“转用于”)。 |
| 223. The second category of general principles refers to general principles of law formed within the international legal system. | 223. 第二类一般原则是在国际法律体系内形成的一般法律原则。 |
| The Special Rapporteur stressed that nothing in the travaux préparatoires of the respective Statutes of the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Court of Justice, nor their text, suggested that general principles of law are limited to those derived from national legal systems. | 特别报告员强调，《常设国际法院规约》和《国际法院规约》的准备工作文件及规约案文均未表明，一般法律原则仅限于源自国家法律体系的原则。 |
| He recalled that, in the Advisory Committee of Jurists, although there was general agreement among its members that the general principles of law could derive from national legal systems, the possibility that they may have other origins was not excluded. | 他回顾说，在法学家咨询委员会中，尽管委员普遍认为一般法律原则可以源自国家法律体系，但并不排除它们可能有其他来源。 |
| The existence of this category could also be explained on the basis that, if the function of general principles of law is to fill gaps, then it would be logical to have recourse to it, since general principles of law derived from national legal systems may not be sufficient to perform such function. | 这一类别的存在理由也可以解释为：如果一般法律原则的作用是填补空白，那么源自国际法律体系便是符合逻辑的，因为源自国家法律体系的一般法律原则可能不足以发挥这一作用。 |
| State practice and international jurisprudence, as well as the literature, also support the existence of this category. | 国家实践和国际判例以及文献也为这一类别的存在提供支持。 |
| 224. Finally, with respect to the future work of the Commission, the Special Rapporteur proposed that the second report address the functions of general principles of law and their relationship to other sources of international law, and that the third report be dedicated to the identification of general principles of law. | 224. 最后，关于委员会今后的工作，特别报告员建议第二次报告论述一般法律原则的作用以及与国际法其他渊源的关系，第三次报告专门探讨一般法律原则的识别。 |
| The Special Rapporteur indicated his flexibility on the order in which these aspects of the topic should be addressed and would welcome views of members of the Commission thereon. | 特别报告员表示，他对处理本专题这些方面的顺序持灵活态度，并欢迎委员会委员就此发表意见。 |
| 2. Summary of the debate | 2. 辩论摘要 |
| (a) General comments | (a) 一般性评论 |
| 225. Members welcomed the first report of the Special Rapporteur and noted with appreciation that it was well structured and researched. | 225. 委员们欢迎特别报告员的第一次报告，并赞赏地指出该报告结构严谨，研究充分。 |
| Members noted its “preliminary and introductory” nature. | 委员们注意到报告是“初步和介绍性的”。 |
| Some members indicated that their comments were also preliminary until the Commission had an opportunity to progress in its work. | 有些委员表示，在委员会有机会在工作中取得进展之前，他们的意见也是初步意见。 |
| It was agreed that a number of issues would need to be further addressed and nuanced in the course of future work on the topic, in particular regarding the scope of the topic, as well as the elements and origins of general principles of law, and their identification. | 委员们一致认为，在今后关于本专题的工作中，若干问题需要进一步探讨并细致入微地处理，特别是本专题的范围、一般法律原则的要素和起源及其识别。 |
| 226. With respect to the terminology to be used in French and Spanish, some members expressed the view that it would be important not to depart from the precise terminology contained in Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice in the title of the topic and in the Commission’s documentation. | 226. 关于法文和西班牙文的用语，有些委员认为，本专题的标题和委员会文件丝毫不应偏离《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项的用语。 |
| 227. Some members agreed that this topic was relevant not only because general principles of law were essential in the judicial context, but also because they were generally applicable between States. | 227. 有些委员认为，本专题很重要，不仅是因为一般法律原则在司法背景下至关重要，而且因为它们普遍适用于国家之间。 |
| A view was expressed, however, that, while it was important for the Commission to consider the topic, general principles of law within the meaning of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice did not play a very important role in practice. | 但也有人表示，虽然委员会审议这一专题很重要，但《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项意义上的一般法律原则在实践中并未发挥十分重要的作用。 |
| (i) Scope and outcome of the topic | (一) 本专题的范围和成果 |
| 228. Several members stressed that the scope of the topic refers to general principles of law as a source of international law. | 228. 一些委员强调，本专题的范围是作为国际法渊源之一的一般法律原则。 |
| A number of members supported limiting the scope of the topic to general principles of law in the sense of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, but not limited to its application by the Court, and in the light of the practice of States and of international courts and tribunals. | 若干委员支持将专题范围限于《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项意义上的一般法律原则，但不限于该法院的适用，并考虑到各国以及国际性法院和法庭的实践。 |
| Some members suggested that the Commission could consider revising the title of the topic to clarify its scope. | 有些委员建议，委员会可以考虑修改本专题的标题，以澄清其范围。 |
| 229. It was agreed by a number of members that the Commission should not delve into the substance of general principles of law, although it could provide illustrative examples. | 229. 一些委员一致认为，委员会不应深入研究一般法律原则的具体内容，不过可以提供说明性的例子。 |
| Some members proposed that an illustrative list of general principles of law be prepared and provided as an annex, while others stressed that this would be an incomplete exercise and could become a distraction from the core issues. | 有些委员建议编写一份一般法律原则的例示清单，并作为附件提供，而另一些委员则强调，这将是一项不完整的工作，可能会转移对核心问题的注意力。 |
| Several members considered that illustrative examples of general principles of law could be included in the commentaries together with all relevant materials. | 若干委员认为，一般法律原则的说明性例子可以连同所有相关材料一并列入评注。 |
| 230. Members generally agreed with the issues set forth for consideration by the Commission in the Special Rapporteur’s first report, namely: (i) the legal nature of general principles of law as a source of international law; | 230. 委员们普遍认同特别报告员第一次报告中提出供委员会审议的问题，即：(一) 作为国际法渊源之一的一般法律原则的法律性质； |
| (ii) the origins of general principles of law; | (二) 一般法律原则的起源； |
| (iii) the functions of general principles of law and their relationship with other sources of international law; | (三) 一般法律原则的作用以及与国际法其他渊源的关系； |
| and (iv) the identification of general principles of law. | 以及(四) 一般法律原则的识别。 |
| Some members, however, expressed doubts as to the proposed order in which these issues would be addressed. | 但有些委员对处理这些问题的拟议顺序提出了质疑。 |
| 231. With respect to the legal nature of general principles of law as a source of international law, members agreed that Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice provided an authoritative statement in this sense, which is moreover corroborated in the practice of States and international courts and tribunals. | 231. 关于作为国际法渊源之一的一般法律原则的法律性质，委员们一致认为，《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项在这个意义上提供了一个权威论断，并进一步得到各国及国际性法院和法庭实践的证实。 |
| One member questioned the meaning of the term “source” and whether it included formal sources, material sources, judicial sources, historical sources and literary sources, while other members found the common understanding of this term sufficiently clear for the Commission to advance in its work, which is the form by which a legal rule or principle comes into existence. | 一位委员质疑“渊源”一词的含义以及它是否包括形式渊源、实质渊源、司法渊源、历史渊源和文献渊源，而另一些委员则认为，对这一术语的共同理解――法律规则或原则形成的形式――足够清晰，委员会可以推进其工作。 |
| Several members noted that general principles of law must be afforded autonomy from the other sources. | 若干委员指出，必须赋予一般法律原则相对于其他渊源的独立性。 |
| While it was noted that there was no hierarchy among the sources of international law, some members stressed that, in practice, general principles of law played a role of filling gaps. | 虽然有人指出，国际法渊源没有等级之分，但一些委员强调，在实践中，一般法律原则发挥填补空白的作用。 |
| The view was expressed that general principles of law were a secondary source of international law, which played a “subsidiary” role. | 有人认为，一般法律原则是国际法的次级渊源，发挥“辅助”作用。 |
| Some members indicated, however, that the Commission should avoid describing general principles of law as subsidiary and that the term “supplementary” was a more appropriate description. | 但有些委员指出，委员会应避免将一般法律原则描述为辅助原则，“补充”一词是更恰当的描述。 |
| 232. With respect to the functions of general principles of law and their relationship with other sources of international law, members agreed with the Special Rapporteur that this issue would require careful consideration. | 232. 关于一般法律原则的作用以及与国际法其他渊源的关系，委员们同意特别报告员的意见，认为这一问题需要认真考虑。 |
| Members generally supported the Special Rapporteur’s conclusion that the travaux préparatoires of Article 38 of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice suggested that the inclusion of general principles of law as a source of international law was driven by a concern to avoid findings of non liquet, and that the purpose of the elements provided in this article was to limit judicial discretion in the determination of international law. | 委员们普遍支持特别报告员的结论，即《常设国际法院规约》第三十八条的准备工作文件表明，将一般法律原则作为国际法渊源之一是为了避免裁定“法律不明”，该条所列各要素的目的是限制确定国际法时的司法酌处权。 |
| Some members indicated that general principles of law could have other possible functions, such as to serve as an interpretative tool, and that they serve as sources of rights and obligations. | 一些委员指出，一般法律原则可能还有其他作用，例如作为解释工具，以及作为权利和义务的来源。 |
| Some members expressed doubt as to whether the meaning of non liquet and its prohibition under international law should be addressed as this fell outside the scope of the topic. | 一些委员质疑是否应研究“法律不明”的含义及其是否为国际法所禁止的问题，认为这些问题在本专题范围之外。 |
| 233. Members agreed that the distinction between general principles of law and customary international law would be important for the topic. | 233. 委员们一致认为，区分一般法律原则与习惯国际法将对本专题至关重要。 |
| In particular, some members noted that, if the distinction was not clearly explained, there may be a certain confusion between these two sources of international law. | 特别是，有些委员指出，如果不明确解释这一区别，可能会混淆国际法的这两个渊源。 |
| Some suggested that these two sources could be distinguished, for example, by their process of coming into existence and the conditions they must fulfil for doing so. | 一些委员建议，这两个渊源可以通过，例如形成过程和必须满足的条件，加以区分。 |
| The view was expressed that it may sometimes be difficult to differentiate general principles of law from customary international law. | 有人认为，有时可能很难区分一般法律原则与习惯国际法。 |
| Some members indicated that it would be important for the Commission to examine not only the relationship of general principles of law with treaties and customary international law, but also with equity. | 一些委员指出，重要的是，委员会不仅应研究一般法律原则与条约及习惯国际法的关系，还应研究一般法律原则与衡平法的关系。 |
| Further, it was suggested that general principles of law and principles regulating the various branches of international law should also be examined. | 还有人建议，还应当研究一般法律原则与规范国际法各个分支的各项原则。 |
| 234. Members generally agreed that draft conclusions would be an appropriate form with respect to the outcome of the topic. | 234. 委员们普遍认为，结论草案将是本专题成果的适当形式。 |
| The view was expressed, however, that draft guidelines or draft articles would be a more appropriate outcome. | 但也有人认为，准则草案或条款草案是更合适的成果。 |
| A view was also expressed that the Commission should remain open and make such determination at a later stage of its work. | 还有人认为，委员会应保持开放态度，在工作稍后阶段再做决定。 |
| (ii) Methodology | (二) 方法 |
| 235. Members generally agreed with the methodology proposed by the Special Rapporteur and reiterated the importance of a cautious approach. | 235. 委员们普遍同意特别报告员提议的方法，并重申审慎行事的重要性。 |
| Some members indicated that, while the practice of States and the jurisprudence of international courts and tribunals were a good starting point, as proposed by the Special Rapporteur, jurisprudence of national courts, the output of international organizations and the literature would also be relevant. | 一些委员指出，虽然如特别报告员提出的，国家实践以及国际性法院和法庭的判例是一个好的起点，但国家法院的判例、国际组织的产出和一般文献也是相关的。 |
| A view was expressed that focus should also be placed on regional entities, such as the Inter-American Juridical Committee and Inter-American Court of Human Rights. | 有委员表示，还应重视区域实体，如美洲司法委员会和美洲人权法院。 |
| The suggestion was made that it would be relevant to examine soft law instruments. | 也有委员建议，不妨对软性法律文书进行研究。 |
| 236. According to a view, the Commission should avoid settling theoretical debates and should aim at providing practical solutions. | 236. 有委员指出，委员会不应着眼于平息理论上的辩论，而应力求提供实际解决办法。 |
| It was also noted that the Commission should be transparent if State practice was insufficient and that it would be challenging to canvas global information relating to this topic to analyse all major legal systems. | 还指出，如果国家实践不充分，搜集与这一专题有关的全球信息以分析所有主要法律体系将具有挑战性，委员会不应讳言。 |
| Members also agreed with the Special Rapporteur regarding the imprecision of the language used in previous work and literature. | 委员们还同意特别报告员关于以前的工作和文献中的用语不准确的看法。 |
| Some members suggested that a measure of flexibility may be needed by the Commission to accommodate the specificities of the many areas of international law upon which this topic would touch. | 一些委员建议，委员会可能需要一定程度的灵活性，以包容这一专题可能触及的许多国际法领域的具体情况。 |
| (b) Previous work of the Commission and development of general principles of law over time | (b) 国际法委员会以往的工作和随着时间的推移一般法律原则的发展 |
| 237. Members welcomed the analysis of the historical background provided by the Special Rapporteur. | 237. 委员们欢迎特别报告员对历史背景的分析。 |
| In particular, it was stressed that general principles of law were historically largely derived from national legal systems and Roman law and applicable only when a specific matter was not regulated by other sources of law. | 具体而言，有人强调，一般法律原则在历史上主要来自国家法律体系和罗马法，仅在某一具体事项没有其他法律渊源规范时适用。 |
| Several members noted that the travaux préparatoires of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice should be seen in that context, since at the time of its adoption, international law did not regulate the issues involved in many areas, and general principles of law were intended to provide the judge with an alternative to a finding of non liquet. | 一些委员指出，应在这一背景下看待《常设国际法院规约》的准备工作文件，因为该规约通过时，国际法尚未对许多领域涉及的问题加以规范，而一般法律原则旨在为法官提供一种选择，避免裁定“法律不明”。 |
| It was noted that that the link between general principles of law and the European ius commune could have been assessed in the report and that these historical antecedents may assist the Commission in getting a sense of what was meant by general principles of law. | 有委员认为，原本可以在报告中评估一般法律原则与欧洲普通法之间的联系，这些先例可能有助于委员会理解一般法律原则的含义。 |
| 238. Some members noted that caution was required when characterizing the Commission’s previous work. | 238. 一些委员指出，描述委员会以前的工作须谨慎。 |
| In addition, some members questioned the usefulness of reviewing references to general principles of law in specific treaty regimes, while several members supported it. | 此外，一些委员质疑研究具体条约制度中引用的一般法律原则是否有用，另一些委员则对此表示支持。 |
| Some members questioned why the Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations had not been mentioned in the report. | 一些委员询问报告为何没有提到《关于各国依联合国宪章建立友好关系和合作的国际法原则宣言》。 |
| (c) Elements of general principles of law | (c) 一般法律原则的要素 |
| 239. Members generally agreed with the Special Rapporteur’s approach of looking separately at the three elements of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. | 239. 委员们普遍同意特别报告员关于分别探讨《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项的三个要素的建议。 |
| Several members highlighted the distinction between “general principles of law” and “general principles of international law” and stressed that their relationship would need to be addressed. | 一些委员着重指出“一般法律原则”与“国际法的一般原则”之间的区别，并强调需要澄清它们之间的关系。 |
| Further, a number of members noted that the term “general” and “principles” would need thorough analysis. | 此外，也有一些委员认为，需要对“一般”和“原则”两词作详尽分析。 |
| In this connection, the suggestion of the Special Rapporteur to closely examine the distinction between a “principle” and “norm” or “rule” was supported by several members. | 在这方面，特别报告员建议认真探讨“原则”与“规范”或“规则”之间的区别，一些委员对此表示支持。 |
| Some members supported the Special Rapporteur’s explanation regarding the “general” and “fundamental” nature of a principle, although the specific meaning of these terms was questioned. | 一些委员赞同特别报告员对一项原则的“一般”和“基本”性质的解释，尽管这些术语的具体含义仍受到质疑。 |
| Other members indicated that not all general principles of law necessarily have those characteristics, as mentioned in the report and shown by existing practice. | 还有一些委员表示，如报告所述和现有实践所示，并非所有的一般法律原则都必然具备这些特征。 |
| 240. The possibility of addressing “regional” or “bilateral” general principles of law was welcomed by some members, while others expressed doubts as to whether it would be appropriate, and some suggested that it was premature for the Commission to examine this issue at this early stage of its work. | 240. 一些委员对探讨“区域”或“双边”一般法律原则的可能性表示欢迎，而另一些委员则怀疑这样做是否合适。 一些委员认为，委员会在工作的初期阶段考虑这一问题为时过早。 |
| In particular, it was stressed that they did not fall within the scope of the topic and it was stated that the term “general” in Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice entailed the applicability of general principles of law to “all States”, excluding “regional” or “bilateral” general principles of law. | 特别是，有人强调“区域”或“双边”一般法律原则不属于本专题的范围； 也有些委员指出，《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项中的“一般”一词意味着一般法律原则适用于“所有国家”，排除了“区域”或“双边”一般法律原则。 |
| Some members suggested that the Commission revert to this issue as its work progresses, in light of further research. | 一些委员建议委员会随着工作的推进，参照进一步研究成果，再回头考虑这一问题。 |
| Finally, several members were of the view that the term “law” would also merit closer examination, for example to determine whether it encompasses both national and international law. | 最后，几位委员表示，“法律”一词也值得更仔细研究，例如需要确定该词是否既涵盖国内法，也涵盖国际法。 |
| 241. Members generally agreed that the element of “recognition” was essential to the identification of general principles of law and supported the suggestion by the Special Rapporteur to study further this specific requirement in a future report. | 241. 委员们普遍同意，“承认”这一要素对于识别一般法律原则至关重要，并支持特别报告员关于在今后的报告中进一步研究这一具体要求的建议。 |
| Members highlighted the delineation between recognition, as a requirement for general principles of law, and acceptance as law, as an element of customary international law. | 委员们着重指出了“承认”(一般法律原则的要求)与“被接受为法律”(习惯国际法的要素)之间的界限。 |
| Some members further made clear that they did not view the requirement of “recognition” as similar to the element of “acceptance as law” relevant in the context of customary international law. | 一些委员还明确表示，他们不认为“承认”要求与习惯国际法中的“被接受为法律”要素相似。 |
| 242. Further, members generally supported the two-step analysis proposed by the Special Rapporteur regarding recognition with respect to general principles of law derived from national legal systems – (i) the identification of a principle common to a sufficiently large number of national legal systems and (ii) the determination of whether such principle is applicable in the international legal system. | 242. 此外，委员们普遍支持特别报告员提出的，识别源自国家法律体系的一般法律原则时，进行两步分析，(一) 识别足够多的国家法律体系所共有的原则，(二) 确定该原则是否适用于国际法律体系。 |
| Several members agreed that this two-step analysis and each of its elements would have to be examined closely. | 若干委员认为，必须仔细研究这种两步分析法和其中每一个要素。 |
| A number of issues were raised with respect to this matter, such as whether the same recognition would apply to the two categories of general principles of law proposed by the Special Rapporteur; | 就此提出了一些问题，例如：特别报告员提出的两类一般法律原则是否适用同样的承认； |
| the level or degree of recognition needed, and in particular the meaning of a “sufficiently large majority”; | 所需要的承认水平或程度，特别是“足够的大多数”的含义； |
| whose recognition is required; | 需要谁的承认； |
| the role of States in the transposition stage; | 国家在转用阶段的作用； |
| the role, if any, of international organizations; | 国际组织的作用(如果有的话)； |
| and whether the term “transposability” was more accurate than “transposition”. | 以及“可转用”一词是否比“转用”更准确。 |
| 243. Members generally agreed that the term “civilized nations” was inappropriate and outdated and should not be used in the context of the present draft conclusions. | 243. 委员们普遍认为，“civilized nations”(文明各国)一词不合适且过时，不应用在本结论草案中。 |
| Some members supported the Special Rapporteur’s proposal to refer instead to “States”, while others cautioned that this term may not encompass all actors involved in the formation of general principles of law, including international organizations. | 一些委员支持特别报告员的建议，即改用“states”，而另一些委员则告诫说，这一术语可能不包括参与形成一般法律原则的所有行为体，包括国际组织。 |
| Some members expressed the view that the term “nations” should be further considered. | 一些委员认为，应进一步考虑“nations”一词。 |
| It was also suggested to use the term “community of nations”, contained in article 15, paragraph 2, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: “general principles of law recognized by the community of nations”. | 还有人建议使用“community of nations”(各国)，见《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第十五条第二款：“各国公认的一般法律原则”。 |
| (d) The origins of general principles of law as a source of international law | (d) 作为国际法渊源之一的一般法律原则的起源 |
| 244. Several members agreed with the two categories proposed by the Special Rapporteur based on their origins, namely general principles of law derived from national legal systems and general principles of law formed within the international legal system, considering that there was sufficient practice supporting both of them. | 244. 若干委员同意特别报告员按起源提出的两个类别，即源自国家法律体系的一般法律原则和在国际法律体系内形成的一般法律原则，认为这两类都有足够的实践作为支持。 |
| Some members expressed the view that the difference between general principles of law of a procedural nature and those of substantive nature was important when categorizing general principles of law and should be further considered. | 一些委员认为，在对一般法律原则进行分类时，区分程序性法律原则和实质性法律原则很重要，应进一步考虑。 |
| While it was indicated that other categories should not be excluded, some members cautioned against the proliferation of categories. | 一些委员指出不应排除其他类别，但另一些委员告诫委员会不要增加过多类别。 |
| 245. Several members suggested, however, that the category of general principles formed within the international legal system should not be considered since there was insufficient State practice to support it. | 245. 然而，若干委员建议，不应考虑在国际法律体系内形成的一般法律原则，因为没有足够的国家实践作为支持。 |
| A number of members considered that this category was debatable and that a cautious approach should be taken when considering it, and in establishing its limits. | 另一些委员认为，这一类别有争议，在审议这一类别和确定其界限时应采取谨慎的做法。 |
| It was noted that an additional challenge would be to delineate the limits of this category, which may lead to excessive and subjective judicial discretion, and could undermine the requirements for the formation of customary international law. | 有委员指出，另一个挑战是划定这一类别的界限，这可能导致过度和主观的司法酌处权，还可能削弱习惯国际法的形成条件。 |
| It was considered that this category should not be rejected or overly restricted; | 有的委员认为不应排除或过度限制这一类别； |
| the main concern would be that the precondition for its formation be sufficiently stringent. | 主要担心其形成的先决条件过于苛刻。 |
| Finally, some members expressed the view that a hard distinction should not be drawn between national legal systems and the international legal system when determining the origins of general principles of law, as the latter could be derived indistinctly from either system. | 最后，一些委员表示，在确定一般法律原则的起源时，不应严格区分国家法律体系和国际法律体系，因为一般法律原则可能源自其中之一，但无法明确界定是哪一个。 |
| (e) Comments on the draft conclusions proposed in the first report | (e) 对第一次报告中提出的结论草案的评论 |
| 246. A number of drafting proposals were made concerning draft conclusions 1, 2 and 3. | 246. 结论草案1、2、3收到了一些起草建议。 |
| Several members suggested that draft conclusions 2 and 3 be held in the Drafting Committee until the Commission has had the opportunity to consider further relevant issues that may have an impact on their formulation. | 一些委员建议将结论草案2和3留在起草委员会，直到委员会有机会审议可能对其拟订有影响的其他相关问题。 |
| (f) Future programme of work | (f) 今后的工作方案 |
| 247. Members generally supported the proposal by the Special Rapporteur to address the functions of general principles of law and their relationship with other sources of law in his second report and the issue of identification of general principles of law in his third report. | 247. 委员们普遍支持特别报告员关于在第二次报告中探讨一般法律原则的作用以及与其他法律渊源的关系以及在第三次报告中探讨一般法律原则的识别的提议。 |
| Some members suggested that the Special Rapporteur may wish to reverse the proposed order and begin with the issue of identification of general principles of international law, and in particular with the threshold for recognition and the criteria for the transposability or transposition of principles common to national legal systems to the international legal system. | 一些委员建议，特别报告员不妨调换提议的顺序，从国际法的一般原则的识别开始，特别是首先阐述“承认”的门槛和国家法律体系的共有原则转用或可转用于国际法律体系的标准。 |
| Some members suggested that the Special Rapporteur propose a definition for general principles of law. | 一些委员建议特别报告员提出一般法律原则的定义。 |
| It was also suggested that the Special Rapporteur address first the more generally accepted category of general principles of law, namely those derived from national legal systems, before addressing general principles of law formed within the international legal system, and treat both function and recognition together. | 还有一些委员建议特别报告员先探讨已普遍接受的一般法律原则类别，即源自国家法律体系的原则，然后再探讨在国际法律体系内形成的一般法律原则，并将“作用”与“承认”问题放在一起讨论。 |
| 3. Concluding remarks of the Special Rapporteur | 3. 特别报告员的总结 |
| 248. The Special Rapporteur welcomed the interest that the topic received among the members of the Commission and noted that the debate had shown that, despite the different points of view on certain complex aspects, there were fundamental points on which there was general consensus. | 248. 特别报告员欢迎委员会委员对这一专题表现出的兴趣，并指出，辩论表明，尽管在某些复杂方面意见不一，但在一些基本问题上已达成普遍共识。 |
| For instance, there was consensus on the issues to be considered by the Commission, namely: (1) the legal nature of general principles of law as a source of international law; | 例如，就委员会将审议的问题已形成一致意见，即：(1) 作为国际法渊源之一的一般法律原则的法律性质； |
| (2) the origins and corresponding categories of general principles of law; | (2) 一般法律原则的起源和相应类别； |
| (3) the functions of general principles of law and their relationship to other sources of international law (in particular customary international law); | (3) 一般法律原则的作用以及与其他国际法渊源(特别是习惯国际法)的关系； |
| and (4) the identification of general principles of law. | (4) 一般法律原则的识别。 |
| 249. Further, the Special Rapporteur noted the general consensus on the final outcome of the Commission’s work, which should take the form of conclusions accompanied by commentaries, since the purpose of the topic was to clarify various aspects of one of the main sources of international law and such outcome was consistent with the previous work of the Commission. | 249. 此外，特别报告员指出，委员们就委员会工作的最终成果达成普遍共识，即采取附有评注的结论的形式，因为本专题的目的是澄清国际法主要渊源之一的各个方面，这样的成果与委员会以往的工作是一致的。 |
| 250. The Special Rapporteur also noted that, although the current title of the topic had not been the subject of any observations by States in the Sixth Committee, members of the Commission had made proposals to modify it. | 250. 特别报告员还指出，虽然各国在第六委员会没有对本专题目前的标题发表任何意见，但委员会委员提出了一些修改意见。 |
| He noted that, in his view, such proposals were not needed and would not accurately reflect the scope of the topic. | 他指出，在他看来，这些修改没有必要，也不能准确反映本专题的范围。 |
| 251. The Special Rapporteur further noted the general consensus on the scope of the topic and stressed that it would not be necessary for the Commission to have a theoretical debate about the meaning of the term “sources”. | 251. 特别报告员进一步指出就本专题范围达成的普遍共识，强调委员会没有必要就“渊源”一词的含义进行理论辩论。 |
| He added that the Commission has been working on the sources of international law since its creation and that the common understanding of its work is on “formal sources”, which refers to the legal process and the form by which a rule or principle comes into existence. | 他补充说，委员会自成立以来一直在研究国际法的渊源，公认其研究的是“形式上的渊源”，即规则或原则形成的法律过程和形式。 |
| The text of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice was clear in that general principles of law constitute a source of international law, distinct from treaties and customary international law, which has been confirmed in the practice of States and of international courts and tribunals. | 《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项的案文清楚地表明，一般法律原则是国际法的一个渊源，不同于条约和习惯国际法，这一点已在各国以及国际性法院和法庭的实践中得到确认。 |
| He emphasized that the commentary would clarify that general principles of law were being considered in the context of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), and that it would therefore not be necessary, at this stage at least, to draft a definition of general principles of law as was suggested by some members. | 他强调，应在评注中说明一般法律原则是在第三十八条第一款(寅)项范围内考虑，因此至少在现阶段没有必要按照一些委员的提议，起草一般法律原则的定义。 |
| 252. The Special Rapporteur observed that there was general consensus that the starting point for consideration was Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, analysed in the light of the practice of States and the jurisprudence of international courts and tribunals. | 252. 特别报告员指出，普遍共识是，审议这一专题的起点是《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项，并参照各国的实践以及国际性法院和法庭的判例进行分析。 |
| The Special Rapporteur stated that the concerns raised by some members related to the scarcity of State practice with respect to certain specific aspects of the topic should not impede the progress of this topic. | 特别报告员表示，一些委员就本专题的某些方面缺少国家实践表达的关切不应妨碍本专题的进展。 |
| He noted that the written and oral pleadings made by States before international courts and tribunals would be relevant to the extent that a common approach could be identified. | 他指出，各国在国际性法院和法庭上提出的书面和口头诉状，若能找到一些共同点，也具有相关性。 |
| Further, the fact that the Commission was considering the topic might encourage States in the Sixth Committee to pronounce themselves on such issues. | 此外，委员会正在审议此专题这一事实可能会鼓励各国在第六委员会就这些问题发表意见。 |
| For the Special Rapporteur, an in-depth analysis of general practice could give indications of how States understand, even implicitly, the more specific aspects of the topic, and that, in any case, the Commission should continue its work with a careful and transparent approach. | 特别报告员认为，通过深入分析一般实践，可以看出各国如何理解(即使不那么明显)本专题的较具体方面，无论如何，委员会都应该以谨慎和透明的方式继续工作。 |
| In this context, the Special Rapporteur highlighted that the inter-American system as well as all relevant practice in other regions should be considered. | 在此，特别报告员强调，应考虑美洲体系以及其他地区的所有相关做法。 |
| 253. The Special Rapporteur observed that some members favoured the inclusion of general principles of regional or bilateral scope, while others expressed doubts as to its existence or relevance for the purposes of the present topic. | 253. 特别报告员注意到，一些委员赞成纳入区域或双边范围的一般原则，而另一些委员则对其是否存在以及是否切合本专题的目的表示怀疑。 |
| He stressed that such general principles of law should not be discarded at this early stage. | 特别报告员强调，在现在这种早期阶段，不应放弃这类一般法律原则。 |
| The Special Rapporteur also addressed the concerns about the relevance of international instruments, other than the Statute of the International Court of Justice, which seem to refer to general principles of law, such as the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. | 他还回答了这一疑问，即除《国际法院规约》外，似乎提到一般法律原则的其他国际文书，例如《国际刑事法院罗马规约》是否相关。 |
| In his view, such instruments should be examined to determine whether or not they are relevant, since there may otherwise be a risk of gaps in the study of the topic. | 他认为，应审查这些文书，以确定它们是否相关，因为不这样做，本专题的研究可能会有漏洞。 |
| On the practice of international organizations, the Special Rapporteur indicated that its relevance should be further examined. | 关于国际组织的实践，特别报告员表示，应进一步研究其相关性。 |
| 254. The Special Rapporteur considered that preparing an illustrative list of general principles of law would be impractical, necessarily incomplete and would divert attention away from the central aspects of the topic. | 254. 特别报告员认为，编写一份一般法律原则的例示清单不现实，因为清单必然是不完整的，而且会转移对本专题核心内容的注意力。 |
| The Special Rapporteur noted that specific examples of general principles of law should be made in the commentaries without taking a position on their substance. | 特别报告员指出，一般法律原则的具体实例应该放在评注中，而且不应对其实质内容采取立场。 |
| Further, the Special Rapporteur expressed his willingness to submit a preliminary bibliography to be annexed in one of his future reports. | 此外，特别报告员表示愿意提供一份初步书目，附在今后的报告后。 |
| In addition, the Special Rapporteur noted that the possible role of international courts and tribunals in the formation or identification of general principles of law should be analysed with the understanding that these decisions are a subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law, as provided in Article 38, paragraph 1 (d), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. | 特别报告员还指出，应分析国际性法院和法庭在一般法律原则的形成或识别方面可能发挥的作用，但前提是，根据《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(卯)项的规定，这些决定是确定法律原则的辅助手段。 |
| 255. The Special Rapporteur noted that the majority of members supported, at least on a preliminary basis, that general principles of law were supplementary in nature, and that their main function was to fill gaps or lacunae in international law or to avoid non liquet. | 255. 特别报告员指出，大多数委员赞同，至少初步来看，一般法律原则是补充性的，其主要作用是填补国际法的漏洞或空白，或避免“法律不明”。 |
| He also referred to the position of other members who consider that, in view of the absence of hierarchy between the sources of international law, priority to treaties and customary international law may be given rather on the basis of the principles of lex specialis and lex posterior. | 他还提到其他委员的立场，他们认为，鉴于国际法渊源之间没有等级之分，给予条约和习惯国际法优先地位，可能是基于“特别法优于一般法”和“后法优于前法”原则。 |
| 256. The Special Rapporteur also noted that there was consensus on the need to consider the relationship between general principles of law and other sources of international law, in particular customary international law. | 256. 特别报告员还指出，委员们一致认为有必要考虑一般法律原则与国际法其他渊源，特别是习惯国际法之间的关系。 |
| He emphasized the need to carefully and clearly differentiate general principles of law from the other sources, and indicated that future reports would address this issue in a rigorous manner. | 他强调有必要仔细和明确地区分一般法律原则与其他渊源，并表示今后的报告将严谨地探讨这一问题。 |
| He stressed that, with regard to the concept of “general international law”, members of the Commission broadly agreed that general principles of law form part of general international law. | 他强调，关于“一般国际法”的概念，委员会委员普遍认为一般法律原则是一般国际法的一部分。 |
| 257. In addition, the Special Rapporteur observed that for some members there was, or should be, a distinction between “principles” and “norms” or “rules”, and that the majority of members focused on the question of whether the wording “general principles of law” indicates anything about the characteristics, functions, origins or other aspects of this source of international law. | 257. 此外，特别报告员指出，一些委员认为“原则”与“规范”或“规则”之间有区别，或应该有区别，大多数委员主要关心“一般法律原则”一词是否表达了这一国际法渊源的特征、作用、起源或其他方面。 |
| He also noted that some members raised questions on whether such principles could be considered as more “general” and “fundamental” than other norms. | 他还指出，一些委员质疑这些原则是否可以视为比其他规范更具“一般性”和“基本性”。 |
| He also indicated that, for some members, the term “law” may or may not be interpreted as referring to national law and international law. | 他还指出，对一些委员来说，“法律”一词可能未必被解释为指国内法和国际法。 |
| In this context, the Special Rapporteur stressed that, at this stage, it could not be excluded that the term “general principles of law” was simply a term of art used to designate this source of international law, and that, for that reason, there may be no need to provide the specific meaning of each word. | 在这方面，特别报告员强调，在现阶段，不能排除“一般法律原则”一词只是用来指代这一国际法渊源的专门术语，因此可能不需要说明每个词的具体含义。 |
| He added that this would be clarified, in any event, after studying the identification of general principles of law. | 他补充道，无论如何，在研究一般法律原则的识别之后，这一点将得到澄清。 |
| 258. The Special Rapporteur stated that the Commission was unanimous in considering that recognition is the essential condition for the existence of general principles of law and that this would be a central aspect of this topic. | 258. 特别报告员指出，委员会一致认为，“承认”是一般法律原则存在的必要条件，这将是这一专题的核心。 |
| The degree of recognition required, as well as the specific forms that recognition may take for each of the categories of general principles of law, were issues that needed further consideration. | 每一类一般法律原则所需要的承认程度以及承认可采取的具体形式，是需要进一步考虑的问题。 |
| The Special Rapporteur stressed the importance of continuing with a cautious approach and that the criteria for determining the existence of general principles of law must be balanced between flexibility – so their identification would not be an impossible task – and strictness – to avoid the risk of being used as a shortcut to identify rules of international law, which could undermine other sources. | 特别报告员强调，必须继续采取谨慎的做法，且确定一般法律原则是否存在的标准必须兼顾灵活性(以避免其识别成为一项不可完成的任务)和严格性(以避免可能被用作识别国际法规则的捷径，从而削弱其他渊源)。 |
| 259. The Special Rapporteur observed that there was also consensus that the term “civilized nations” was anachronistic, and should be avoided, considering the principle of sovereign equality of States. | 259. 特别报告员注意到，委员们还一致认为，“civilized nations”(文明国家)一词不合时宜，考虑到国家的主权平等原则，应避免使用。 |
| The main question remained as to the appropriate alternative term to be used. | 主要问题仍然是适当的替代术语。 |
| He agreed with the suggestion made in the debate that possibly the best formulation could be the term “community of nations”, contained in article 15, paragraph 2, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. | 他同意辩论中提出的建议，即最佳表述可能是《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第十五条第二款中使用的“community of nations”(各国)一词。 |
| 260. The Special Rapporteur stressed that besides the two categories proposed in the first report, which are supported by practice and doctrine, the Commission should avoid an unnecessary proliferation of categories of general principles of law. | 260. 特别报告员强调，除了第一次报告中提出并得到实践和理论支持的两类原则之外，委员会应避免不必要地增加更多一般法律原则类别。 |
| He also stated that the possible distinction between substantive general principles and procedural general principles did not necessarily fall within the scope of the present topic, and that those two types of general principles of law, as was suggested in the debate, could have their origin both in national legal systems and in the international legal system. | 他还指出，实质性一般原则和程序性一般原则之间的可能区分未必属于本专题的范围，按辩论中表达的意见，这两类一般法律原则都是既可以源自国家法律体系，也可以源自国际法律体系。 |
| 261. The Special Rapporteur highlighted that members of the Commission unanimously accepted the category of general principles of law derived from national legal systems and that members agreed that the identification of this category should follow a two-step analysis. | 261. 特别报告员强调，委员会委员一致接受源自国家法律体系的一般法律原则这一类别，并同意这一类别的识别应遵循两步分析。 |
| First, the identification of a principle at the national level and, second, its transposability or transposition to the international level. | 第一，识别国家一级的原则，第二，可转用/转用于国际一级。 |
| Such analysis, including how recognition is expressed, the degree of recognition required and the method for identifying this category and would be set forth in a future report. | 这种分析，包括如何表示承认、所需的承认程度以及识别这一类别的方法，将在今后的报告中阐释。 |
| The Special Rapporteur observed that there was less consensus among members on the second category of general principles of law, namely those formed within the international legal system. | 特别报告员注意到，委员对第二类一般法律原则，即在国际法律体系内形成的原则，尚未达成共识。 |
| Several members supported this category of general principles of law, considering that it is based in sufficient practice, while its existence was questioned by some other members. | 一些委员支持这类一般法律原则，认为其基于充分的实践，而另一些委员则对其存在提出了质疑。 |
| The Special Rapporteur indicated that the latter considered that practice was not sufficient to demonstrate the existence of this category of general principles of law and that the forms of recognition of this second category may be too flexible. | 特别报告员指出，提出质疑的委员认为实践不足以证明这类一般法律原则的存在，并认为该类别的承认形式可能过于灵活。 |
| The Special Rapporteur noted that these members were nonetheless not entirely excluding the possible existence of this second category, suggesting that the issue should be examined further. | 特别报告员指出，尽管如此，这些委员并没有完全排除第二类的可能存在，建议进一步研究这一问题。 |
| 262. The Special Rapporteur indicated that he would take into account the suggestions formulated by members of the Commission to further address the requirement of recognition and the identification of general principles of law in his next report. | 262. 特别报告员表示，他将在下一份报告中考虑委员会委员的建议，即进一步探讨一般法律原则的承认要求和识别问题。 |
| In addition, the Special Rapporteur underlined that a study from the Secretariat on certain aspects of the present topic would contribute to the Commission’s work, as would a questionnaire to be circulated to States requesting information about their practice on general principles of law, in the sense of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. | 此外，特别报告员强调，秘书处对本专题某些方面的研究，以及向各国发放调查问卷，征集有关《国际法院规约》第三十八条第一款(寅)项意义上的一般法律原则的实践，将有助于委员会的工作。 |
| Chapter X Sea-level rise in relation to international law | 第十章 与国际法有关的海平面上升 |
| A. Introduction | A. 导言 |
| 263. At its seventieth session (2018), the Commission decided to include the topic “Sea-level rise in relation to international law” in its long-term programme of work. | 263. 委员会第七十届会议(2018年)决定将“与国际法有关的海平面上升”专题列入长期工作方案。 |
| 264. In its resolution 73/265 of 22 December 2018, the General Assembly subsequently noted the inclusion of the topic in the long-term programme of work of the Commission, and in that regard called upon the Commission to take into consideration the comments, concerns and observations expressed by Governments during the debate in the Sixth Committee. | 264. 联大随后在2018年12月22日第73/265号决议中注意到委员会将这一专题列入长期工作方案，并为此呼吁委员会考虑各国政府在第六委员会辩论期间发表的评论、表达的关切和意见。 |
| B. Consideration of the topic at the present session | B. 本届会议审议此专题的情况 |
| 265. At its 3467th meeting, on 21 May 2019, the Commission decided to include the topic in its programme of work. | 265. 在2019年5月21日第3467次会议上，委员会决定将本专题列入工作方案。 |
| The Commission also decided to establish an open-ended Study Group on the topic, to be co-chaired, on a rotating basis, by Mr. Bogdan Aurescu, Mr. Yacouba Cissé, Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles, Ms. Nilüfer Oral and Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria. | 委员会还决定在本专题下设立一个不限成员名额的研究组，由波格丹·奥雷斯库先生、雅库巴·西塞先生、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士和胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生轮流担任共同主席。 |
| 266. At its 3480th meeting, on 15 July 2019, the Commission took note of the joint oral report of the Co-Chairs of the Study Group. | 266. 在2019年7月15日第3480次会议上，委员会注意到该研究组共同主席的联合口头报告。 |
| 267. The Study Group, co-chaired by Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles and Ms. Nilüfer Oral, held a meeting on 6 June 2019. | 267. 研究组由帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士和尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士担任共同主席，于2019年6月6日举行了会议。 |
| The Study Group considered an informal paper on the organization of its work containing a road map for 2019 to 2021. | 研究组审议了一份关于其工作安排的非正式文件，其中载有2019至2021年的路线图。 |
| The discussion of the Study Group focused on its composition, its proposed calendar and programme of work, and its methods of work. | 研究组重点讨论了其成员组成、拟议会议日历和工作计划，以及工作方法。 |
| 268. Concerning the composition, consensus was reached on establishing a membership-based Study Group which will be open to all members of the Commission. | 268. 关于成员组成，一致同意研究组采取成员制形式，向委员会全体委员开放。 |
| As members will be asked to join via a participation list each year, the membership of the Study Group could change from year to year. | 鉴于每年通过一份报名表邀请委员加入，因此研究组成员每年都可能有变化。 |
| 269. With regard to the programme of work, over the next two years, the Study Group is expected to work on the three subtopics identified in the syllabus prepared in 2018, namely: issues related to the law of the sea, in 2020, under the co-chairpersonship of Mr. Bogdan Aurescu and Ms. Nilüfer Oral; | 269. 关于工作计划，预计研究组将在今后两年就2018年编写的专题提纲 中确定的三个分专题开展工作：2020年，在波格丹·奥雷斯库先生和尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士的共同主持下，研究与海洋法有关的问题； |
| and issues related to statehood, and issues related to the protection of persons affected by sea-level rise, in 2021, under the co-chairpersonship of Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles and Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria. | 2021年，在帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士和胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生的共同主持下，研究与国家地位有关的问题，以及与受海平面上升影响人员的保护有关的问题。 |
| Support was expressed by members of the Study Group for this approach. | 研究组成员对这一方式普遍表示支持。 |
| It was also noted that the proposed programme of work of the Study Group might require adjustment in the light of the complexity of the issues to be considered. | 还有人指出，考虑到待审议问题的复杂性，可能需要对研究组拟议的工作计划作出调整。 |
| 270. As to the methods of work, it was anticipated that approximately five meetings of the Study Group will take place each session. | 270. 关于工作方法，预计研究组将在每届会议期间举行大约五次会议。 |
| It was agreed that, prior to each session, the Co-Chairs will prepare an issues paper. | 经商定，在每届会议之前，共同主席将编写一份问题文件。 |
| The issues paper will be edited, translated and circulated as an official document to serve as the basis for the discussion and for the annual contribution of the members of the Study Group. | 问题文件将作为正式文件进行编辑、翻译和分发，作为研究组讨论和其成员年度供稿的基础。 |
| It will also serve as the basis for subsequent reports of the Study Group on each subtopic. | 研究组此后关于每一分专题的报告也将以该文件为基础。 |
| Members of the Study Group will then be invited to put forward contribution papers that could comment upon, or complement, the issues paper prepared by the Co-Chairs (by addressing, for example, regional practice, case law or any other aspects of the subtopic). | 而后，将邀请研究组成员提交文章，就共同主席编写的问题文件发表评论或进行补充(例如，通过阐述区域实践、判例法或分专题的任何其他方面)。 |
| Recommendations will be made at a later stage regarding the format of the outcome of the work of the Study Group. | 将在稍后阶段就研究组工作成果的形式提出建议。 |
| 271. At the end of each session of the Commission, the work of the Study Group will be reflected in a substantive report, taking due account of the issues paper prepared by the Co-Chairs and the related contribution papers by the members, while summarizing the discussion of the Study Group. | 271. 委员会每届会议结束时，将编写一份反映研究组工作的实质性报告，并适当考虑到共同主席编写的问题文件和成员的相关文章，同时概述研究组的讨论情况。 |
| That report will be agreed upon in the Study Group and subsequently presented by the Co-Chairs to the Commission, so that a summary can be included in the annual report of the Commission. | 该报告将在研究组中商定，随后由共同主席提交给委员会，以便在委员会的年度报告中列入一份摘要。 |
| 272. The Study Group also recommended that the Commission invite the comments of States on specific issues that are identified in chapter III of the report of the Commission. | 272. 研究组还建议委员会邀请各国就委员会报告第三章提出的具体问题发表评论。 |
| The possibility of requesting a study from the Secretariat of the United Nations was discussed in the Study Group as well. | 研究组还讨论了请联合国秘书处开展研究的可能性。 |
| The knowledge of technical experts and scientists will continue to be considered, possibly through side events organized during the next sessions of the Commission. | 可通过委员会下届会议期间组织的会外活动，继续吸纳技术专家和科学家的知识。 |
| 273. Finally, with the assistance of the Secretariat, the Study Group will update the Commission on new literature on the topic and related meetings or events that might be organized in the next two years. | 273. 最后，研究组将在秘书处的协助下，向委员会介绍有关本专题的新文献以及今后两年可能组织的相关会议或活动的最新情况。 |
| Chapter XI Other decisions and conclusions of the Commission | 第十一章 委员会的其他决定和结论 |
| A. Provisional application of treaties | A. 条约的暂时适用 |
| 274. At its 3495th meeting of the Commission, on 31 July 2019, the Special Rapporteur on the topic “Provisional application of treaties”, Mr. Juan Manuel Gómez Robledo, presented an oral report on the informal consultations held on 10 and 18 July 2019 to consider the draft model clauses on provisional application of treaties. | 274. 在2019年7月31日委员会第3495次会议上，“条约的暂时适用”专题特别报告员胡安·曼努埃尔·戈麦斯－罗夫莱多先生口头汇报了2019年7月10日和18日为审议条约的暂时适用示范条款草案举行的非正式磋商的情况。 |
| 275. The Special Rapporteur recalled that at the time of the adoption on first reading of the draft Guide to Provisional Application of Treaties, at the seventieth session, in 2018, the Commission also took note of the recommendation of the Drafting Committee that a reference be made in the commentaries to the possibility of including, during the second reading, a set of draft model clauses, based on a revised proposal that the Special Rapporteur would make at an appropriate time, taking into account the comments and suggestions made during both the plenary debate and in the Drafting Committee. | 275. 特别报告员回顾，2018年第七十届会议一读通过“条约的暂时适用指南”草案时，委员会还注意到起草委员会的建议，即在评注中提及可以在二读期间，根据特别报告员在适当时候提出的订正提案并参考在全体会议辩论和起草委员会上提出的意见和建议，列入一套示范条款草案。 |
| Such reference was subsequently included in paragraph (7) of the general commentary, in which it was explained that, in preparing a set of draft model clauses, to be annexed to the Guide, the Commission would seek to reflect the best practice with regard to the provisional application of both bilateral and multilateral treaties. | 后来在总评注第(7)段提及， 并解释说，在拟定一套载于指南附件的示范条款草案时，委员会将设法反映双边和多边条约暂时适用的最佳做法。 |
| It was also clarified that in no way would they be intended to limit the flexible and voluntary nature of provisional application of treaties. Nor would they attempt to address the whole range of situations that may arise. | 该段还澄清，这些条款草案无意限制条约暂时适用的灵活性和自愿性，也不试图涵盖所有可能出现的各类情况。 |
| 276. The Special Rapporteur further recalled that the Commission, in its report on the seventieth session, had indicated its intention to resume the consideration of the draft model clauses at the present session, in order “to allow States and international organizations to assess the annex containing such draft model clauses before the second reading of the draft guidelines takes place during the seventy-second session”. | 276. 特别报告员还回顾，委员会在第七十届会议报告中表示，打算在本届会议上继续审议该示范条款草案，以便“各国和国际组织在第七十二届会议上准则草案二读之前能够调阅载有示范条款草案的附件”。 |
| 277. The Special Rapporteur drew the Commission’s attention to the fact that 41 delegations, including the European Union which spoke on behalf of its 28 member States and other States, had expressed views in the debate on the topic in the Sixth Committee, during the seventy-third session of the General Assembly, in 2018. | 277. 特别报告员提请委员会注意，在2018年联大第七十三届会议期间，有41个代表团，包括代表其28个成员国和其他国家发言的欧洲联盟，在第六委员会关于这一专题的辩论中发表了意见。 |
| During that debate, many delegations had acknowledged with appreciation the proposal of the Special Rapporteur of including draft model clauses as an annex to the Guide, with several delegations observing that the inclusion of draft model clauses would provide practical assistance and guidance to States when drafting provisions of treaties. | 辩论期间，许多代表团赞赏地肯定了特别报告员关于将示范条款草案列为指南附件的提议，一些代表团指出，纳入示范条款草案将为各国起草条约条款提供实际帮助和指导。 |
| At the same time, some delegations had regretted that the Commission had not been able to complete its consideration of the draft model clauses during the first reading and expressed their hope that they could be in a position to consider the draft model clauses before the second reading commenced. | 同时，一些代表团表示遗憾的是，委员会未能在一读期间完成对示范条款草案的审议，并表示希望他们能够在二读开始前审议示范条款草案。 |
| 278. It was with the 2018 decision of the Commission and the views of Governments in mind that the Special Rapporteur circulated an informal paper containing a revised set of draft model clauses, which then served as a basis for discussion in the informal consultations held at the present session. | 278. 考虑到委员会2018年的决定和各国政府的意见，特别报告员分发了一份非正式文件，其中载有一套经修订的示范条款草案，后来作为本届会议期间非正式磋商的讨论基础。 |
| He pointed to the following understandings that underpinned his revised proposal for the draft model clauses, namely that: | 他指出，他对示范条款草案的修订基于以下列理解： |
| (a) the draft model clauses should be aimed at addressing the most common issues faced by States and international organizations who are willing to resort to provisional application; | (a) 示范条款草案应旨在解决愿意采取暂时适用的各国和国际组织面临的最常见问题； |
| (b) the draft model clauses should not pretend to address the whole range of situations that may arise; | (b) 示范条款草案不应自诩能涵盖所有可能出现的各类情况； |
| (c) special care should be taken so as to avoid the draft model clauses overlapping with the guidelines contained in the Guide to Provisional Application of Treaties; | (c) 应特别注意避免示范条款草案与“条约的暂时适用指南”所载准则重叠； |
| and (d) the draft model clauses should be accompanied, for reference purposes, with examples of clauses contained in existing treaties. | (d) 为了方便参考，示范条款草案应随附现行条约所载条款实例。 |
| 279. In addition, in his view, the draft model clauses should at least provide for the following situations: | 279. 此外，特别报告员认为，示范条款草案应至少就以下情况作出规定： |
| (a) the provisional application of a treaty or a part of a treaty in the treaty itself or in a separate agreement; | (a) 条约本身或单独协议中规定了条约或条约之一部分的暂时适用； |
| (b) the most common situations of termination of the provisional application of a treaty or a part of a treaty; | (b) 终止暂时适用条约或条约之一部分的最常见情况； |
| (c) the possibility of opting for the provisional application of a treaty or a part of a treaty, or for opting not to have the treaty or a part of a treaty being provisionally applied for that State or international organization, particularly whenever the decision to resort to provisional application is made by: | (c) 一国或国际组织可以选择暂时适用条约或条约之一部分，也可以选择不暂时适用条约或条约之一部分，特别是当采取暂时适用的决定经以下方式做出时： |
| (i) a resolution adopted by an international organization or at an intergovernmental conference in which the State or international organization concerned is not in agreement with such resolution; | (一) 国际组织通过的或在政府间会议上通过的、但有关国家或国际组织不赞同的决议； |
| or, (ii) a declaration by a State or international organization that is not a negotiating party to the treaty; and | (二) 非条约谈判方的国家或国际组织做出的声明； |
| (d) limitations deriving from internal law of States or rules of international organizations. | (d) 源自各国国内法或国际组织规则的限制。 |
| 280. Furthermore, as had been explained in his fifth report, submitted in 2018, the draft model clauses were intended only to draw attention to some of the most common legal issues that arose in the event of an agreement to apply a treaty provisionally. | 280. 另外，正如2018年提交的第五次报告所解释的， 示范条款草案的用意仅仅是提请注意在同意暂时适用某项条约的情况下出现的一些最常见的法律问题。 |
| Accordingly, they contained elements that reflected the most clearly established practice of States and international organizations, while avoiding other elements that were not reflected in practice or were unclear or legally imprecise. | 因此，示范条款草案所载内容反映出各国和国际组织最明确确立的实践，同时避开实践中没有反映的其他内容，或不明确或在法律上不确定的其他内容。 |
| While none of the proposed wording was taken verbatim from any existing treaty, the draft model clauses included footnotes giving examples of provisional application clauses found in treaties that referred generally to the same issue covered in the draft model clause in question, although such examples were by no means exhaustive. | 虽然没有任何拟议措词是从任何现有条约中逐字摘录的，但示范条款草案中有些脚注提供了出自条约的暂时适用条款，这些条款大多提到了与示范条款草案涵盖的相同问题，但这些例子绝非详尽无遗。 |
| 281. During the informal consultations, members were generally supportive of the proposal to include a set of draft model clauses, as an annex to the Guide to Provisional Application of Treaties, to be adopted on second reading next year. | 281. 在非正式磋商期间，委员们普遍支持关于将一套示范条款草案列为将于明年二读通过的“条约的暂时适用指南”附件的建议。 |
| A number of suggestions were made concerning the approach to be taken to the model clauses, as well as on the drafting of the draft model clauses. | 委员就示范条款应采取的办法和示范条款草案的起草提出了若干建议。 |
| For example, it was stated that the Commission should carefully explain their nature as not necessarily being definitive, but rather that they were intended to merely provide a basis for States to negotiate such clauses in their treaties. | 例如，有人指出，委员会应仔细解释，示范条款草案未必具有限制性，其目的只是为国家谈判条约的此类条款提供依据。 |
| It was also suggested that a clearer distinction be drawn, in the text of the draft model clauses, between bilateral and multilateral treaties. | 还有人建议在示范条款草案的案文中更明确地区分双边条约和多边条约。 |
| Support was also expressed for the inclusion of draft model clauses 4 and 5, dealing with the question of opting out of provisional application arising from a resolution of an international organization, and limitations deriving from internal law of States or rules of international organizations, respectively. | 会上还表示支持列入示范条款草案4和5, 分别涉及选择不采取由国际组织的决议决定的暂时适用，以及源自各国国内法或国际组织规则的限制。 |
| Indeed, the accompanying commentary would need to provide clear explanations. | 的确，随附评注需要做出明确解释。 |
| 282. The concern was also expressed, during the informal consultations, that the inclusion of a set of draft model clauses could be interpreted as the Commission encouraging States to resort to provisional application. | 282. 在非正式磋商期间，还有人担心列入一套示范条款草案可能被理解为委员会鼓励各国采取暂时适用。 |
| In the view of the Special Rapporteur, such concern had existed from the very beginning of the work on the topic. | 特别报告员认为，自本专题工作启动之初，就有人表示这一关切。 |
| The very fact of clarifying the applicable rules could be understood as facilitating the provisional application of treaties. | 阐明适用规则这一举动本身就可能被理解为提倡条约的暂时适用。 |
| However, this was not necessarily the only possible interpretation. | 不过，这未必是唯一可能的解释。 |
| It was recalled that there already existed a significant body of practice of States resorting to provisional application from even before the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, and especially so since the adoption of article 25 of that Convention. | 有人回顾，甚至在1969年《维也纳条约法公约》 以前，各国就有采取暂时适用的大量实践，特别是自该公约第二十五条获得通过以来。 |
| The Commission had decided to undertake the topic in order to provide a service to the Member States by seeking to clarify the legal framework for provisional application as well some of the legal consequences arising therefrom. | 委员会决定探讨这一专题，是为了通过力求阐明采取暂时适用的法律框架以及由此产生的一些法律后果，为会员国提供帮助。 |
| At all times, the optional and voluntary nature of provisional application had been emphasized. | 始终强调暂时适用的可选择性和自愿性。 |
| The draft model clauses would simply be provided to facilitate drafting in those situations where negotiating parties decided to resort to the mechanism of provisional application. | 提供示范条款草案只是为了在谈判方决定采取暂时适用机制的情况下，为起草工作提供便利。 |
| 283. The Special Rapporteur proposed that the Commission annex his revised version of the draft model clauses to its annual report to the General Assembly, with the request that the Governments also consider them in preparing their comments and observations on the first reading of the Guide to Provisional Application of Treaties. | 283. 特别报告员建议委员会将他的修订版示范条款草案列入提交联大的委员会年度报告附件，同时请各国政府在准备就“条约的暂时适用指南”一读提出意见和建议时予以审议。 |
| It would be on the basis of the views of members of the Commission, expressed during the informal consultations, together with the comments received from Governments, that he would include a further revised version of the draft model clauses in his final report to be considered at the seventy-second session of the Commission. | 他将根据委员会委员在非正式磋商期间提出的看法以及各国政府提出的评论，在供委员会第七十二届会议审议的最后报告中，列入示范条款草案的进一步修订版。 |
| 284. At the same 3495th meeting, the Commission took note of the oral report, and decided to annex the proposed draft model clauses to the Commission’s report to the General Assembly, with a view to seeking comments from Governments in advance of the commencement of the second reading of the draft Guide to Provisional Application of Treaties at the next session of the Commission. | 284. 同样在第3495次会议上，委员会注意到口头报告，并决定将拟议示范条款草案列入委员会提交联大的报告附件，以便在委员会下届会议开始二读“条约的暂时适用指南”草案之前，征求各国政府的意见。 |
| The proposed draft model clauses appear in annex A to the present report. | 提议的示范条款草案载于本报告附件A。 |
| B. Sea-level rise in relation to international law | B. 与国际法有关的海平面上升 |
| 285. At its 3467th meeting, on 21 May 2019, the Commission decided to include the topic “Sea-level rise in relation to international law” in its programme of work and decided to establish an open-ended Study Group on the topic co-chaired, on a rotating basis, by: Mr. Bogdan Aurescu, Mr. Yacouba Cissé, Ms. Patricia Galvão Teles, Ms. Nilüfer Oral and Mr. Juan José Ruda Santolaria. | 285. 在2019年5月21日第3467次会议上，委员会决定将“与国际法有关的海平面上升”专题列入工作方案，并决定就该专题设立一个不限成员名额的研究组，由波格丹·奥雷斯库先生、雅库巴·西塞先生、帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士、尼吕费尔·奥拉尔女士和胡安·何塞·鲁达·桑托拉里亚先生轮流担任共同主席。 |
| C. Request by the Commission for the Secretariat to prepare studies on topics in the Commission’s agenda | C. 委员会请秘书处就委员会议程上的专题编写研究报告 |
| 286. At its 3507th meeting, on 9 August 2019, the Commission requested the Secretariat to prepare a memorandum surveying the case law of inter-State arbitral tribunals and international criminal courts and tribunals of a universal character, as well as treaties, which would be particularly relevant for its future work on the topic “General principles of law”. | 286. 在2019年8月9日第3507次会议上，委员会请秘书处编写一份备忘录，评述国家间仲裁法庭、普遍性国际刑事法院和法庭的判例法，以及不同条约，这将对委员会今后关于“一般法律原则”的工作特别重要。 |
| D. Programme, procedures and working methods of the Commission and its documentation | D. 委员会的方案、程序和工作方法以及文件 |
| 287. At its 3470th meeting, on 24 May 2019, the Commission established a Planning Group for the present session. | 287. 委员会在2019年5月24日第3470次会议上设立了本届会议的规划小组。 |
| 288. The Planning Group held two meetings on 24 May and 23 July 2019. | 288. 规划小组于2019年5月24日和7月23日举行了两次会议。 |
| It had before it section E, entitled “Other decisions and conclusions of the Commission”, of the topical summary of the discussion held in the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly during its seventy-third session (A/CN.4/724); | 规划小组收到的文件有：关于联大第七十三届会议期间第六委员会讨论情况的专题摘要(A/CN.4/724)E节，题为“委员会的其他决定和结论”； |
| General Assembly resolution 73/265 of 22 December 2018 on the report of the International Law Commission on the work of its seventieth session; | 联大2018年12月22日关于国际法委员会第七十届会议工作报告的第73/265号决议； |
| and General Assembly resolution 73/207 of 20 December 2018 on the rule of law at the national and international levels. | 联大2018年12月20日关于国内和国际法治的第73/207号决议。 |
| 1. Working Group on the long-term programme of work | 1. 长期工作方案工作组 |
| 289. At its 1st meeting, on 24 May 2019, the Planning Group decided to reconvene the Working Group on the long-term programme of work, with Mr. Mahmoud D. Hmoud as Chair. | 289. 规划小组在2019年5月24日第1次会议上，决定再次召集长期工作方案工作组，由马哈茂德·哈穆德先生担任主席。 |
| The Chair of the Working Group presented an oral report on the work of the Working Group at the current session to the Planning Group, at its 2nd meeting, on 23 July 2019. | 工作组主席在2019年7月23日第2次会议上，向规划小组口头汇报了工作组本届会议的工作。 |
| The Planning Group took note of the oral report. | 规划小组注意到该口头报告。 |
| 290. At the present session, the Commission, on the recommendation of the Working Group, decided to recommend the inclusion of the following topics in the long-term programme of work of the Commission: | 290. 委员会本届会议根据工作组的建议，决定建议将下列专题列入委员会的长期工作方案： |
| (a) Reparation to individuals for gross violations of international human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law; | (a) 就严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为对个人的赔偿； |
| and (b) Prevention and repression of piracy and armed robbery at sea. | (b) 防止和打击海盗行为和海上武装抢劫。 |
| 291. In the selection of the topics, the Commission was guided by its recommendation at its fiftieth session (1998) regarding the criteria for the selection of the topics, namely: (a) the topic should reflect the needs of States in respect of the progressive development and codification of international law; | 291. 在选择专题时，委员会遵循了第五十届会议(1998年)关于专题选择标准的建议：(a) 专题应反映各国在逐渐发展和编纂国际法方面的需要； |
| (b) the topic should be at a sufficiently advanced stage in terms of State practice to permit progressive development and codification; | (b) 专题应在国家实践方面处于足够成熟阶段，从而允许逐渐发展和编纂； |
| and (c) the topic should be concrete and feasible for progressive development and codification. | (c) 专题应具体可行，宜于逐渐发展和编纂。 |
| The Commission further agreed that it should not restrict itself to traditional topics, but could also consider those that reflect new developments in international law and pressing concerns of the international community as a whole. | 委员会还议定，委员会不应局限于传统专题，也可以考虑反映国际法新动态和整个国际社会紧迫关切事项的专题。 |
| The Commission considered that work on the two topics would constitute useful contributions to the progressive development of international law and its codification. | 委员会认为，上述两个专题的工作可对国际法的逐渐发展和编纂做出有益贡献。 |
| The syllabuses of the topics selected appear as annexes B and C to the present report. | 选择的这两个专题的提纲载于本报告附件B和C。 |
| 2. Working Group on methods of work of the Commission | 2. 委员会工作方法工作组 |
| 292. At its 1st meeting, on 24 May 2019, the Planning Group decided to re-establish the Working Group on methods of work of the Commission, with Mr. Hussein A. Hassouna as Chair. | 292. 规划小组在2019年5月24日第1次会议上，决定重新设立委员会工作方法工作组，由侯赛因·哈苏纳先生担任主席。 |
| The Chair of the Working Group presented an oral report on the work of the Working Group at the current session to the Planning Group, at its 2nd meeting, on 23 July 2019. | 工作组主席在2019年7月23日第2次会议上，向规划小组口头汇报了工作组本届会议的工作。 |
| The Planning Group took note of the oral report. | 规划小组注意到该口头报告。 |
| 3. Consideration of General Assembly resolution 73/207 of 20 December 2018 on the rule of law at the national and international levels | 3. 审议联大2018年12月20日关于国内和国际法治的第73/207号决议 |
| 293. The General Assembly, in resolution 73/207 of 20 December 2018 on the rule of law at the national and international levels, inter alia, reiterated its invitation to the Commission to comment, in its report to the General Assembly, on its current role in promoting the rule of law. | 293. 联大在2018年12月20日关于国内和国际法治的第73/207号决议中特别重申，请委员会在提交联大的报告中就委员会目前在促进法治方面发挥的作用发表评论。 |
| Since its sixtieth session (2008), the Commission has commented annually on its role in promoting the rule of law. | 委员会自第六十届会议(2008年)以来，每年就其在促进法治方面的作用发表评论。 |
| The Commission notes that the comments contained in paragraphs 341 to 346 of its 2008 report remain relevant and reiterates the comments made at its previous sessions. | 委员会指出，2008年报告 第341至第346段所载评论依然适用，并重申了历届会议所作的评论。 |
| 294. The Commission recalls that the rule of law is of the essence of its work. | 294. 委员会回顾，法治是其工作的精髓。 |
| The Commission’s purpose, as set out in article 1 of its statute, is to promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. | 委员会的宗旨一如《章程》第1条所申明的，是促进国际法的逐渐发展和编纂。 |
| 295. Having in mind the principle of the rule of law in all its work, the Commission is fully conscious of the importance of the implementation of international law at the national level, and aims at promoting respect for the rule of law at the international level. | 295. 委员会在所有工作中都铭记法治原则，充分意识到在国家层面实施国际法的重要性，并力求在国际层面上促进尊重法治。 |
| 296. In fulfilling its mandate concerning the progressive development of international law and its codification, the Commission will continue to take into account, where appropriate, the rule of law as a principle of governance and the human rights that are fundamental to the rule of law, as reflected in the preamble and in Article 13 of the Charter of the United Nations and in the Declaration of the high-level meeting of the General Assembly on the rule of law at the national and international levels. | 296. 在履行逐渐发展和编纂国际法任务的过程中，正如《联合国宪章》序言和第十三条及《国内和国际的法治问题大会高级别会议宣言》 所反映的，委员会将继续酌情将法治作为一项治理原则加以考虑，同时考虑作为法治基石的人权。 |
| 297. In its current work, the Commission is aware of “the interrelationship between the rule of law and the three pillars of the United Nations (peace and security, development, and human rights)”, without emphasizing one at the expense of the other. | 297. 委员会在当前工作中，意识到“法治与联合国三个支柱(和平与安全、发展、人权)间相互关系”， 不会顾此失彼。 |
| In this context, the Commission is cognizant that the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development recognizes the need for an effective rule of law and good governance at all levels. | 因此，委员会深知，《2030年可持续发展议程》确认需要在各级实行有效的法治和良政。 |
| In fulfilling its mandate concerning the progressive development and codification of international law, the Commission is conscious of current challenges for the rule of law. | 委员会在履行关于国际法的逐渐发展和编纂任务时，认识到法治目前面临的挑战。 |
| 298. Recalling that the General Assembly has stressed the importance of promoting the sharing of national best practices on the rule of law, the Commission wishes to recall that much of its work consists of collecting and analysing national practices related to the rule of law with a view to assessing their possible contribution to the progressive development and codification of international law. | 298. 鉴于联大强调必须促进分享各国在法治方面的最佳做法， 委员会谨回顾指出，其大部分工作就是收集和分析各国与法治有关的实践，以评估这些实践可对国际法的逐渐发展和编纂做出的贡献。 |
| In this spirit, the Commission particularly welcomes the decision of the General Assembly inviting Member States to focus their comments during the upcoming Sixth Committee debate at the seventy-fourth session of the General Assembly regarding the rule of law on the subtopic “Sharing best practices and ideas to promote the respect of States for international law”. | 本着这一精神，委员会特别欢迎联大决定邀请会员国在即将在联大第七十四届会议期间举行的第六委员会法治问题辩论中，重点评论“分享在促进各国尊重国际法方面的最佳做法和想法”分专题。 |
| 299. Bearing in mind the role of multilateral treaty processes in advancing the rule of law, the Commission recalls that the work of the Commission on different topics has led to several multilateral treaty processes and to the adoption of a number of multilateral treaties. | 299. 委员会铭记多边条约进程对推进法治的作用， 回顾委员会围绕不同专题开展的工作已经促成了若干多边条约进程，使一些多边条约得以通过。 |
| 300. In the course of the present session, the Commission has continued to make its contribution to the rule of law, including by working on the topics, “Crimes against humanity” (adopted on second reading at the current session), “Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens)” (adopted on first reading at the current session), “Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts” (adopted on first reading at the current session), “Succession of States in respect of State responsibility”, “Immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction”, “General principles of law” and “Provisional application of treaties”. | 300. 本届会议期间，委员会继续为法治做出贡献，包括就下列专题开展工作：“危害人类罪”(本届会议二读通过)、“一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)”(本届会议一读通过)、“与武装冲突有关的环境保护”(本届会议一读通过)、“国家责任方面的国家继承”、“国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免”、“一般法律原则”和“条约的暂时适用”。 |
| The Commission also decided to include a new topic, “Sea-level rise in relation to international law” in its programme of work. | 委员会还决定将新专题“与国际法有关的海平面上升”列入工作方案。 |
| 301. The Commission reiterates its commitment to the rule of law in all of its activities. | 301. 委员会重申在其全部活动中致力于促进法治。 |
| 4. Honoraria | 4. 酬金 |
| 302. The Commission reiterates its views concerning the question of honoraria, resulting from the adoption by the General Assembly of its resolution 56/272 of 27 March 2002, which have been expressed in the previous reports of the Commission. | 302. 委员会重申了对联大通过2002年3月27日第56/272号决议所引起的酬金问题的意见，委员会以前的报告已表明了这些意见。 |
| The Commission emphasizes that resolution 56/272 especially affects Special Rapporteurs, as it compromises support for their research work. | 委员会强调，第56/272号决议尤其影响到特别报告员，因为决议缩减了对他们研究工作的支持。 |
| 5. Documentation and publications | 5. 文件和出版物 |
| 303. The Commission underscored once more the unique nature of its functioning in the progressive development of international law and its codification, in that it attaches particular relevance to State practice and the decisions of national and international courts in its treatment of questions of international law. | 303. 委员会再次强调，委员会在国际法的逐渐发展和编纂方面的工作具有独特性，因为委员会在处理国际法问题时，认为国家实践及国家法院和国际性法院的裁决尤为重要。 |
| The Commission reiterated the importance of providing and making available all evidence of State practice and other sources of international law relevant to the performance of the function of the Commission. | 委员会重申，必须提供和开放一切与委员会履行职能有关的国家实践和其他国际法渊源的证据。 |
| The reports of its Special Rapporteurs require an adequate presentation of precedents and other relevant data, including treaties, judicial decisions and doctrine, and a thorough analysis of the questions under consideration. | 特别报告员的报告需要充分介绍判例和其他有关资料，包括条约、司法裁决和理论学说，并对审议的问题展开深入分析。 |
| The Commission stresses that it and its Special Rapporteurs are fully conscious of the need to achieve economies whenever possible in the overall volume of documentation and will continue to bear such considerations in mind. | 委员会强调，委员会及其特别报告员都充分意识到，有必要尽可能缩减文件总量，并将继续铭记这类考虑因素。 |
| While the Commission is aware of the advantages of being as concise as possible, it reiterates its strong belief that an a priori limitation cannot be placed on the length of the documentation and research projects relating to the work of the Commission. | 尽管委员会意识到尽可能简洁的好处，但仍重申，委员会坚信，不应预先限定与委员会工作有关的文件和研究项目的篇幅。 |
| It follows that Special Rapporteurs cannot be asked to reduce the length of their report following submission to the Secretariat, irrespective of any estimates of their length made in advance of submission by the Secretariat. | 委员会还指出，无论秘书处在报告提交之前所作的篇幅预估如何，都不能要求特别报告员在报告提交秘书处后缩短篇幅。 |
| Word limits are not applicable to Commission documentation, as has been consistently reiterated by the General Assembly. | 联大已一再重申，字数限制的规定不适用于国际法委员会的文件。 |
| The Commission stresses also the importance of the timely preparation of reports by Special Rapporteurs and their submission to the Secretariat for processing and submission to the Commission sufficiently in advance so that the reports are issued in all official languages ideally four weeks before the start of the relevant part of the session of the Commission. | 委员会还强调，特别报告员必须及时编写报告，并充分提前提交秘书处，供其处理并提交委员会，以便最好在委员会届会有关部分开始之前四周以所有正式语文印发报告。 |
| In this respect, the Commission reiterated its request that: (a) Special Rapporteurs submit their reports within the time limits specified by the Secretariat; | 在这方面，委员会重申其要求：(a) 特别报告员应在秘书处规定的时限内提交报告； |
| and (b) the Secretariat continue to ensure that official documents of the Commission are published in due time in the six official languages of the United Nations. | (b) 秘书处应继续确保按时以联合国的六种正式语文印发委员会的正式文件。 |
| 304. The Commission reiterated its firm view that the summary records of the Commission, constituting crucial travaux préparatoires in the progressive development and codification of international law, cannot be subject to arbitrary length restrictions. | 304. 委员会重申，它坚信其简要记录是国际法逐渐发展和编纂过程中的重要准备工作文件，其篇幅不应受到任意限制。 |
| The Commission once more noted with satisfaction that the measures introduced at its sixty-fifth session (2013) to streamline the processing of its summary records had resulted in the more expeditious transmission to members of the Commission of the English and French versions for timely correction and prompt release. | 委员会再次满意地注意到，第六十五届会议(2013年)开始实行简化处理简要记录的措施，可以更快地向委员会委员发送英文本和法文本，以便及时更正和迅速印发。 |
| The Commission called on the Secretariat to resume the practice of preparing summary records in English and French, and to continue its efforts to sustain the measures in question, in order to ensure the expeditious transmission of the provisional records to members of the Commission. | 委员会要求秘书处恢复以英文和法文编写简要记录的做法，并继续努力维持有关措施，以确保向委员会委员迅速发送临时记录。 |
| The Commission also welcomed the fact that these working methods had led to the more rational use of resources and called on the Secretariat to continue its efforts to facilitate the preparation of the definitive records in all official languages, without compromising their integrity. | 委员会还对这些工作方法能够更合理地利用资源表示欢迎，并要求秘书处继续努力，方便在不影响完整性的情况下，以所有正式语文编写简要记录定本。 |
| 305. The Commission expressed its gratitude to all Services involved in the processing of documents, both in Geneva and in New York, for their efforts in seeking to ensure timely and efficient processing of the Commission’s documents, often under narrow time constraints. | 305. 委员会感谢日内瓦和纽约参与文件处理的所有部门努力确保及时、高效地处理委员会文件，并经常在时间紧迫的情况下完成工作。 |
| It emphasized that timely and efficient processing of documentation was essential for the smooth conduct of the Commission’s work. | 委员会指出，及时、高效地处理文件对委员会工作的顺利开展至为重要。 |
| 306. The Commission reaffirmed its commitment to multilingualism and recalls the paramount importance to be given in its work to the equality of the six official languages of the United Nations, which had been emphasized in General Assembly resolution 69/324 of 11 September 2015. | 306. 委员会重申对使用多种语文的承诺，并忆及应在工作中高度重视联大2015年9月11日第69/324号决议所强调的，联合国六种正式语文地位平等。 |
| 307. The Commission once again expressed its warm appreciation to the United Nations Office at Geneva Library, which continues to assist members of the Commission very efficiently and competently. | 307. 委员会再次感谢联合国日内瓦办事处图书馆继续十分高效和称职地向委员会委员提供协助。 |
| 6. Yearbook of the International Law Commission | 6. 《国际法委员会年鉴》 |
| 308. The Commission reiterated that the Yearbook of the International Law Commission was critical to the understanding of the Commission’s work in the progressive development of international law and its codification, as well as in the strengthening of the rule of law in international relations. | 308. 委员会重申，《国际法委员会年鉴》对于了解委员会在国际法的逐渐发展和编纂方面，以及在国际关系中加强法治方面的工作具有关键意义。 |
| The Commission took note that the General Assembly, in its resolution 73/265, expressed its appreciation to Governments that had made voluntary contributions to the trust fund on the backlog relating to the Yearbook, and encouraged further contributions to the trust fund. | 委员会注意到，联大第73/265号决议表示赞赏有关国家政府为帮助解决《年鉴》工作积压问题的信托基金提供自愿捐助，并鼓励各方进一步为该基金提供捐助。 |
| 309. The Commission recommends that the General Assembly, as in its resolution 73/265, express its satisfaction with the remarkable progress achieved in the past few years in catching up with the backlog of the Yearbook in all six languages, and welcome the efforts made by the Division of Conference Management, especially the Editing Section of the United Nations Office at Geneva, in effectively implementing relevant resolutions of the General Assembly calling for the reduction of the backlog; | 309. 委员会建议联大如在第73/265号决议中那样，对过去几年在减少所有六种语文版《年鉴》积压方面取得的显著进展表示满意，并欢迎联合国日内瓦办事处会议管理司，特别是其编辑科作出努力，切实执行联大要求减少文件积压的有关决议； |
| and encourage the Division of Conference Management to continue providing all necessary support to the Editing Section in advancing work on the Yearbook. | 鼓励会议管理司继续向编辑科提供一切必要支持，推动《年鉴》的相关工作。 |
| 7. Assistance of the Codification Division | 7. 编纂司的协助 |
| 310. The Commission expressed its appreciation for the invaluable assistance of the Codification Division of the Secretariat in its substantive servicing of the Commission and the ongoing assistance provided to Special Rapporteurs and the preparation of in-depth research studies pertaining to aspects of topics presently under consideration, as requested by the Commission. | 310. 委员会感谢秘书处编纂司在向委员会提供实质性服务方面提供宝贵协助，以及一直向特别报告员提供协助，并应委员会的要求就目前审议的专题的各方面编写深入的研究报告。 |
| In particular, the Commission expressed its appreciation to the Secretariat for its preparation of a memorandum on information on treaties which may be of relevance to the future work of the Commission on the topic “Succession of States in respect of State responsibility” (A/CN.4/730). | 委员会特别感谢秘书处编写一份备忘录，介绍可能与委员会今后关于“国家责任方面的国家继承”专题的工作有关的条约(A/CN.4/730)。 |
| 8. Websites | 8. 网站 |
| 311. The Commission expressed its deep appreciation to the Secretariat for the website on the work of the Commission, and welcomed its continuous updating and improvement. | 311. 委员会对秘书处维护关于委员会工作的网站深表感谢，并欢迎不断更新和完善该网站。 |
| The Commission reiterated that the website and other websites maintained by the Codification Division constitute an invaluable resource for the Commission and for researchers of the work of the Commission in the wider community, thereby contributing to the overall strengthening of the teaching, study, dissemination and wider appreciation of international law. | 委员会重申，这个网站以及由编纂司维护的其他网站 是委员会和社会上研究委员会工作的学者的宝贵资源，有助于全面加强国际法的教学、研究、传播以及对国际法的更广泛理解。 |
| The Commission welcomed the fact that the website on the work of the Commission included information on the current status of the topics on the agenda of the Commission, as well as links to the advance edited versions of the summary records of the Commission and the audio recording of the plenary meetings of the Commission. | 委员会欣见关于委员会工作的网站还介绍了委员会议程上各个专题的现状，并收录了经过编辑的委员会简要记录预发本和委员会全体会议录音的链接。 |
| 9. United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law | 9. 联合国国际法视听图书馆 |
| 312. The Commission once more noted with appreciation the extraordinary value of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law in promoting a better knowledge of international law and the work of the United Nations in the field, including the work of the Commission. | 312. 委员会再次赞赏地指出，联合国国际法视听图书馆 对于增进对国际法和联合国在该领域的工作――包括委员会的工作――的了解，意义非凡。 |
| E. Date and place of the seventy-second session of the Commission | E. 委员会第七十二届会议的日期和地点 |
| 313. The Commission decided that its seventy-second session would be held in Geneva from 27 April to 5 June and from 6 July to 7 August 2020. | 313. 委员会决定，委员会第七十二届会议将于2020年4月27日至6月5日和7月6日至8月7日在日内瓦举行。 |
| F. Cooperation with other bodies | F. 与其他机构的合作 |
| 314. At the 3478th meeting, on 11 July 2019, Judge Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf, President of the International Court of Justice, addressed the Commission and briefed it on the recent judicial activities of the Court. | 314. 国际法院院长阿布杜勒卡维·艾哈迈德·优素福法官在委员会2019年7月11日第3478次会议上发言，并通报了国际法院最近的司法活动。 |
| An exchange of views followed. | 随后交换了意见。 |
| 315. The Committee of Legal Advisers on Public International Law of the Council of Europe was represented at the present session of the Commission by the Chair of the Committee, Mr. Petr Válek, and the Head of the Public International Law and Treaty Office Division of the Directorate of Legal Advice and Public International Law and Secretary of the Committee, Ms. Marta Requena, both of whom addressed the Commission at its 3472nd meeting, on 31 May 2019. | 315. 欧洲委员会国际公法法律顾问委员会主席彼得·贝莱克先生、法律咨询和国际公法局国际公法和条约办公室司司长兼国际公法法律顾问委员会秘书玛尔塔·雷克纳女士代表该委员会出席了委员会本届会议，并都在2019年5月31日第3472次会议上发言。 |
| They focused on the current activities of the Committee in the field of public international law, as well of the Council of Europe. | 他们着重介绍了该委员会以及欧洲委员会目前在国际公法领域开展的活动。 |
| An exchange of views followed. | 随后交换了意见。 |
| 316. The Inter-American Juridical Committee was represented at the present session of the Commission by its President, Ms. Ruth Correa Palacio, who addressed the Commission at the 3477th meeting, on 10 July 2019. | 316. 美洲法律委员会主席露丝·科雷亚·帕拉西奥女士代表该委员会出席了委员会本届会议，并在2019年7月10日第3477次会议上发言。 |
| She gave an overview of the activities of the Committee on various legal issues, focusing in particular on activities in 2018. | 她概述了该委员会就各种法律问题开展的活动，特别重点介绍了2018年开展的活动。 |
| An exchange of views followed. | 随后交换了意见。 |
| 317. The Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization was represented at the present session of the Commission by its Secretary-General, Mr. Kennedy Gastorn, who addressed the Commission at its 3485th meeting, on 18 July 2019. | 317. 亚非法律协商组织秘书长肯尼迪·加斯托恩先生代表该组织出席了委员会本届会议，并在2019年7月18日第3485次会议上发言。 |
| He briefed the Commission on the organization and provided an overview of its deliberations at its fifty-seventh annual session held in Japan from 8 to 12 October 2018, including on its discussions on topics on the programme of work of the Commission. | 他向委员会通报了该组织的情况，并概述了该组织2018年10月8日至12日在日本举行的第五十七届年度会议的审议情况，包括对委员会工作方案所列专题的讨论情况。 |
| An exchange of views followed. | 随后交换了意见。 |
| 318. The African Union Commission on International Law was represented at the present session of the Commission by Ms. Kathleen Quartey Ayensu and Mr. Sindiso H. Sichone, members of the African Union Commission, who addressed the Commission at its 3486th meeting, on 19 July 2019. | 318. 非洲联盟委员会委员凯瑟琳·夸泰·阿延苏女士和辛迪索·西丘尼先生代表非洲联盟国际法委员会出席了委员会本届会议，并在2019年7月19日第3486次会议上发言。 |
| They gave an overview of the activities of the African Union Commission on the various legal issues that it had been engaged in since its establishment, including activities to commemorate its tenth anniversary. | 他们概述了非洲联盟委员会自成立以来就各种法律问题开展的活动，包括庆祝该委员会成立十周年的活动。 |
| An exchange of views followed. | 随后交换了意见。 |
| 319. On 17 July 2019, an informal exchange of views was held between members of the Commission and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) on topics of mutual interest. | 319. 2019年7月17日，委员会委员与红十字国际委员会(红十字会)委员就共同关心的问题非正式地交换了意见。 |
| Welcoming remarks were made by Mr. Gilles Carbonnier, Vice President, ICRC, and opening remarks by Ms. Cordula Droege, Chief Legal Officer and Head of the Legal Division, ICRC, and Mr. Pavel Šturma, Chair of the Commission. | 红十字会副主席吉勒·卡尔博尼先生致欢迎辞，红十字会首席法务官兼法律司司长科尔杜拉·德勒格女士和委员会主席帕维尔·斯图尔马先生致开幕词。 |
| Presentations were made on the topics, “The role of States in clarifying or developing international law” by Ms. Cordula Droege and by Mr. Pavel Šturma, as well as on “Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) by Mr. Dire Tladi, Special Rapporteur on the topic, “and on “International humanitarian law update on autonomous weapons systems” by Ms. Netta Goussac, Legal Adviser, ICRC. | 科尔杜拉·德勒格女士和帕维尔·斯图尔马先生阐述了“国家在阐明或发展国际法方面的作用”，一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)专题特别报告员迪雷·特拉迪先生介绍了“一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)”专题，红十字会法律顾问内塔·古萨克女士介绍了“自主武器系统方面的国际人道法的最新情况”。 |
| Each set of presentations was followed by discussion moderated by Ms. Helen Durham, Director, International Law and Policy Department, ICRC. | 每组发言之后由红十字会国际法与政策部主任海伦·德拉姆女士主持讨论。 |
| Concluding remarks were made by Ms. Durham. | 德拉姆女士作了总结发言。 |
| G. Representation at the seventy-fourth session of the General Assembly | G. 出席联大第七十四届会议的代表 |
| 320. The Commission decided that it should be represented at the seventy-fourth session of the General Assembly by its Chair, Mr. Pavel Šturma. | 320. 委员会决定由主席帕维尔·斯图尔马先生代表委员会出席联大第七十四届会议。 |
| H. International Law Seminar | H. 国际法讲习班 |
| 321. Pursuant to General Assembly resolution 73/265 of 22 December 2018, the fifty-fifth session of the International Law Seminar was held at the Palais des Nations from 8 to 26 July 2019, during the present session of the Commission. | 321. 依照联大2018年12月22日第73/265号决议，在委员会本届会议期间，于2019年7月8日至26日在万国宫举行了第五十五届国际法讲习班。 |
| The Seminar is intended for young jurists specializing in international law, and young professors or government officials pursuing an academic or diplomatic career in posts in the civil service of their countries. | 讲习班面向专攻国际法的年轻法学家、以及各国公务员队伍中投身学术或外交事业的年轻教员或政府官员。 |
| 322. Twenty-five participants of different nationalities, from all regional groups, took part in the session. | 322. 来自所有区域集团的25名不同国籍的学员参加了这届讲习班。 |
| The participants attended plenary meetings of the Commission and specially arranged lectures, and participated in working groups on specific topics. | 学员们列席了委员会的全体会议，出席了特别安排的演讲，并参加了特定专题的工作组。 |
| 323. Mr. Pavel Šturma, Chair of the Commission, opened the Seminar. | 323. 委员会主席帕维尔·斯图尔马先生宣布讲习班开幕。 |
| Mr. Markus Schmidt, Senior Legal Adviser to the United Nations Office at Geneva, was responsible for the administration, organization and conduct of the Seminar and served as its Director. | 联合国日内瓦办事处高级法律顾问马库斯·施密特先生负责讲习班的行政管理、组织事宜和活动的进行，同时担任讲习班主任。 |
| Mr. Vittorio Mainetti, international law expert and consultant, acted as Coordinator, assisted by Mr. Pietro Gerundino, legal assistant from the University of Geneva. | 国际法专家、顾问维托里奥·马伊内蒂先生担任协调员，日内瓦大学法律助理皮埃特罗·格温蒂诺先生担任其助理。 |
| 324. The following lectures were given by members of the Commission: “The work of the International Law Commission” by Mr. Georg Nolte; | 324. 委员会委员作了以下演讲：格奥尔格·诺尔特先生：“国际法委员会的工作”； |
| “The International Law Commission viewed from outside” by Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles; | 帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士：“外界眼中的国际法委员会”； |
| “Evidence before international courts and tribunals” by Mr. Aniruddha Rajput; | 阿尼鲁达·拉吉普特先生：“向国际性法院和法庭提交的证据”； |
| “Protection of the atmosphere” by Mr. Shinya Murase; | 村濑信也先生：“保护大气层”； |
| “Immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction” by Ms. Concepción Escobar Hernández; | 康塞普西翁·埃斯科瓦尔·埃尔南德斯女士：“国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免”； |
| “Peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens)” by Mr. Dire D. Tladi; | 迪雷·特拉迪先生：“一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)”； |
| “Reparations to individuals for gross violations of international human rights law, and serious violations of international humanitarian law” by Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff; | 克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生：“就严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为对个人做出赔偿”； |
| “Crimes against humanity” by Mr. Sean D. Murphy; | 肖恩·墨菲先生：“危害人类罪”； |
| “General principles of law” by Mr. Marcelo Vázquez Bermúdez; | 马塞洛·巴斯克斯·贝穆德斯先生：“一般法律原则”； |
| and “Provisional application of treaties” by Mr. Juan Manuel Gómez Robledo. | 胡安·曼努埃尔·戈麦斯－罗夫莱多先生：“条约的暂时适用”。 |
| 325. Participants attended a lecture at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva on “The expansion of powers of international organizations: theory and practice”, delivered by Mr. Fouad Zarbiev, Associate Professor of international law, and Mr. Gian Luca Burci, Adjunct Professor of international law, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies. | 325. 学员们出席了日内瓦国际关系和发展研究生院国际法副教授福阿德·扎尔比耶夫先生和国际法兼职教授吉安·卢卡·布尔奇先生在日内瓦国际关系和发展研究生院所作题为“国际组织权力的扩张：理论与实践”的讲座。 |
| They also attended a conference organized by the University of Geneva on the topic “Protection of the environment and water installation during and after armed conflicts”, with the participation of Ms. Marja Lehto, member of the Commission and Special Rapporteur on the topic “Protection of the environment in relation to armed conflicts”. | 学员们还出席了日内瓦大学举办的“武装冲突期间和之后环境和水设施的保护”专题会议，委员会委员兼“与武装冲突有关的环境保护”专题特别报告员玛丽亚·莱赫托女士参加了会议。 |
| The following speakers spoke at the conference: Ms. Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Professor of International Law, University of Geneva; | 下列人员在会上发言：日内瓦大学国际法教授劳伦斯·布瓦松·德·沙祖尔内女士； |
| Mr. Marco Sassòli, Professor of International Law, University of Geneva, and Director of the Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law; | 日内瓦大学国际法教授、日内瓦国际人道法和人权学院院长马尔科·萨索利先生； |
| Ms. Mara Tignino, Reader, University of Geneva, and Coordinator of the Platform for International Water Law at the Geneva Water Hub; | 日内瓦大学高级讲师、日内瓦水问题研究所(Geneva Water Hub)国际水法平台协调员马拉·蒂尼诺女士； |
| Ms. Helen Obregón Gieseken, Legal Advisor, Legal Division, ICRC; | 红十字会法律司法律顾问海伦·奥布雷贡·吉塞肯女士； |
| and Ms. Danae Azaria, Professor of International Law, University College London. | 伦敦大学学院国际法教授达那·阿扎里亚女士。 |
| 326. Participants visited the International Labour Organization (ILO), and attended two presentations given by Mr. Dražen Petrović, Registrar of the ILO Administrative Tribunal, on “International administrative justice”, and Mr. Georges Politakis, ILO Legal Adviser, on “ILO standard-setting”. | 326. 学员们参观了国际劳工组织(劳工组织)，并听取了劳工组织行政法庭书记官长德拉赞·彼得罗维奇先生关于“国际行政司法”和劳工组织法律顾问乔治·波利塔基斯先生关于“劳工组织标准制订”的两场讲座。 |
| 327. Two working groups, on identifying new topics for the Commission and on evidence before international courts and tribunals, were organized and participants were assigned to one of them. | 327. 围绕“为委员会确定新专题”和“向国际性法院和法庭提交的证据”组织了两个工作组，每名学员都被分配到其中一个工作组。 |
| Two members of the Commission, Ms. Patrícia Galvão Teles and Mr. Aniruddha Rajput, respectively, supervised and provided guidance to the working groups. | 委员会的两位委员帕特里夏·加尔旺·特莱斯女士和阿尼鲁达·拉吉普特先生分别为两个工作组提供了督导和指导。 |
| Each group prepared a report and presented its findings during the last working session of the Seminar. | 每个工作组分别编写了一份报告，并在讲习班最后一次工作会议上介绍了报告的研究结果。 |
| The reports were compiled and distributed to all participants, as well as to the members of the Commission. | 已将报告编辑成册，发给所有学员和委员会委员。 |
| 328. Participants also attended the first Conference of the International Law Seminar Alumni Network. | 328. 学员们还出席了第一届国际法讲习班校友会。 |
| Ms. Verity Robson (alumna 2017), President of the Network and legal counsellor at the Permanent Mission of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Geneva, and Mr. Vittorio Mainetti, Secretary-General of the Network and Coordinator of the International Law Seminar, welcomed participants and alumni. | 校友会主席、大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国常驻日内瓦代表团法律顾问威瑞蒂·罗布森女士(2017届校友)和校友会秘书长、国际法讲习班协调员维托里奥·马伊内蒂先生欢迎各位学员和校友。 |
| Some 90 persons attended the event. | 约有90人出席了这次活动。 |
| Two panels were organized on the international law and the environment and procedural issues in international dispute settlement. | 围绕“国际法和环境”以及“国际争端解决中的程序问题”组织了两个专题小组。 |
| Mr. Christian Tomuschat (alumnus 1966), Professor Emeritus, Humboldt University of Berlin, former member of the Commission, delivered a keynote speech. | 柏林洪堡大学荣誉退休教授、委员会前委员克里斯蒂安·托穆沙特先生(1966届校友)发表了主旨演讲。 |
| The following speakers spoke at the conference: Ms. Marja Lehto (alumna 1993), member of the Commission; | 下列人员在会上发言：委员会委员玛丽亚·莱赫托女士(1993届校友)； |
| Ms. Jasmine Moussa (alumna 2009), First Secretary at the Permanent Mission of Egypt in Geneva; | 埃及常驻日内瓦代表团一秘贾斯敏·穆萨女士(2009届校友)； |
| Mr. Shinya Murase (alumnus 1975), member of Commission; | 委员会委员村濑信也先生(1975届校友)； |
| Mr. Gentian Zyberi (alumnus 2008), Head of Department at the Norwegian Centre for Human Rights, member of Human Rights Committee; | 挪威人权中心主任、人权事务委员会委员根提安·齐伯利先生(2008届校友)； |
| Mr. Marcelo Kohen (alumnus 1989), Professor of International Law at Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva and Secretary General of the Institute of International Law, spoke in the first panel; | 日内瓦国际关系和发展研究生院国际法教授、国际法学会秘书长马塞洛·科恩先生(1989届校友)在第一专题小组发言； |
| Mr. Antonios Abou Kasm (alumnus 2009), Professor of International Law at Lebanese University; | 黎巴嫩大学国际法教授安东尼欧斯·阿布·卡西姆先生(2009届校友)； |
| Ms. Mónica Feria-Tinta (alumna 2000), Barrister, 20 Essex Street Chambers; | 埃塞克斯街20号律师事务所出庭律师莫妮卡·费里亚－廷塔女士(2000届校友)； |
| Mr. Philippe Gautier (alumnus 1988), Registrar of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea; | 国际海洋法法庭书记官长菲利普·戈蒂埃先生(1988届校友)； |
| Mr. Raul Pangalangan (alumnus 1988), Judge of the International Criminal Court; | 国际刑事法院法官劳尔·潘加拉根先生(1988届校友)； |
| Mr. Brian McGarry (alumnus 2013), Lecturer and Senior Researcher at Geneva Centre for International Dispute Settlement, spoke in the second panel. | 日内瓦国际争议解决中心讲师、高级研究员布赖恩·麦克加里先生(2013届校友)在第二专题小组发言。 |
| Finally, Ms. Mary-Elisabeth Chong (alumna 2017), Vice-President of the Network and State Counsel at Attorney General’s Chambers of Singapore, made concluding remarks. | 最后，校友会副主席、新加坡总检察署政府律师玛丽－伊丽莎白·钟女士(2017届校友)作了总结发言。 |
| 329. The Chair of the Commission, the Director of the International Law Seminar and Mr. René Figueredo Corrales, on behalf of participants attending the Seminar, addressed the Commission during the closing ceremony of the Seminar. | 329. 在讲习班闭幕式上，国际法委员会主席、国际法讲习班主任和讲习班学员代表勒内·菲格雷多·科拉莱斯先生向委员会致辞。 |
| Each participant was presented with a diploma. | 向每名学员颁发了结业证书。 |
| 330. The Commission noted with preoccupation that in 2019 only five Governments had made voluntary contributions to the United Nations Trust Fund for the International Law Seminar: Austria, India, Ireland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. | 330. 委员会关切地指出，2019年只有五个国家――奥地利、印度、爱尔兰、瑞士和联合王国――向联合国国际法讲习班信托基金提供了自愿捐款。 |
| The financial crisis of recent years seriously affected the finances of the Seminar. | 近年的金融危机严重影响了讲习班的财务状况。 |
| Therefore, the Fund was only able to grant a limited number fellowships to deserving candidates from developing countries. | 因此，基金只能为发展中国家的优秀学员颁发份数有限的研究金。 |
| In 2019, 12 fellowships were granted (8 for living expenses only, and 4 for travel and living expenses). | 2019年颁发了12份研究金(8份仅涵盖生活费，4份涵盖差旅费和生活费)。 |
| 331. Since its inception in 1965, 1,258 participants, representing 177 nationalities, have taken part in the Seminar. Some 760 participants have received a fellowship. | 331. 自1965年开设讲习班以来，分属177个不同国籍的1,258名学员参加了讲习班，其中约有760人获得了研究金。 |
| 332. The Commission stresses the importance it attaches to the Seminar, which enables young lawyers, especially those from developing countries, to familiarize themselves with the work of the Commission and the activities of the many international organizations based in Geneva. | 332. 委员会强调它对讲习班的重视，因为该讲习班使年轻律师，特别是发展中国家的年轻律师，能够熟悉委员会的工作和设在日内瓦的众多国际组织的活动。 |
| The Commission recommends that the General Assembly should again appeal to States to make voluntary contributions in order to secure the organization of the Seminar in 2020 with as broad participation as possible, and an adequate geographical distribution. | 委员会建议联大再度呼吁各国提供自愿捐款，以确保能够在2020年继续举办讲习班，并让尽可能多的学员得以参加，同时实现适当的地域分布。 |
| Annexes | A/74/10 |
| A/74/10 GE.19-13883 GE.19-13883 |
| Annex A | 附件 附件A |
| Draft model clauses on provisional application of treaties | 关于条约的暂时适用的示范条款草案 |
| (The following draft model clauses have been proposed by the Special Rapporteur for consideration by the Commission at its seventy-second session.) | (特别报告员提出以下示范条款草案，供委员会第七十二届会议审议。 |
| Commencement and termination | ) 开始和终止 |
| Draft model clause 1 | 示范条款草案1 |
| 1. This Treaty [article (s)…] shall apply provisionally from the date of signature [or from X date], unless a State [an international organization] notifies the other State [international organization] [Depository] at the time of signature [or any other time agreed upon] that it does not consent to be bound by such provisional application. | 1. 本条约[第…条]自签署之日起 [或自X日期起 ]暂时适用，除非 一国[一国际组织]在签署时[或商定的任何其他时间]通知另一国[国际组织][保存人]它不同意受此类暂时适用的约束。 |
| 2. The provisional application of this Treaty [or article (s)…] shall terminate upon its entry into force for a State [an international organization] that is applying it provisionally or if that State [international organization] notifies the other State [international organization] [Depositary] of its intention not to become a party to the Treaty. | 2. 本条约[或第…条]的暂时适用在其对暂时适用本条约的一国[一国际组织]生效时，或在暂时适用本条约的国家[国际组织]通知另一国[国际组织][保存人]它不打算加入本条约的情况下终止。 |
| Form of agreement | 协议形式 |
| Draft model clause 2 | 示范条款草案2 |
| This Treaty [or article (s)…] can be provisionally applied in accordance with the provisions of a separate agreement to that effect. | 本条约[或第…条]可以依照为此订立的单独协定的条款暂时适用。 |
| Opt in/Opt out | 加入/退出 |
| Draft model clause 3 | 示范条款草案3 |
| A State [An international organization] that is not a negotiating State [international organization] of this Treaty may declare that it will provisionally apply it [or article (s)…], provided that the negotiating States [international organizations] accept such declaration. | 非本条约谈判国[国际组织]的一国[一国际组织]，可以声明暂时适用本条约[或第…条]，前提是谈判国[国际组织]接受此类声明。 |
| Draft model clause 4 | 示范条款草案4 |
| A State [An international organization] may declare that it will not provisionally apply a treaty [or article (s)…] when the decision to its [their] provisional application results from a resolution of [X international organization or X intergovernmental conference] to which that State [international organizations] does not agree. | 当一国[一国际组织]不赞同[X国际组织或X政府间会议]决定暂时适用的决议时，该国[国际组织]可以声明不暂时适用条约[或第…条]。 |
| Limitations deriving from internal law of States or rules of international organizations | 源自各国国内法或国际组织规则的限制 |
| Draft model clause 5 | 示范条款草案5 |
| A State [An international organization] may at the time of expressing its agreement to the provisional application of this Treaty [article (s)…] [or any other time agreed upon] notify the other State [international organization] [Depository] of any limitations deriving from its internal law [the rules of the international organization] that would affect compliance by that State [international organization] of such provisional application. | 一国[一国际组织]可以在表示同意暂时适用本条约[第…条]时[或在商定的任何其他时间]，将可能影响该国[国际组织]对暂时适用的遵守的任何源自其国内法 [国际组织规则]的限制通知另一国[国际组织][保存人]。 |
| Annex B | 附件B |
| Reparation to individuals for gross violations of international human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law | 就严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为对个人的赔偿 |
| Mr. Claudio Grossman Guiloff | 克劳迪奥·格罗斯曼·吉洛夫先生 |
| I. Introduction | 一. 导言 |
| 1. The topic of reparation to individuals for damage caused by gross violations of international human rights law (“IHRL”) and serious violations of international humanitarian law (“IHL”) has featured increasingly in the practice of States, international organizations, and international tribunals during recent decades, reflecting the evolving status of the individual under international law, especially since World War II. However, the availability of international and domestic forums to address violations of individual rights has existed in various forms since the early 1900s. | 1. 就严重违反国际人权法 和严重违反国际人道法 行为所致损害对个人做出的赔偿这一专题，近几十年来越来越多地出现在各国、国际组织和国际法庭的实践中，反映出个人在国际法之下的地位不断演变，尤其是自第二次世界大战以来的演变。 不过，可处理侵犯个人权利行为的国际和国内法庭自二十世纪初期开始便以各种形式存在。 |
| 2. It is a principle of international law that the breach of an international obligation involves an obligation to make reparation in an adequate form. | 2. 违反一项国际义务，则引起以适当形式做出赔偿的义务，这是一项国际法原则。 |
| In 1928, in the Case Concerning the Factory at Chorzow (Chorzow Factory Case), the Permanent Court of International Justice (“PCIJ”) clearly articulated the content of this general obligation, stating “reparation must, as far as possible, wipe out all the consequences of the illegal act and re-establish the situation which would, in all probability, have existed if that act had not been committed.” | 1928年，常设国际法院在关于霍茹夫工厂的案件(霍茹夫工厂案)中明确表述了这项一般义务的内容，指出“赔偿必须尽可能消除非法行为的一切后果，并重建该行为未发生时可能存在的形势。 |
| 3. The general rule articulated by the Chorzow Factory Case has been widely cited and reaffirmed in several judgments of the International Court of Justice (“ICJ”), including the Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo. | ” 3. 霍茹夫工厂案阐明的一般规则在国际法院的几项判决中得到广泛引用和重申，其中包括刚果境内的武装活动案。 |
| In that judgment, which dealt with violations of IHL and IHRL, inter alia, the Court recognized that the injury caused to individuals was relevant in assessing the scope of reparation owed by Uganda. | 在这项处理违反国际人道法和国际人权法行为及其他事项的判决中，法院承认，对个人造成的伤害与评估乌干达应给予赔偿的范围相关。 |
| The ICJ has explicitly confirmed that a State that has violated a rule of international law causing damage to persons has “the obligation to make reparation for the damage caused to all the natural or legal persons concerned. | 国际法院明确确认，违反一项国际法规则而对个人造成损害的国家有“就对所有相关自然人或法人造成的损害做出赔偿的义务”。 |
| ” In the context of Diplomatic Protection, in the case of Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, the ICJ also stressed the importance of providing reparation for the injury suffered by Mr. Diallo in breach of international law. | 在外交保护方面，在艾哈迈杜·萨迪奥·迪亚洛案中，国际法院还强调必须就违反国际法使迪亚洛先生遭受的伤害做出赔偿。 |
| 4. The practice of States and international organizations, and the case-law of international tribunals, show that the principle of reparation has been extensively applied in the fields of IHRL and IHL. | 4. 国家和国际组织的实践以及国际法庭的判例表明，赔偿原则广泛应用于国际人权法和国际人道法领域。 |
| Practice reflects that the content and form of reparation has adjusted to the nature of these specific areas of law. | 实践显示，赔偿的内容和形式已根据这些特定法律领域的性质加以调整。 |
| The most relevant sources of practice include treaty provisions regarding reparation to individuals, the establishment of permanent or ad hoc procedures open to individuals, and the creation of specific programmes concerning reparation. | 最相关的实践来源包括：关于对个人赔偿的条约规定、向个人开放的常设或临时程序的设立，以及具体赔偿方案的制定。 |
| 5. Current practice reveals there are three levels enabling individuals to obtain reparation for violations of IHRL and serious violations of IHL. | 5. 当前的实践表明，个人可在三个层面上就违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法的行为获得赔偿。 |
| Opportunity to receive reparation at the inter-State, international, and domestic levels is discussed below. | 以下论述在国家间、国际和国内各个层面获得赔偿的机会。 |
| 6. At the inter-State level, reparation to individuals is sought through the traditional process of diplomatic protection, a topic that was comprehensively studied by the International Law Commission (“ILC”) in its Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection. | 6. 在国家间层面是通过外交保护这一传统程序寻求对个人的赔偿，国际法委员会在其《关于外交保护的条款草案》中对这一专题进行了全面研究。 |
| However, resort to this means of reparation is a right of States. | 然而，诉诸这种赔偿手段是一项国家权利。 |
| The topic covered by this syllabus would complement the work of the Commission on the topic of Diplomatic Protection by focusing on reparation to individuals at the international and domestic levels. | 本提纲所述专题将重点讨论国际和国内层面对个人的赔偿，对国际法委员会外交保护专题的工作形成补充。 |
| 7. Reparation at the international level includes international and regional tribunals as well as treaty bodies, which allow individuals to bring complaints against States for violations of IHRL and in certain cases for IHL. | 7. 国际层面的赔偿包括国际和区域法庭以及条约机构，个人可通过这些机构就违反国际人权法行为及某些情况下就违反国际人道法行为，对国家提出申诉。 |
| Through these mechanisms, individuals seek an objective finding of wrongdoing and an authoritative statement on the appropriate reparation that should be issued, either in the form of a judgment, recommendations, or friendly settlement. | 通过上述机制，个人寻求获得对不当行为的客观裁定和关于适当赔偿的权威声明，此裁定和声明应以判决、建议或友好解决的形式发布。 |
| 8. At the domestic level, individuals may bring claims for the violation of IHRL or IHL before the domestic courts of a State, usually the State allegedly responsible for the violation. | 8. 在国内层面，个人可以就违反国际人权法或国际人道法行为向一国的国内法院提出申诉，此国家通常是据称应对违法行为负责的国家。 |
| To comply with the relevant rules of international law, domestic mechanisms are supposed to provide an effective remedy for affected individuals, including appropriate reparation if the violation is proven. | 国内机制要遵守相关的国际法规则，若侵权行为得到证实，应向受影响的个人提供有效补救，包括适当赔偿。 |
| On the other hand, access to international procedures also needs to comply with certain requirements, such as the exhaustion of local remedies, to avoid the misuse of international mechanisms and respect the principle of subsidiarity. | 另一方面，诉诸国际程序也需要遵守用尽当地补救办法等某些要求，以避免国际机制被滥用，并遵循辅助性原则。 |
| International and domestic mechanisms may complement each other. | 国际和国内机制可以相互补充。 |
| 9. Important human rights instruments address reparation to individuals for violations of IHRL by focusing on the right to an effective remedy, a broader concept that encompasses both access to justice and the issue of reparation. | 9. 重要的人权文书述及就违反国际人权法行为对个人做出赔偿的问题时侧重于获得有效补救的权利，这是一个更广泛的概念，涵盖诉诸司法和赔偿问题两个方面。 |
| The Universal Declaration of Human Rights dealt with this matter in article 8, which asserts “[e]veryone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.” | 《世界人权宣言》第八条论及此事，宣称“当宪法或法律所赋予的基本权利遭受侵害时，人人有权由合格的国家法庭对这种侵害行为作有效的补救。 ” |
| 10. Article 2(3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights also establishes the right to an effective remedy, and many multilateral conventions addressing human rights contain similar provisions. | 10. 《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第二条第三款也确立了获得有效补救的权利，许多处理人权问题的多边公约都载有类似条款。 |
| Examples include article 6 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, article 14 of the Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment, and article 24 of the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. | 例如《消除一切形式种族歧视国际公约》第六条、《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》第14条和《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》第24条。 |
| The Commission, in its draft articles on Crimes Against Humanity, has also adopted a provision on reparation owed to individuals, draft article 12, paragraph 3. | 委员会在《关于危害人类罪的条款草案》中还通过了一项关于对个人应予赔偿的条款，即第12条草案第3款。 |
| 11. Regional conventions on human rights also establish the right to an effective remedy and have regulated the issue of reparation to individuals. | 11. 各项区域人权公约也确立了获得有效补救的权利，并就对个人的赔偿问题做出规定。 |
| Indeed, the American Convention on Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights contain specific provisions regulating these matters. | 事实上，《美洲人权公约》和《欧洲人权公约》载有规范这些事项的具体条款。 |
| The international tribunals established to enforce these conventions have developed several criteria to determine what constitutes full and appropriate reparation, depending on the circumstances of the case. | 为执行上述公约而设立的国际法庭制定了若干标准，根据案件的具体情况确定什么是充分和适当的赔偿。 |
| Other regional instruments and mechanisms may offer similar guidance, such as the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights, and the Arab Charter on Human Rights. | 其他区域文书和机制可以提供类似的指导，例如《非洲人权和民族权宪章》、 东南亚国家联盟政府间人权委员会 和《阿拉伯人权宪章》。 |
| 12. The decisions of several treaty bodies, such as the Human Rights Committee and the Committee Against Torture, also provide useful guidance to assess the parameters and appropriate scope of reparation to be granted, based on the relevant instrument. | 12. 人权事务委员会和禁止酷刑委员会等几个条约机构的决定，也为依据相关文书评估所予赔偿的参数和适当范围提供了有益的指导。 |
| 13. Domestic laws and national judicial decisions are also relevant to this topic to the extent they may also regulate the issue of reparation owed to individuals for violations of international law. | 13. 国内法和国家司法裁决也与本专题相关，因为它们也可能规范就违反国际法行为对个人应予赔偿的问题。 |
| In this sense, domestic programmes concerning reparation to victims of IHRL violations are also relevant. | 在这个意义上，对违反国际人权法行为受害人进行赔偿的国内方案也与之相关。 |
| These programmes may be built upon the work of “truth commissions”, used especially in Latin America and Africa. | 这些方案可以建立在“真相委员会”工作的基础之上，真相委员会主要用于拉丁美洲和非洲。 |
| 14. Concerning violations of IHL, one of the main challenges for victims is that there is not a specialized forum to bring claims against the responsible State. | 14. 在违反国际人道法行为方面，受害人面临的主要挑战之一是没有可向责任国提出索赔的专门法庭。 |
| However, victims of violations of IHL may be able to bring claims for violations of IHRL that occurred in the context of an armed conflict or emergency situations before competent IHRL mechanisms. | 然而，违反国际人道法行为的受害人可以就武装冲突或紧急情况下发生的违反国际人权法行为向国际人权法主管机制提出索赔。 |
| In such instances, these bodies may apply the relevant rules of IHL as the lex specialis. | 这种情况下，这些机构可以将相关的国际人道法规则作为特别法适用。 |
| 15. Furthermore, in many peace treaties, the injured State receives a lump sum payment from the wrongdoing State for the purpose of distributing it among those of its nationals affected by violations of IHL or other areas of law. | 15. 此外，许多和平条约中，受害国接受不法行为国的一笔总付款，目的是将其分发给受到违反国际人道法或违反其他领域法律的行为影响的国民。 |
| Ad hoc bodies have also been created to decide these kinds of cases, typically in the form of mixed-claims commissions. | 还设立了特设机构来裁决此类案件，通常采用混合索赔委员会的形式。 |
| Recent examples include the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission and the United Nations Compensation Commission, a subsidiary organ of the UN Security Council tasked with deciding claims arising from Iraq’s unlawful invasion of Kuwait, including those brought by individual persons. | 最近的例子包括厄立特里亚－埃塞俄比亚索赔委员会和联合国赔偿委员会，后者是联合国安全理事会的附属机构，负责裁定伊拉克非法入侵科威特引起的索赔，包括个人提出的索赔。 |
| 16. This project will examine also the relevant differences existing within the scope of reparations between IHRL and IHL. | 16. 本专题还将审查国际人权法和国际人道法在赔偿这一领域存在的相关差异。 |
| This includes inter alia state practice, treaties, decisions, recommendations by international organizations, courts and various supervisory organs concerning IHL and IHRL in particular in areas related to emergency situations. | 除其他外，这包括关于国际人道法和国际人权法、尤其是紧急情况相关领域的国家实践、条约、决定，国际组织、法院及各种监督机构的建议。 |
| This summary of practice related to reparation to individuals shows not only its increasing importance, but also the many different ways States and relevant adjudicating bodies have addressed the issue of reparation to individuals for violations of IHL and IHRL. | 对有关个人赔偿实践的这一总结不仅表明对个人赔偿的问题越来越重要，而且表明各国和相关裁决机构在处理就违反国际人道法和国际人权法行为对个人给予赔偿的问题上采取的多种不同方式。 |
| The Commission’s consideration of this topic would therefore have a solid foundation in existing practice in order to provide useful guidance for States and adjudicating bodies, by distilling general principles, aimed at providing further consistency and legitimacy in this area. | 因此，委员会对这一专题的审议将以现有实践作为坚实基础，通过提炼一般原则，为各国和裁决机构提供有益的指导，以加强这一领域的一致性和合法性。 |
| II. Scope of the topic | 二. 本专题的范围 |
| 17. Considering the different and varied sources of practice available, it could be useful to provide guidance to States in the field of reparation to individuals for damage caused by violations of IHRL and IHL. | 17. 考虑到现有实践来源各异，在就违反国际人权法和国际人道法行为所致损害对个人做出赔偿这一领域向各国提供指导，可能会有所助益。 |
| The scope of the proposed topic does not aim to address primary rules of international law or address which acts constitute violations of international obligations. Rather, the proposed topic seeks to address secondary rules of international law, namely, the consequences of violations of primary rules and which criteria should be considered to provide appropriate reparation to individuals. | 本拟议专题并非要讨论国际法的主要规则，也不是要讨论哪些行为构成违反国际义务，而是意在讨论国际法的次要规则，即违反主要规则的后果及向个人提供适当赔偿时应考虑的标准。 |
| The distinction between primary and secondary rules is not alien to the Commission in the area of State responsibility, in particular the Articles on State Responsibility for Internationally Wrongful Acts (“Articles on State Responsibility”) which is an essential reference for this topic, see infra paragraphs 19 and 20. | 在国家责任领域，主要规则和次要规则之间的区别对委员会而言并不陌生，特别是《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》(《国家责任条款》)，为本专题提供了重要参考，见下文第19和20段。 |
| However, when relevant to the topic, the interconnectedness of primary and secondary rules will be considered. | 然而，主要规则和次要规则之间的相互关联，在与本专题相关时也将得到考虑。 |
| 18. The scope of this topic is limited to reparation owed to individuals, or groups of individuals, for injury caused by violations of IHRL and serious violations of IHL, and does not address the topic of reparation to corporations or other legal persons. | 18. 本专题的范围仅限于应就违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为所致损害对个人或群体 做出的赔偿，不涉及对公司或其他法人的赔偿问题。 |
| However, this does not mean that the standards identified by the Commission in the course of its work on the topic of reparation to individuals in these areas could not be useful to other topics in the future. | 但这并不意味着，委员会在就上述领域对个人的赔偿这一专题开展工作的过程中所确定的标准，对今后的其他专题没有用处。 |
| 19. The topic will mainly address the issue of reparation from the perspective of State responsibility, and will not focus on the responsibility that other actors may have at the domestic or international level. | 19. 本专题将主要从国家责任的角度讨论赔偿问题，而不侧重于其他行为者在国内或国际层面可能承担的责任。 |
| An essential basis is found in the Articles on State Responsibility adopted by the Commission in 2001. | 委员会2001年通过的《国家责任条款》为此构成重要依据。 |
| 20. However, although the Articles on State Responsibility reflect the duty of full reparation in article 34, the issue of reparation to individuals was not addressed by the Commission in that topic. | 20. 然而，虽然《国家责任条款》第34条 反映了充分赔偿的义务，但委员会在该专题中并未述及对个人的赔偿问题。 |
| It is important to note that article 33 referred to the content of State responsibility in paragraph 2 where it explicitly states that Part Two of the Articles is “without prejudice to any right, arising from the international responsibility of a State, which may accrue directly to any person or entity other than a State”. | 必须指出的是，第33条第2款提到了国家责任的内容，其中明确指出，《条款》第二部分“不妨碍任何人或国家以外的实体由于一国的国际责任可能直接取得的任何权利”。 |
| Thus, while that topic did not examine the reparation which may be owed directly to individuals due to violations of international law, it recognized that Part Two was without prejudice to reparation owed to individuals. | 因此，虽然该专题没有审查因违反国际法行为而应直接给予个人的赔偿，但却承认第二部分不妨碍个人应得的赔偿。 |
| Accordingly, this topic would be complementary to the work undertaken by the Commission in the Articles on State Responsibility. | 因此，本专题可对委员会就《国家责任条款》开展的工作形成补充。 |
| 21. The inclusion of this topic in the programme of work of the Commission would offer an opportunity for both the codification and the progressive development of international law. | 21. 将本专题列入委员会的工作方案能为国际法的编纂和逐渐发展都提供机会。 |
| In particular, it would allow the Commission to analyze how the issue of reparation to individuals has been addressed by States, international organizations, and international tribunals, as well as the rules and principles they follow to make their determinations. | 特别是委员会能够在本专题中分析各国、国际组织和国际法庭是如何处理对个人的赔偿这一问题的，以及上述各方作出裁断时遵循的规则和原则。 |
| Accordingly, to pursue its work on the topic, the Commission would have to examine relevant treaty provisions and rules of customary international law and how they have been interpreted and implemented in practice. | 因此，要就本专题开展工作，委员会必须审查相关的条约规定和习惯国际法规则，以及在实践中是如何解释和执行这些规定和规则的。 |
| It could also enable the Commission to identify the best and most accepted methods of reparation to individuals in order to provide useful guidance to States in this regard. | 委员会还能通过本专题确定最佳和最被接受的对个人赔偿的方法，以便在这方面向各国提供有益的指导。 |
| Needless to say, proposals of progressive development would only have a prospective character, and would not reflect legal obligations. | 无需赘言，逐渐发展方面的建议只具有前瞻性，并不会反映法律义务。 |
| Moreover, this project concerns secondary rules of law, and would only address primary rules if required. | 此外，本专题涉及次要法律规则，仅在必要时论及主要规则。 |
| Accordingly, this topic will not question the principle of the intertemporal application of the law. | 因此，本专题不会质疑法律的时际适用原则。 |
| It is important to note that the duty of reparation to individuals, and its scope, is contingent upon the existence of a valid legal rule generating such duty and its content. | 必须指出，对个人赔偿的义务及其范围取决于产生此种义务的有效法律规则的存在及其内容。 |
| 22. A comprehensive analysis would also provide an overview of existing rules, and help identify the main problems that arise in their implementation, the limitations that States face in this area, and the different methods States have developed in order to provide reparation to individuals. | 22. 开展全面分析还可以概括现有规则，并有助于确定执行这些规则时出现的主要问题，各国在这一领域面临的限制，以及各国为向个人提供赔偿而制定的不同方法。 |
| In this sense, the outcome of the topic would provide a good opportunity to codify existing rules, and also make proposals for the progressive development of the law. | 从这个意义上说，本专题的成果将为编纂现有规则提供良机，并为法律的逐渐发展提出建议。 |
| The work of the Commission on this topic is without prejudice to any more favorable legal regimes on reparations established at the national, regional or international level. | 委员会关于本专题的工作，不影响在国家、区域或国际各个层面建立的任何更为适宜的关于赔偿的法律制度。 |
| III. Possible issues to be addressed | 三. 可能需要处理的问题 |
| 23. As explained in the foregoing paragraphs, this topic focuses on the secondary rules related to the provision of reparation to individuals for violations of IHL and IHRL. | 23. 如上文各段所述，本专题侧重于与就违反国际人道法和国际人权法行为对个人提供赔偿有关的次要规则。 |
| Accordingly, the Commission could address, inter alia, the following specific issues: | 因此，除其他外，委员会可以处理下列具体问题： |
| (a) The different forms of reparation (e.g. restitution, compensation and satisfaction, guarantees of non-repetition, etc.), their definition, and their main purposes; | (a) 赔偿的各种形式(如恢复原状、补偿和抵偿、保证不再发生等)、其定义和主要目的； |
| (b) The degree of flexibility that States have when choosing between different forms of reparation; | (b) 国家在选择不同赔偿形式时拥有的灵活度； |
| (c) The appropriateness of certain forms of reparation, depending on the circumstances; | (c) 某些赔偿形式的适当性，视情况而定； |
| (d) The relevant circumstances that should be considered when determining the kind of reparation to be provided; | (d) 确定所予赔偿种类时应考虑的相关因素； |
| (e) The role played by the principle of proportionality in determining the type and scope of reparation; | (e) 相称原则在确定赔偿类型和范围方面的作用； |
| (f) The appropriateness of individual and/or collective reparation; | (f) 个人和(或)集体赔偿的适当性； |
| (g) The principle of subsidiarity of international mechanisms and the procedural obligations of States, for example, the establishment of complaint mechanisms open to individuals at the domestic level, and the provision of effective procedural guarantees; | (g) 国际机制的辅助性原则和国家的程序性义务，例如，在国内建立向个人开放的申诉机制，并提供有效的程序保障； |
| (h) The establishment of ad hoc systems of reparation and friendly settlements. | (h) 建立特设的赔偿制度和友好解决制度。 |
| IV. Outcome | 四. 成果 |
| 24. Concerning the possible outcomes of this topic, the options of presenting the findings as “draft guidelines” or “draft principles” would be especially appropriate, as this would allow the Commission to identify and apply existing rules and consider progressive development, as well as propose best practices in light of the existing challenges. | 24. 关于本专题可能取得的成果，最宜选择的方案是将研究结果作为“指南草案”或“原则草案”提出，这样委员会便能确定和适用现有规则，考虑逐渐发展问题，并根据现有挑战建议最佳做法。 |
| 25. Draft guidelines are appropriate for a non-binding series of rules or recommended practices. | 25. 指南草案适用于不具约束力的一系列规则或建议做法。 |
| In this context, the Commission has explained that the word “guidelines” is used when the work on the topic does not intend to produce a binding instrument, but instead, a toolbox where States may find answers to practical questions. | 在这方面，委员会曾做出解释，若有关专题的工作不是要产生一项具有约束力的文书，而是要提供一个各国可为实际问题找到答案的工具箱，则使用“指南”一词。 |
| Therefore, the use of draft guidelines in this topic would be appropriate, since it will be aimed at clarifying secondary rules and also proposing best practices, when appropriate. | 因此，本专题宜采用指南草案，因为其目的在于澄清次要规则并酌情建议最佳做法。 |
| 26. Draft principles have also been understood by the Commission as encompassing non-binding provisions, which are also general in character. | 26. 按照委员会的理解，原则草案也包含不具约束力的条款，这些条款也具备一般性质。 |
| In this sense, if the Commission prefers to choose draft principles as the outcome of this topic, it would be helpful to identify a set of general standards and common norms along with a measure of progressive elements. | 从这个意义上说，如果委员会倾向于选择原则草案作为本专题的成果，则宜确定一套一般标准和共同规范，同时带有一些逐渐发展的内容。 |
| 27. Nevertheless, other forms of final outcomes could also be considered depending on the views of the Commission and also on the suggestions and arguments presented by States within the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly. | 27. 不过，亦可根据国际法委员会的意见以及各国在联大第六委员会内提出的建议和观点，考虑以其他形式呈现最终成果。 |
| V. Conclusion | 五. 结论 |
| 28. On the selection of new topics in its long-term programme of work, the Commission is guided by the following criteria, which it agreed upon at its fiftieth session (1998), namely that the topic: (a) should reflect the needs of States in respect of the progressive development and codification of international law; | 28. 委员会在选择长期工作方案的新专题时遵循委员会第五十届会议(1998年)商定的以下标准，即：(a) 专题应反映各国在逐渐发展和编纂国际法方面的需要； |
| (b) should be at a sufficiently advanced stage in terms of State practice to permit progressive development and codification; | (b) 专题应在国家实践方面处于足够成熟阶段，从而允许逐渐发展和编纂； |
| (c) should be concrete and feasible for progressive development and codification; | (c) 专题应具体可行，宜于逐渐发展和编纂； |
| and (d) that the Commission should not restrict itself to traditional topics, but could also consider those that reflect new developments in international law and pressing concerns of the international community as a whole. | (d) 委员会不应局限于传统专题，也可考虑反映国际法新动态和整个国际社会紧迫关切事项的专题。 |
| 29. The topic of reparation to individuals for gross violations of international human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law satisfies the conditions for the selection of a new topic in the long-term programme of work. | 29. 就严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为对个人的赔偿这一专题符合长期工作方案新专题的遴选条件。 |
| As outlined above, there is considerable State practice and a set of norms and principles that have emerged through judicial, ad hoc, and treaty bodies. | 如前所述，已经通过司法、特设和条约机构产生了相当多的国家实践及一套规范和原则。 |
| However, there is a need for codification and progressive development of these practices to provide guidance to the international community about the principles, content, and procedures related to reparation owed to individuals for violations of international law. | 然而，需要编纂和逐渐发展这些实践，以便围绕就违反国际法行为对个人予以赔偿的相关原则、内容和程序向国际社会提供指导。 |
| Due to the important amount of State practice and judicial decisions available, the topic of reparation for individuals for violations of international law is ripe and appropriate for progressive development and codification. | 因为已具备大量的国家实践和司法决定，所以就违反国际法行为对个人的赔偿这一专题已然成熟，适于逐渐发展和编纂。 |
| VI. Selected Bibliography | 六. 参考文献选编 |
| Case-Law | Case-Law |
| Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo) (Judgment on Compensation) [2012] ICJ Reports 324. | Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo) (Judgment on Compensation) [2012] ICJ Reports 324. |
| ———. Separate Opinion of J. Cançado Trindade. | ———. Separate Opinion of J. Cançado Trindade. |
| ———. Declaration of J. Greenwood. | ———. Declaration of J. Greenwood. |
| Assanidze v. Georgia, 2004-II Eur. Ct. H.R. 221. | Assanidze v. Georgia, 2004-II Eur. Ct. H.R. 221. |
| Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), [2004] ICJ Reports 12. | Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), [2004] ICJ Reports 12. |
| Awas Tingni Mayagna (Sumo) Community v. Nicaragua (Merits, Reparations, and Costs), Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2001), available at www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/articulos/seriec_79_ing.pdf. | Awas Tingni Mayagna (Sumo) Community v. Nicaragua (Merits, Reparations, and Costs), Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2001), available at www.corteidh.or.cr/ docs/casos/articulos/seriec_79_ing.pdf. |
| Case of the Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua (Merits, Reparations, and Costs) Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2001). | Case of the Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua (Merits, Reparations, and Costs) Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2001). |
| Chiragov and Others v. Armenia, App. No. 13216/05, Eur. Ct. H.R. 33 (2015), http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-155353. | Chiragov and Others v. Armenia, App. No. 13216/05, Eur. Ct. H.R. 33 (2015), http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-155353. |
| Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania) (Assessment of the Amount of Compensation Due from the People’s Republic of Albania to the United Kingdom) (Judgment) [1949] ICJ Reports 244. | Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania) (Assessment of the Amount of Compensation Due from the People’s Republic of Albania to the United Kingdom) (Judgment) [1949] ICJ Reports 244. |
| Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda (2004) AHRLR 19 (ACHPR 2003). | Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda (2004) AHRLR 19 (ACHPR 2003). |
| Dzemajl and Others v. Yugoslavia, CAT/C/29/D/161/2000 (2002). | Dzemajl and Others v. Yugoslavia, CAT/C/29/D/161/2000 (2002). |
| Factory at Chorzów (Germany v. Poland) (Claim for Indemnity) (Merits), PCIJ Series A No 17 (1927). | Factory at Chorzów (Germany v. Poland) (Claim for Indemnity) (Merits), PCIJ Series A No 17 (1927). |
| ———. (Jurisdiction) PCIJ Series A No 9 (1927). | ———. (Jurisdiction) PCIJ Series A No 9 (1927). |
| Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia) [1997] ICJ Reports 7. | Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia) [1997] ICJ Reports 7. |
| Gonzales Llui et al. v. Ecuador, Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. Preliminary objections, merits, reparations and costs, (Sept. 1 2015) http://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/articulos/seriec_298_ing.pdf. | Gonzales Llui et al. v. Ecuador, Inter-Am. Ct. H.R. Preliminary objections, merits, reparations and costs, (Sept. 1 2015) http://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/articulos/ seriec_298_ing.pdf. |
| Greens and M.T. v. the United Kingdom, Eur. Ct. H.R. 98, 115 (2010). | Greens and M.T. v. the United Kingdom, Eur. Ct. H.R. 98, 115 (2010). |
| Hassan v. the United Kingdom, App. 29750/09, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Sept. 16, 2014). | Hassan v. the United Kingdom, App. 29750/09, Eur. Ct. H.R. (Sept. 16, 2014). |
| Hirst (n° 2) v. the United Kingdom, Eur. Ct. H.R. 58–61, 69–71 (2005). | Hirst (n° 2) v. the United Kingdom, Eur. Ct. H.R. 58-61, 69-71 (2005). |
| Jose Isabel Salas Galidno and Others v. United States, IACommHR, Case 10.573, Report No. 121/18 (Oct. 5, 2018). | Jose Isabel Salas Galidno and Others v. United States, IACommHR, Case 10.573, Report No. 121/18 (Oct. 5, 2018). |
| Juan Carlos Abella v. Argentina, IACommHR, Case 11.137, Report No. 55/97 (Nov. 18, 1997). | Juan Carlos Abella v. Argentina, IACommHR, Case 11.137, Report No. 55/97 (Nov. 18, 1997). |
| Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy; | Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy; |
| Greece Intervening) (Judgment) [2012] ICJ Reports 99. | Greece Intervening)(Judgment) [2012] ICJ Reports 99. |
| Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy: Greece intervening), (J. Yusuf, dissenting) [2012] ICJ Reports 99. | Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy: Greece intervening), (J. Yusuf, dissenting) [2012] ICJ Reports 99. |
| Jurisdiction of the Courts of Danzig (Pecuniary Claims of Danzig Ry. Officials who have passed into the Polish Serv. Against the Polish Rys. | Jurisdiction of the Courts of Danzig (Pecuniary Claims of Danzig Ry. Officials who have passed into the Polish Serv. Against the Polish Rys. Admin.), Advisory Op. (1928) P.C.I.J. Series B, no. 15. |
| Admin. ), Advisory Op. | |
| (1928) P.C.I.J. Series B, no. 15. Lagrand (Germany v. United States of America) (Judgment) [2001] ICJ Reports 466. | Lagrand (Germany v. United States of America) (Judgment) [2001] ICJ Reports 466. |
| Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (Advisory Opinion) [2004] ICJ Reports 136. | Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (Advisory Opinion) [2004] ICJ Reports 136. |
| Malawi Africa Association, Amnesty International, Ms Sarr Diop, Union interafricaine des droits de l’Homme and RADDHO, Collectif des veuves et ayants-Droit, Association mauritanienne des droits de l’Homme v. Mauritania, Communication Nos. 54/91, 61/91, 98/93, 164/97 a 196/97, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, (May 11, 2000), http://www.achpr.org/files/sessions/27th/comunications/54.91-61.91-96.93-98.93-164.97_196.97-210.98/achpr27_54.91_61.91_96.93_98.93_164.97_196.97_210.98_eng.pdf. | Malawi Africa Association, Amnesty International, Ms Sarr Diop, Union interafricaine des droits de l'Homme and RADDHO, Collectif des veuves et ayants-Droit, Association mauritanienne des droits de l'Homme v. Mauritania, Communication Nos. 54/91, 61/91, 98/93, 164/97 a 196/97, African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, (May 11, 2000), http://www.achpr.org/files/sessions/27th/comunications/54.91-61.91-96.93-98.93- 164.97_196.97-210.98/achpr27_54.91_61.91_96.93_98.93_164.97_196.97_210.98_ eng.pdf. |
| Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (Advisory Opinion) [1949] ICJ Reports 174. | Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (Advisory Opinion) [1949] ICJ Reports 174. |
| Books Amezcua-Noriega, Octavio. | Books |
| Reparation Principles Under International Law and Their Possible Application by the International Criminal Court: Some Reflections. Reparations Unit, Briefing Paper No. 1. University of Essex Transnational Justice Network, 2011. | Amezcua-Noriega, Octavio. Reparation Principles Under International Law and Their Possible Application by the International Criminal Court: Some Reflections. Reparations Unit, Briefing Paper No. 1. University of Essex Transnational Justice Network, 2011. |
| Amsterdam International Law Clinic, and Center for Civilians in Conflict. Monetary Payments for Civilian Harm in International and National Practice. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam, 2013, available at http://civiliansinconflict.org/resources/pub/valuation-of-life. | Amsterdam International Law Clinic, and Center for Civilians in Conflict. Monetary Payments for Civilian Harm in International and National Practice. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam, 2013, available at http://civiliansinconflict.org/resources/ pub/valuation-of-life. |
| Association for the Prevention Against Torture and Center for Justice and International Law. Torture in International Law: A Guide to Jurisprudence, APT and CEJIL, 2008. | Association for the Prevention Against Torture and Center for Justice and International Law. Torture in International Law: A Guide to Jurisprudence, APT and CEJIL, 2008. |
| Binder, Christina, Hofbauer, Jane A., Piovesan, Flavia, Steiner, Anna-Zoe, and Steiner, Elisabeth, editors. Social Rights in the Case Law of Regional Human Rights Monitoring Institutions: The European Court of Human Rights, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights. NWV Neuer Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, Wien Graz, 2016. | Binder, Christina, Hofbauer, Jane A., Piovesan, Flavia, Steiner, Anna-Zoe, and Steiner, Elisabeth, editors. Social Rights in the Case Law of Regional Human Rights Monitoring Institutions: The European Court of Human Rights, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights. NWV Neuer Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, Wien Graz, 2016. |
| Brownlie, Ian. | |
| State Responsibility. System of the Law of Nations / Ian Brownlie. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press, 1983. | Brownlie, Ian. State Responsibility. System of the Law of Nations / Ian Brownlie. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press, 1983. |
| Bassiouni, Cherif. International Criminal Law: International Enforcement. 3rd ed., Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2008. | Bassiouni, Cherif. International Criminal Law: International Enforcement. 3rd ed., Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2008. |
| Cançado Trindade, A.A. International Law for Humankind: Towards a New Jus Gentium, Brill/Nijhoff, vol. 1, 2006. | Cançado Trindade, A.A. International Law for Humankind: Towards a New Jus Gentium, Brill/Nijhoff, vol. 1, 2006. |
| Crawford, James, ed. The International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and Commentaries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. | Crawford, James, ed. The International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and Commentaries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. |
| De Greiff, Pablo, ed. The Handbook of Reparations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. du Plessis, Max, and Stephen Pete, eds. | De Greiff, Pablo, ed. The Handbook of Reparations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. |
| Repairing the Past?: International Perspectives on Reparations for Gross Human Rights Abuses. Series on Transitional Justice v. 1. Antwerpen: Intersentia, 2007. | du Plessis, Max, and Stephen Pete, eds. Repairing the Past?: International Perspectives on Reparations for Gross Human Rights Abuses. Series on Transitional Justice v. 1. Antwerpen: Intersentia, 2007. |
| Erasmus, Gavin M. Compensation for Expropriation: A Comparative Study. Oxford: Jason Reese & United Kingdom National Committee of Comparative Law, 1990. | Erasmus, Gavin M. Compensation for Expropriation: A Comparative Study. Oxford: Jason Reese & United Kingdom National Committee of Comparative Law, 1990. |
| Evans, Christine. The Right to Reparation in International Law for Victims of Armed Conflict. Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. | Evans, Christine. The Right to Reparation in International Law for Victims of Armed Conflict. Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. |
| García Amador, F. V. The Changing Law of International Claims. New York: Oceana, 1984. | García Amador, F. V. The Changing Law of International Claims. New York: Oceana, 1984. |
| Gray, Christine D. Judicial Remedies in International Law. Oxford Monographs in International Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press, 1987. | Gray, Christine D. Judicial Remedies in International Law. Oxford Monographs in International Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press, 1987. |
| Grossman, Claudio, et al. International Law and Reparations: The Inter-American System. Clarity Press, Inc., 2018. | Grossman, Claudio, et al. International Law and Reparations: The Inter-American System. Clarity Press, Inc., 2018. |
| Henckaerts, Jean-Marie and Doswald-Beck, Louise. Customary International Humanitarian Law: Rules, Cambridge, 3rd. ed., 2009. | Henckaerts, Jean-Marie and Doswald-Beck, Louise. Customary International Humanitarian Law: Rules, Cambridge, 3rd. ed., 2009. |
| Hoogh, André de. Obligations Erga Omnes and International Crimes: A Theoretical Inquiry into the Implementation and Enforcement of the International Responsibility of States. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1996. | Hoogh, André de. Obligations Erga Omnes and International Crimes: A Theoretical Inquiry into the Implementation and Enforcement of the International Responsibility of States. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1996. |
| Howard-Hassmann, Rhoda E., and Anthony P. Lombardo. Reparations to Africa. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008. | Howard-Hassmann, Rhoda E., and Anthony P. Lombardo. Reparations to Africa. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008. |
| Larsson, Marie-Louise. The Law of Environmental Damage: Liability and Reparation. Stockholm Studies in Law v. 1. | Larsson, Marie-Louise. The Law of Environmental Damage: Liability and Reparation. Stockholm Studies in Law v. 1. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1999. |
| The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1999. Lillich, Richard B., ed. | |
| International Law of State Responsibility for Injuries to Aliens. Virginia Legal Studies. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1983. | Lillich, Richard B., ed. International Law of State Responsibility for Injuries to Aliens. Virginia Legal Studies. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1983. |
| Lillich, Richard B., Daniel Barstow Magraw, and David J. Bederman, eds. The Iran-United States Claims Tribunal: Its Contribution To the Law of State Responsibility. Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y: Transnational Publishers, 1998. | Lillich, Richard B., Daniel Barstow Magraw, and David J. Bederman, eds. The Iran-United States Claims Tribunal: Its Contribution To the Law of State Responsibility. Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y: Transnational Publishers, 1998. |
| Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar, eds. Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. | Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar, eds. Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. |
| Nikièma, Suzy H. IISD Best Practices: Compensation for Expropriation. The International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2013. https://www.iisd.org/library/best-practice-compensation-expropriation. | Nikièma, Suzy H. IISD Best Practices: Compensation for Expropriation. The International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2013. https://www.iisd.org/library/ best-practice-compensation-expropriation. |
| Randelzhofer, Albrecht, and Christian Tomuschat, eds. State Responsibility and the Individual: Reparation in Instances of Grave Violations of Human Rights. The Hague: M. Nijhoff Publishers, 1999. | Randelzhofer, Albrecht, and Christian Tomuschat, eds. State Responsibility and the Individual: Reparation in Instances of Grave Violations of Human Rights. The Hague: M. Nijhoff Publishers, 1999. |
| Ratner, Steven R., Jason S. Abrams, and James L. Bischoff. Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law: Beyond the Nuremberg Legacy. 3rd ed. | Ratner, Steven R., Jason S. Abrams, and James L. Bischoff. Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law: Beyond the Nuremberg Legacy. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. |
| Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Sarkin-Hughes, Jeremy. Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the 21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims Under International Law by the Herero Against Germany for Genocide in Namibia, 1904-1908. | Sarkin-Hughes, Jeremy. Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the 21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims Under International Law by the Herero Against Germany for Genocide in Namibia, 1904-1908. PSI Reports. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Security International, 2009. |
| PSI Reports. | |
| Westport, Conn.: Praeger Security International, 2009. Shelton, Dinah. Remedies in International Human Rights Law. | Shelton, Dinah. Remedies in International Human Rights Law. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. |
| 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Wolfrum, Reudiger., Christine. Langenfeld, Petra. Minnerop, and Germany. | |
| Umweltbundesamt. Environmental Liability in International Law: Towards a Coherent Conception. Berichte / Umweltbundesamt ; | Wolfrum, Reudiger., Christine. Langenfeld, Petra. Minnerop, and Germany. Umweltbundesamt. Environmental Liability in International Law: Towards a Coherent Conception. Berichte / Umweltbundesamt ; |
| 2/05; | 2/05; |
| Berichte (Germany. Umweltbundesamt) ; | Berichte (Germany. Umweltbundesamt) ; |
| 2005/2. Berlin: Erich Schmidt, 2005. | 2005/2. Berlin: Erich Schmidt, 2005. |
| Chapters in Books Brownlie, Ian. to Robert. Jennings. | Chapters in Books |
| “Remedies in the International Court of Justice,” in Fifty Years of the International Court of Justice: Essays in Honour of Sir Robert Jennings, edited by Vaughan Lowe and Malgosia. Fitzmaurice, 557–66. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. | Brownlie, Ian. to Robert. Jennings. “Remedies in the International Court of Justice,” in Fifty Years of the International Court of Justice: Essays in Honour of Sir Robert Jennings, edited by Vaughan Lowe and Malgosia. Fitzmaurice, 557–66. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. |
| Cançado Trindade, A.A. “Genesis and Evolution of the State’s Duty to Provide Reparation for Damages to Rights Inherent to the Human Person. ” L´homme et le droit. En hommage au Professeur Jean-François Flauss. | Cançado Trindade, A.A. “Genesis and Evolution of the State’s Duty to Provide Reparation for Damages to Rights Inherent to the Human Person.” L´homme et le droit. En hommage au Professeur Jean-François Flauss. Edited by E. Lambert Abdelgawad et al., Pédone, 2014, 145-179. |
| Edited by E. Lambert Abdelgawad et al., Pédone, 2014, 145–179. Prefácio. As Reparações às Vítimas no Tribunal Penal Internacional, by Thomaz F. S. de Araújo Santos, 2011, 9–16. | Prefácio. As Reparações às Vítimas no Tribunal Penal Internacional, by Thomaz F. S. de Araújo Santos, 2011, 9-16. |
| “Rehabilitation of Victims: Reflections on Some Issues Raised in the Case Belgium versus Senegal (2013) Adjudicated by the International Court of Justice. ” Curso de Derecho Internacional Organizado por el Comité Jurídico Interamericano - 2013, Secretaría General de la OEA, vol. XL, 2014, 85–151. | “Rehabilitation of Victims: Reflections on Some Issues Raised in the Case Belgium versus Senegal (2013) Adjudicated by the International Court of Justice.” Curso de Derecho Internacional Organizado por el Comité Jurídico Interamericano - 2013, Secretaría General de la OEA, vol. XL, 2014, 85-151. |
| Fleck, Dieter. to Knut Ipsen. “Individual and State Responsibility for Violations of Ius in Bello: An Imperfect Balance,” in International Humanitarian Law Facing New Challenges: Symposium in Honour of Knut Ipsen, edited by Wolff Heintschel von Heinegg and Volker Epping, 171–206. Berlin: Springer, 2007. | Fleck, Dieter. to Knut Ipsen. “Individual and State Responsibility for Violations of Ius in Bello: An Imperfect Balance,” in International Humanitarian Law Facing New Challenges: Symposium in Honour of Knut Ipsen, edited by Wolff Heintschel von Heinegg and Volker Epping, 171–206. Berlin: Springer, 2007. |
| Hein, L. “War Compensation: Claims Against the Japanese Government and Japanese Corporations for War Crimes,” in Politics and the Past: On Repairing Historical Injustices, edited by John Torpey, 127–48. World Social Change; | Hein, L. “War Compensation: Claims Against the Japanese Government and Japanese Corporations for War Crimes,” in Politics and the Past: On Repairing Historical Injustices, edited by John Torpey, 127–48. World Social Change; |
| World Social Change. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2003. Table of contents available at http://swbplus.bsz-bw.de/bsz104540893inh.htm. | World Social Change. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2003. Table of contents available at http://swbplus.bsz-bw.de/bsz104540893inh.htm. |
| Hofmann, Rainer. “Can Victims of Human Rights Violations Claim Damages?” in A Wiser Century?: Judicial Dispute Settlement, Disarmament and the Laws of War 100 Years After the Second Hague Peace Conference, edited by Thomas Giegerich and Ursula E. Heinz, 323–32. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2009. | Hofmann, Rainer. “Can Victims of Human Rights Violations Claim Damages?” in A Wiser Century?: Judicial Dispute Settlement, Disarmament and the Laws of War 100 Years After the Second Hague Peace Conference, edited by Thomas Giegerich and Ursula E. Heinz, 323–32. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2009. |
| Jennings, Robert Y. “The Proper Work and Purposes of the International Court of Justice. ” In The International Court of Justice: Its Future Role After Fifty Years, edited by Sam Muller, D. Rai, and J. M. Thuránszky, 33–45. The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1997. | Jennings, Robert Y. “The Proper Work and Purposes of the International Court of Justice.” In The International Court of Justice: Its Future Role After Fifty Years, edited by Sam Muller, D. Rai, and J. M. Thuránszky, 33–45. The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1997. |
| Lee, L.T., and Ronald St. J. Macdonald. | |
| “The Right of Victims of War to Compensation. ” In Essays in Honor of Wang Tieya, 489–96. Dordrecht: M. Nijhoff Publishers, 1994. | Lee, L.T., and Ronald St. J. Macdonald. “The Right of Victims of War to Compensation.” In Essays in Honor of Wang Tieya, 489–96. Dordrecht: M. Nijhoff Publishers, 1994. |
| Nanopoulos, David. “La reconnaissance du bénéfice de l’indemnisation aux victimes de violations des droits de l’homme par la Cour internationale de Justice. ” The Protection of Non-Combatants During Armed Conflict and Safeguarding the Rights of Victims in Post-Conflict Society: Essays in Honour of the Life and Work of Joakim Dungel, edited by Philipp Ambach et al., Brill/Nijhoff, 2015, 428–54. | Nanopoulos, David. “La reconnaissance du bénéfice de l’indemnisation aux victimes de violations des droits de l’homme par la Cour internationale de Justice.” The Protection of Non-Combatants During Armed Conflict and Safeguarding the Rights of Victims in Post-Conflict Society: Essays in Honour of the Life and Work of Joakim Dungel, edited by Philipp Ambach et al., Brill/Nijhoff, 2015, 428-54. |
| Articles | Articles |
| Amezcua-Noriega, Octavio. “Reparation Principles Under International Law and Their Possible Application by the International Criminal Court: Some Reflections,” University of Essex Transnational Justice Network, Reparations Unit, Briefing Paper No. 1 (2011). | Amezcua-Noriega, Octavio. “Reparation Principles Under International Law and Their Possible Application by the International Criminal Court: Some Reflections,” University of Essex Transnational Justice Network, Reparations Unit, Briefing Paper No. 1 (2011). |
| Bank, Roland, and Elke Schwager. “Is There a Substantive Right to Compensation for Individual Victims of Armed Conflicts Against a State Under International Law? ” German Yearbook of International Law 49 (2006): 367–412. | Bank, Roland, and Elke Schwager. “Is There a Substantive Right to Compensation for Individual Victims of Armed Conflicts Against a State Under International Law?” German Yearbook of International Law 49 (2006): 367–412. |
| Bassiouni, Cherif. “International Recognition of Victims’ Rights. ” Human Rights Law Review 6 (2006): 231. | Bassiouni, Cherif. “International Recognition of Victims’ Rights.” Human Rights Law Review 6 (2006): 231. |
| Buxbaum, Richard M. “A Legal History of International Reparations. ” Berkeley Journal of International Law 23, no. 2 (2005): 314–46. | Buxbaum, Richard M. “A Legal History of International Reparations.” Berkeley Journal of International Law 23, no. 2 (2005): 314–46. |
| Cançado Trindade, A.A. “El Deber del Estado de Proveer Reparación por Daños a los Derechos Inherentes a la Persona Humana: Génesis, Evolución, Estado Actual y Perspectivas. ” Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos, fascículo 10 - n. especial, 2013, 18–43. | Cançado Trindade, A.A. “El Deber del Estado de Proveer Reparación por Daños a los Derechos Inherentes a la Persona Humana: Génesis, Evolución, Estado Actual y Perspectivas.” Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos, fascículo 10 - n. especial, 2013, 18-43. |
| “Reminiscencias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos en cuanto a Su Jurisprudencia en Materia de Reparaciones. ” Revista de Derecho Vox Juris – Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Vol. 21, 2001, 53–72. | “Reminiscencias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos en cuanto a Su Jurisprudencia en Materia de Reparaciones.” Revista de Derecho Vox Juris – Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Vol. 21, 2001, 53-72. |
| Crawford, James. “Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts. ” Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, 2001, available at http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/rsiwa/rsiwa.html. | Crawford, James. “Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts.” Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, 2001, available at http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/rsiwa/rsiwa.html. |
| de Zayas, Alfred. “The Principle of Reparation in International Law and the Armenian Genocide. ” Genocide Prevention Now no. 8 (2011). http://www.ihgjlm.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/PRINCIPLE-OF-REPARATION.pdf. | de Zayas, Alfred. “The Principle of Reparation in International Law and the Armenian Genocide.” Genocide Prevention Now no. 8 (2011). http://www.ihgjlm.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/PRINCIPLE-OF-REPARATION.pdf. |
| Dolzer, Rudolf. “The Settlement of War-Related Claims: Does International Law Recognize a Victim’s Private Right of Action? Lessons After 1945. ” Berkeley Journal of International Law 20, no. 1 (2002): 296–341. | Dolzer, Rudolf. “The Settlement of War-Related Claims: Does International Law Recognize a Victim’s Private Right of Action? Lessons After 1945.” Berkeley Journal of International Law 20, no. 1 (2002): 296–341. |
| Gillard, Emanuela-Chiara. “Reparation for Violations of International Humanitarian Law,” 85 International Rev. Red Cross, 529 (2003). | Gillard, Emanuela-Chiara. “Reparation for Violations of International Humanitarian Law,” 85 International Rev. Red Cross, 529 (2003). |
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| Hofmann, Rainer. “Compensation for Personal Damages Suffered During World War Ii. ” The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. | Hofmann, Rainer. “Compensation for Personal Damages Suffered During World War Ii.” The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. Oxford. |
| Oxford. “Compensation for Victims of War: Substantive Issues -- Do Victims of Armed Conflicts Have an Individual Right to Reparation? ” International Law Association: Report of Conference 2006 (2006): 766–83. | “Compensation for Victims of War: Substantive Issues -- Do Victims of Armed Conflicts Have an Individual Right to Reparation?” International Law Association: Report of Conference 2006 (2006): 766–83. |
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| Klein, Natalie. “State Responsibility for International Humanitarian Law Violations and the Work of the Eritrea Ethiopia Claims Commission So Far,” 47 German Yearbook of International Law, 214 (2004). | Klein,Natalie. “State Responsibility for International Humanitarian Law Violations and the Work of the Eritrea Ethiopia Claims Commission So Far,” 47 German Yearbook of International Law, 214 (2004). |
| Menon, P.K. “The International Personality of Individuals in International Law: A Broadening of the Traditional Doctrine. ” Journal of Transnational Law and Policy 1 (1992): 151–82. | Menon, P.K. “The International Personality of Individuals in International Law: A Broadening of the Traditional Doctrine.” Journal of Transnational Law and Policy 1 (1992): 151–82. |
| Roht-Arriaza, Naomi. “Reparations Decisions and Dilemmas. ” Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 27, no. 2 (2004): 157–219. | Roht-Arriaza, Naomi. “Reparations Decisions and Dilemmas.” Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 27, no. 2 (2004): 157–219. |
| Ronzitti, N. “Compensation for Violations of the Law of War and Individual Claims. ” Italian Yearbook of International Law 2002 (2003): 39. | Ronzitti, N. “Compensation for Violations of the Law of War and Individual Claims.” Italian Yearbook of International Law 2002 (2003): 39. |
| Schwager, E. “The Right to Compensation for Victims of an Armed Conflict. ” Chinese Journal of International Law 4 (2005): 417–39. | Schwager, E. “The Right to Compensation for Victims of an Armed Conflict.” Chinese Journal of International Law 4 (2005): 417–39. |
| Shelton, Dinah L. “Case Concerning Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States) 43 ILM 581 (2004). ” The American Journal of International Law 98, no. 3 (2004): 559–66. doi:10.2307/3181646. | Shelton, Dinah L. “Case Concerning Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States) 43 ILM 581 (2004).” The American Journal of International Law 98, no. 3 (2004): 559–66. doi:10.2307/3181646. |
| “Reparations. ” The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. | “Reparations.” The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Oxford. |
| Oxford. “Righting Wrongs: Reparations in the Articles on State Responsibility. ” American Journal of International Law 96, no. 4 (October 2002): 833–56. | “Righting Wrongs: Reparations in the Articles on State Responsibility.” American Journal of International Law 96, no. 4 (October 2002): 833–56. |
| Sveaass, Nora, et al. “Rehabilitation in Article 14 of the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. ” The International Lawyer 51, no. 1 (2018): 1–24. | Sveaass, Nora, et al. “Rehabilitation in Article 14 of the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.” The International Lawyer 51, no. 1 (2018): 1–24. |
| Tomuschat, Christian. “Reparation for Victims of Grave Human Rights Violations. ” Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 10 (2002): 157–84. | Tomuschat, Christian. “Reparation for Victims of Grave Human Rights Violations.” Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 10 (2002): 157–84. |
| Vagts, Detlev F., and Peter Murray. “Litigating the Nazi Labor Claims: The Path Not Taken. ” Harvard International Law Journal 43, no. 2 (2002): 503–30. | Vagts, Detlev F., and Peter Murray. “Litigating the Nazi Labor Claims: The Path Not Taken.” Harvard International Law Journal 43, no. 2 (2002): 503–30. |
| Wisenbaker, Jr., Reginald C. “Muslim Community Reparations. ” Savannah Law Review 2 (2015): 391–458. | Wisenbaker, Jr., Reginald C. “Muslim Community Reparations.” Savannah Law Review 2 (2015): 391–458. |
| Wittich, Stephan. “Non-Material Damage and Monetary Reparation in International Law. ” Finnish Yearbook of International Law 2004 (2004): 321–68. | Wittich, Stephan. “Non-Material Damage and Monetary Reparation in International Law.” Finnish Yearbook of International Law 2004 (2004): 321–68. |
| Documents | Documents |
| African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, entered into force Jan. 25, 2005. | African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, entered into force Jan. 25, 2005. |
| African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights. “General Comment No. 4 on the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights: The Right to Redress for Victims of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Punishment or Treatment (Article 5),” February 23 to March 4, 2017. | African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights. “General Comment No. 4 on the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights: The Right to Redress for Victims of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Punishment or Treatment (Article 5),” February 23 to March 4, 2017. |
| Agreement Between the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia And the Government of the State of Eritrea, Article 5, United States Institute of Peace, Peace Agreements Digital Collection, available at https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/resources/collections/peace_agreements/eritrea_ethiopia_12122000.pdf. | Agreement Between the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia And the Government of the State of Eritrea, Article 5, United States iNstitute of Peace, Peace Agreements Digital Collection, available at https://www.usip.org/sites/default/ files/file/resources/collections/peace_agreements/eritrea_ethiopia_12122000.pdf. |
| Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, Art. 6.3, (Sept. 18, 1997). | Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, Art. 6.3, (Sept. 18, 1997). |
| Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, entered into force Jan. 8, 2014. | Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, entered into force Jan. 8, 2014. |
| ECOSOC Res 2005/35 “Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law,” Commission on Human Rights Resolution 2005/35, UN Doc. E/CN.4/RES/2005/35 (Apr. 19, 2005). | ECOSOC Res 2005/35 “Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law,” Commission on Human Rights Resolution 2005/35, UN Doc. E/CN.4/RES/2005/35 (Apr. 19, 2005). |
| European Convention on Human Rights, entered into force March 9, 1953. | European Convention on Human Rights, entered into force March 9, 1953. |
| “General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina,” Dayton, initialled on 21 Nov. 1995 and Paris, signed on 14 Dec. 1995, Annex 7, Agreement on Refugees and Displaced Persons. | “General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina,” Dayton, initialled on 21 Nov. 1995 and Paris, signed on 14 Dec. 1995, Annex 7, Agreement on Refugees and Displaced Persons. |
| Geneva Conventions of Aug. 12, 1949, Additional Protocol I (June 8, 1977). | Geneva Conventions of Aug. 12, 1949, Additional Protocol I (June 8, 1977). |
| Guidelines and Measures for the Prohibition and Prevention of Torture, Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in Africa (Robben Island Guidelines) (2002), available at http://www.achpr.org/mechanisms/cpta/robben-island-guidelines/. | Guidelines and Measures for the Prohibition and Prevention of Torture, Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in Africa (Robben Island Guidelines) (2002), available at http://www.achpr.org/mechanisms/cpta/robben-island-guidelines/. |
| Hague Convention IV, Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, (Oct. 18, 1907). | Hague Convention IV, Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, (Oct. 18, 1907). |
| Hague Convention XII, Convention Relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court, (Oct. 18, 1907). | Hague Convention XII, Convention Relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court, (Oct. 18, 1907). |
| International Committee of the Red Cross. “Rules of Customary International Law,” Rule 150 (2005), available at https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule150. | International Committee of the Red Cross. “Rules of Customary International Law,” Rule 150 (2005), available at https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_ rul_rule150. |
| International Law Association, ‘Resolution No 2/2010 on Reparation for Victims of Armed Conflict’. http://www.ila-hq.org/en/committees/index.cfm/cid/1018 (2 February 2013). | International Law Association, 'Resolution No 2/2010 on Reparation for Victims of Armed Conflict'. http://www.ila-hq.org/en/committees/index.cfm/cid/1018 (2 February 2013). |
| Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Establishment of the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, entered into force Jan. 25, 2004. | Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Establishment of the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights, entered into force Jan. 25, 2004. |
| UNGA Res 60/147 ‘Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law’ (16 December 2005) GAOR 60th Session Supp 49 Vol 1, 354. | UNGA Res 60/147 ‘Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law’ (16 December 2005) GAOR 60th Session Supp 49 Vol 1, 354. |
| “Draft Articles on Crimes Against Humanity, with commentaries,” A/72/10 (2017). | “Draft Articles on Crimes Against Humanity, with commentaries,” A/72/10 (2017). |
| “Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection,” GAOR 58th Session, UN Doc. | “Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection,” GAOR 58th Session, UN Doc. A/61/10, p. 16 (2006). |
| A/61/10, p. 16 (2006). “Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection, with commentaries,” Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, vol. II, Part Two, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER.A/2006/Add.1 (Part 2). | “Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection, with commentaries,” Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, vol. II, Part Two, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER.A/ 2006/Add.1 (Part 2). A/74/10 |
| GE.19-13883 | A/74/10 GE.19-13883 |
| GE.19-13883 | GE.19-13883 |
| Annex C | 附件C |
| Prevention and repression of piracy and armed robbery at sea | 防止和打击海盗和海上武装抢劫行为 |
| Mr. Yacouba Cissé | 雅库巴·西塞先生 |
| I. Introduction | 一. 导言 |
| 1. Maritime piracy is generally understood to be acts of violence, detention or depredation committed for private ends by the crew or passengers of a private ship against another ship, including its persons or property on the high seas. | 1. 海盗行为通常被理解为私人船舶的船员或乘客为私人目的，在公海上对另一船舶，包括对其上的人或财物从事的暴力、扣留或掠夺行为。 |
| Maritime piracy began in antiquity and since the advent of the Law of Nations, has been regarded as an international crime. | 海盗行为始于古代，自万国法问世以来，一直被视为一种国际罪行。 |
| Indeed, it can be said that piracy at sea is as old as maritime navigation itself. | 的确，可以说海盗行为与海上航行本身一样古老。 |
| 2. Unfortunately, today maritime piracy is resurging at a rate without precedent in history as exemplified by maritime piracy committed in Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia, the Gulf of Guinea, the Singapore and Malacca Straits, the Arabian Peninsula, Caribbean, Celebes, Java, North Yellow, and South China Seas, and the Bay of Bengal. | 2. 不幸的是，海盗行为如今正以历史上前所未有的速度卷土重来，印度洋索马里沿海、几内亚湾、新加坡和马六甲海峡、阿拉伯半岛、加勒比海、西里伯斯海、爪哇海、黄海北部和南海以及孟加拉湾发生的海盗行为便是佐证。 |
| Far from being a replica of the past, piracy has reappeared in new forms that are more violent, as pirates are now better organised, better equipped and more heavily armed. | 海盗行为远非以往，而是以更加暴力的新形式重新出现，因为海盗现在有更好的组织，更加精良的装备和更完备的武装。 |
| In its Report of October 1997 on Oceans and the Law of the Sea, the Secretary-General of the United Nations alerted the International Community on the gravity of piracy and armed Robbery at sea. | 联合国秘书长在其1997年10月关于海洋和海洋法的报告 中警告国际社会注意海盗和海上武装抢劫问题的严重性。 |
| Such robbery and criminal violence come with a plethora of other associated illicit acts, such as maritime terrorism, corruption, money laundering, violation of international human rights law, illegal fishing, and the unlawful release of waste and toxic substances in the seas and oceans, human and drugs trafficking, etc. | 这种抢劫和暴力犯罪行为伴随着大量其他相关非法行为，如海上恐怖主义、腐败、洗钱、违反国际人权法、非法捕鱼、向海洋非法排放废物和有毒物质、贩运人口和贩毒等。 |
| 3. As such, maritime piracy is now a major concern of the international community as a whole, as acts of piracy are committed in all maritime zones and affect to various degrees the interests of all states, whether coastal or landlocked. | 3. 因此，海盗行为目前是整个国际社会关注的一个主要问题，因为海盗行为发生在所有海域，在不同程度上影响到所有国家的利益，无论是沿海还是内陆国家。 |
| From a standpoint of the wealth and development of States, it is worth noting that 85% of commerce transits through maritime routes, many of which are threatened by piracy. | 从国家财富和发展的角度来看，值得指出的是，85%的商品通过海路运输， 而其中许多海路受到海盗威胁。 |
| Consequently, Flag States, Coastal States, Port States and other States are attempting to fight all forms of maritime piracy across the oceans, so as to protect human lives, to protect economic interests, to preserve freedom of navigation, and to preserve the marine environment against unlawful marine pollution and other unlawful acts at sea. | 因此，船旗国、沿海国、港口国和其他国家正试图在所有海域打击一切形式的海盗行为，以保护人的生命，保护经济利益，维护航行自由，并保护海洋环境免受非法海洋污染和其他海上非法行为的危害。 |
| 4. Piracy at Sea is typically directed against private vessels and therefore has significant effects upon private actors. | 4. 海盗行为通常以私人船只为目标，因此对私人行为者产生严重影响。 |
| Crew members of an attacked vessel are at risk of prolonged detention, bodily harm or death. | 遇袭船只的船员面临长期扣留、 人身伤害或死亡等风险。 |
| Ship owners are exposed to large ransoms to obtain the release from pirates of their crew, cargo and ship. | 船主为使海盗释放其船员、货物和船只，被索要巨额赎金。 |
| Maritime insurance companies must take account of the possibility of maritime piracy, thereby increasing the overall cost of maritime transport and introducing in maritime contracts piracy clauses. | 海上保险公司必须考虑海盗行为的可能性，从而提高了海运的总体成本，并在海事合同中增加了海盗条款。 |
| Piracy is also a source of concern for coastal communities and international organizations. | 海盗行为也是沿海社区和国际组织关切的问题之一。 |
| One solution found appropriate under these circumstances, was to involve private companies to help combating piracy despite the controversy surrounding this approach and its legal basis in international law. | 在这种情况下，适当的解决办法是让私营公司参与打击海盗行为，但这种办法及其在国际法中的法律依据存在争议。 |
| 5. The human and economic impacts of piracy are indeed far from negligible. | 5. 海盗行为对人和经济的影响确实不容忽视。 |
| In 2010, 26% of piracy victims were taken hostage – representing 1181 out of a total of 4185 victims – and 59% of hostages faced increased levels of violence. | 2010年，26%的海盗行为受害者被劫持为人质，在总共4,185名受害者中有1,181名人质，其中59%的人质受到更严重的暴力。 |
| Economic costs for piracy acts in Somalia only are estimated at between US$1 billion and US$16 billion; | 仅因索马里海盗行为导致的经济损失估计就有10亿至160亿美元； |
| they include the cost of fuel due to rerouting, an increase in insurance cost of US$20,000 per trip, reduced availability of tankers, and increased charter rates. | 其中包括改道导致的燃料费、每次航行增加的20,000美元保险费、油轮供应减少以及提高的租船费率等。 |
| Additionally, ransoms paid by the owner(s) of a ship to pirates have been between US$500,000 and US$5.5 million, resulting in an estimated total of $US160 million paid in ransom for Gulf of Aden piracy acts only. | 此外，船主向海盗支付的赎金在50万美元至550万美元之间，导致仅为亚丁湾海盗行为支付的赎金总额估计就达1.6亿美元。 |
| Approximately, 10 hijackings of ships decrease export between Asia and Europe by 11%, which results in costs of US$28 billion. | 大约10起劫持船只事件使亚欧之间的出口减少了11%，造成280亿美元的损失。 |
| While precise statistics on fishers are difficult to find, they suffer a disproportionate amount of attacks (usually to steal valuable catches and equipment) resulting in thousands of US$ of costs per fisher and millions for each affected regions. | 虽然很难找到关于渔民的准确统计数据，但他们遭受海盗袭击的次数尤多(通常是为了窃取宝贵的渔获物和设备)，导致每个渔民损失数千美元，每个受影响地区损失数百万美元。 |
| Finally, the annual estimated cost for security measures implemented by EU and NATO ant-piracy navies is of US$1.15 billion, and of US$4.7 billion for private anti-piracy measures. | 最后，欧盟和北约反海盗海军实施的安全措施每年估计费用为11.5亿美元，私人反海盗措施每年估计费用为47亿美元。 |
| 6. Modern pirates operate from landward bases, spending much less time at sea than pirates of the past. | 6. 现代海盗从陆上基地发起行动，在海上的时间比过去的海盗少得多。 |
| “Their usual strategy is to undertake quick raids in small boats launched from mother ships that were themselves pirated and then return to onshore sanctuaries where they receive protection from local clans and their militias. | “他们常用的战略是使用抢夺来的船只作为母船，放出小船进行快速突袭，然后返回岸上庇护所，在那里得到当地部族和民兵的保护。 |
| ” This land-based protection makes the detection of pirates very difficult and the success of pirates often depends on the effectiveness of this protection. | ” 因为这种陆上保护，所以海盗很难被发现，海盗的成功往往要依靠这种保护的有效性。 |
| Harbouring and protecting pirates often brings in lucrative revenues, but risky revenues, and it is hypothesized that coastal communities will make this choice when other forms of revenues are unavailable or minimal. | 窝藏和保护海盗通常会带来利润丰厚的收入，但这也是风险性收入。 据推测，当没有其他形式的收入或其他形式收入很少时，沿海社区就会做出这种选择。 |
| Modern day pirates do not possess complex organisational structures, in a sense that they are usually led by a single leader who demands absolute loyalty from their subordinates, and finance themselves by integrating their activities into local economies. | 现代海盗没有复杂的组织结构，通常由一位要求下属绝对忠诚的领导人领导，他们通过将自己的活动融入当地经济为自己筹集资金。 |
| 7. There is considerable international law relating to maritime piracy, beginning with State practice that over time developed extensive customary international law in this area. | 7. 与海盗行为有关的国际法数量可观，起初是国家实践，随着时间的推移，这些实践在这一领域发展为广泛的习惯国际法。 |
| Based on such custom and most importantly the Harvard Research Draft on piracy, the International Law Commission developed as part of its work on the law of the sea a series of provisions concerning piracy which ultimately became Articles 14 to 21 of the Geneva Convention on the High Seas, which in turn later served as the basis for Articles 100 to 107 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). | 基于这种习惯，尤其是基于《哈佛海盗行为研究草案》，国际法委员会制定了一系列关于海盗行为的条款，作为其海洋法工作的一部分， 这些条款最终成为《日内瓦公海公约》第14至21条， 后者又成为《联合国海洋法公约》第一〇〇至一〇七条 的基础。 |
| Additional conventional law has been developed on the global level, principally under the auspices of the International Maritime Organisation, such as the 1988 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (SUA Convention), and its Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms located on the Continental Shelf (and further 2005 Protocols). | 主要在国际海事组织的主持下，全球层面制定了其他协议法，例如1988年《制止危及海上航行安全非法行为公约》 及其《制止危及大陆架固定平台安全非法行为议定书》 (以及后来2005年的两项议定书)。 |
| Other global treaties not specific to piracy may also be relevant, such as the 1979 International Convention against the Taking of Hostages and Convention of the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS Convention 1974), the Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS), etc. | 另一些不专门针对海盗行为的全球条约也可能与此相关，如1979年《反对劫持人质国际公约》 和《国际海上人命安全公约》(1974年《海上人命安全公约》)、《打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》、《国际船舶和港口设施保安规则》等。 |
| 8. There are also numerous treaties and instruments developed at the regional and sub-regional level. Such as the 2004 Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia (RECAAP) to which 16 Asian States are party. | 8. 区域和次区域层面也制定了许多条约和文书，例如2004年《亚洲打击海盗和武装抢劫船舶行为区域合作协定》，16个亚洲国家加入了该协定。 |
| Many States have developed national laws addressing maritime piracy, which has led to important jurisprudence in national courts and good deal of success in the prevention and repression of piracy in certain regions. | 许多国家制定了处理海盗问题的国家法律，各国法院因此产生了重要判例，某些区域在防止和打击海盗行为方面取得了很大成功。 |
| Other subsequent sub-regional cooperation have been created to fight against piracy, notably the Code of Conduct of Djibouti adopted in 2009 under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) entitled “Code of Conduct Concerning the Repression of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the gulf of Aden” to which 9 States are parties: Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Seychelles; | 后来为打击海盗行为进行了其他次区域合作，特别是2009年在国际海事组织(海事组织)主持下通过了题为“关于打击西印度洋和亚丁湾海域海盗和武装抢劫船只的行为守则” 的《吉布提行为守则》，以下9个国家加入了该守则：吉布提、埃塞俄比亚、肯尼亚、马达加斯加、马尔代夫、塞舌尔； |
| Somalia, United Republic of Tanzania and Yemen. | 索马里、坦桑尼亚联合共和国和也门。 |
| A second Code of Conduct has been adopted in 2013 in Cameroon dealing with piracy in Western and Central Africa of the Gulf of Guinea called “Code of Conduct Concerning the Repression of Piracy, Armed Robbery against Ships, and illicit Maritime Activity in West and Central Africa” (Gulf of Guinea Code of Conduct covering Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS)). | 另一项行为守则于2013年在喀麦隆通过，处理西部和中部非洲几内亚湾的海盗问题，称为《关于在西部和中部非洲打击海盗行为、武装抢劫船只和海上非法活动的行为守则》(涵盖西非国家经济共同体 (西非经共体)和中部非洲国家经济共同体(中非经共体)的《几内亚湾行为守则》)。 |
| A study indicated that “in the first half of 2018, over 40% of all reported pirate attacks in the world occurred in the Gulf of Guinea”. | 一项研究表明，“2018年上半年，世界上报告的海盗袭击有40%以上发生在几内亚湾”。 |
| 9. Further, the Security Council, faced with the gravity of maritime piracy, and acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, has adopted a series of resolutions addressing maritime piracy committed off the coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Guinea, as well as in several seas such as the Gulf of Aden, the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, and in the Caribbean Sea. | 9. 此外，面对海盗问题的严重性，安全理事会根据《联合国宪章》第七章采取行动，通过了一系列决议，处理在索马里沿海和几内亚湾及亚丁湾、马六甲海峡和新加坡海峡等海域，以及加勒比海发生的海盗行为。 |
| 10. Nevertheless, despite the extensive amount of international, regional and national law, there remain important issues of international law that are uncertain or underdeveloped, which could benefit from study, codification, and progressive development by the International Law Commission. | 10. 然而，尽管有大量国际法、区域法和国内法，但仍然存在尚未确定或得到发展的重要国际法问题，这些问题值得国际法委员会研究、编纂和逐渐发展。 |
| 11. The Commission should begin by noting that the core aspects of the topic of maritime piracy has already been codified, notably by the Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982, by SUA Convention, and by other treaties. | 11. 委员会首先应注意到，海盗行为这一专题的核心方面已经编纂成文，主要有1982年《海洋法公约》、《制止危及海上航行安全非法行为公约》，还有其他条约。 |
| The Commission’s objective would not be to seek to alter any of the rules set forth in existing treaties, but would include whether and how States might best implement their treaty obligations. | 委员会的目标不是寻求改变现有条约中规定的任何规则，而是考虑各国是否以及如何能够最好地履行其条约义务。 |
| II. Current Issues of International Law Relevant to Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea | 二. 当前与海盗和海上武装抢劫行为有关的国际法问题 |
| A. Prevention of Piracy at Sea: A requirement for cooperation | A. 防止海盗行为：合作的要求 |
| 12. Ideally, in their implementation of these obligations, the conditions by which piracy flourishes would be addressed by States, so as to minimise the ability of pirates to operate on the seas. | 12. 理想的情况是，各国在履行这些义务时消除海盗行为赖以滋生的温床，以最大限度地降低海盗在海上活动的能力。 |
| The Commission might analyse methods of prevention that have operated successfully in other areas of international law so as to provide guidance to States on how to implement these obligations of prevention. | 委员会可以分析在国际法其他领域成功运作的防止方法，以便就如何履行这些防止义务向各国提供指导。 |
| B. Repression of Piracy at Sea: A requirement for Laws and Regulations in place and Clarification of Universal Criminal Jurisdiction with Respect to Piracy at Sea | B. 打击海盗行为：对现有法律法规的要求和对海盗行为的普遍刑事管辖权的澄清 |
| 13. Prevention, of course, is not always possible, and acts of piracy will continue to occur, raising issues relating to punishment of persons for committing such acts. | 13. 当然，防止不可能始终做到，海盗行为会继续发生，这就提出了对实施这类行为者进行惩罚的问题。 |
| Piracy has long been regarded as a crime punishable by any State even if that State has no direct connection to the pirates, to their victims, or to the location of the criminal act. | 海盗行为长期以来被视为一种可由任何国家予以惩处的罪行，即使该国与海盗、海盗行为受害者或犯罪地点没有直接联系。 |
| Indeed, pirates have long been considered the enemies of all States and of all humanity (hostis humani generis). | 事实上，海盗长期以来都被视为所有国家和全人类的敌人(人类公敌)。 |
| As such, exercise of national jurisdiction over pirates by any State has long been recognized as the first form of universal criminal jurisdiction, allowing pirates no refuge in any State regardless of their connection to it. | 因此，长期以来，任何国家对海盗行使国家管辖权被视为普遍刑事管辖权的第一种形式，不允许海盗在任何国家避难，无论他们与该国有什么联系。 |
| 14. Even so, the exact parameters of such universal criminal jurisdiction with respect to piracy are not well understood. | 14. 即便如此，这种针对海盗行为的普遍刑事管辖权的确切界限并没有得到很好的理解。 |
| The definition of piracy as set forth in the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention might be analysed by the Commission to help States understand the meaning of “piracy” when establishing and exercising national criminal jurisdiction. | 委员会可以分析1982年《海洋法公约》中对海盗行为的定义，以帮助各国在确立和行使国家刑事管辖权时理解“海盗行为”的含义。 |
| Further, whether States have a duty to establish such jurisdiction under either conventional or customary international law could be assessed, as opposed to whether States are simply permitted under international law to establish such jurisdiction if they chose to do so. | 此外，还可以评估协议法或习惯国际法是否规定各国有义务确立这种管辖权，还是各国仅可以依照国际法选择确立这种管辖权。 |
| C. Adoption and Harmonisation of National Criminal Laws on Piracy at Sea | C. 通过和统一各国关于海盗行为的刑法 |
| 15. In light of the conclusions reached with respect to Section B above, consideration might be given to the specific measures States should or may take within their national criminal law so as to establish and exercise jurisdiction over persons alleged to have committed maritime piracy. | 15. 鉴于上文B节得出的结论，委员会可考虑各国应当或可能在国家刑法范围内采取哪些具体措施，对被指控实施海盗行为的人确立和行使管辖权。 |
| Such measures may assist promoting the adoption of and harmonisation of national laws of States in this area, thereby allowing for a more effective global regime of enforcement and for greater inter-State cooperation in this area. | 这类措施可能有助于促进各国通过和统一这方面的国家法律，从而建立更有效的全球执法制度，以及加强这方面的国家间合作。 |
| 16. Some States may be able to exercise national criminal jurisdiction based solely on ratification of the 1958 or 1982 Conventions and perhaps even based solely on customary international law. | 16. 一些国家也许能够仅根据对1958年或1982年《公约》的批准，甚至仅根据习惯国际法，行使国家刑事管辖权。 |
| Yet in most jurisdictions, it seems likely that such bases would be insufficient, requiring instead the enactment of national statutes criminalising piracy. | 然而，在大多数司法管辖区，此类依据可能是不够的，需要颁布将海盗行为定为犯罪的国家法规。 |
| This requirement for national statutes may be driven by the principle nullem crimen, nulla poena, sine lege, which means no crime and no penalty without a law in place. | 需要颁布国家法规，可能是因为“法无明文规定不为罪”的原则，即没有制定法律，罪行和惩罚就不成立。 |
| The resurgence of violent maritime piracy criminal acts in 2008 off the coast of Somalia in the Indian Ocean and in the Gulf of Guinea bordering the Atlantic Ocean demonstrated that many States from all continents did not have any national legislation dealing with piracy. | 2008年，印度洋索马里沿海和大西洋沿岸几内亚湾海盗暴力犯罪行为死灰复燃，表明各大洲许多国家都没有任何处理海盗问题的国家立法。 |
| One example is that of France in Ponant case. | 法国在Ponant号案中的情况就是一个实例。 |
| After capturing Somalian pirates, France had to release them because, at the time, it did not possess national law creating criminal offences for piracy, and general criminal law was insufficient to render piracy acts justiciable in a criminal court in France. | 在抓获索马里海盗后，法国不得不将他们释放，因为法国当时没有将海盗罪确立为刑事犯罪的国内法，而一般刑事法律不足以使海盗行为在法国刑事法院受审。 |
| Yet France was not alone in this regard. | 但法国并非这方面的唯一实例。 |
| Currently, a majority of African States also do not have legislation on piracy or have laws that are outdated in relation to contemporary international law on this matter. | 目前，大多数非洲国家也没有关于海盗行为的立法，或者与当代国际法相比，它们关于这一问题的法律已经过时。 |
| 17. Thus the existence of general criminal law for some States may not be sufficient to prosecute and repress piracy offences. | 17. 因此，一些国家现有的一般刑事法律可能不足以起诉和打击海盗罪行。 |
| Rather, specific legislation on piracy offences or at least a general reference to maritime piracy in general criminal provisions may be needed to ensure that criminal procedures are available for prosecuting pirates. | 反之，可能需要关于海盗罪的具体立法，或者至少需要在一般刑事条款中笼统提及海盗行为，以确保具备起诉海盗的刑事程序。 |
| Furthermore, national prosecutors and judges often do not possess the requisite technical and legal knowledge to effectively deal with this crime, which is unique and may require special guidance for understanding the elements to be proved for the crime and the types of evidence necessary to meet those elements. | 此外，国家检察官和法官往往不具备有效处理这一罪行所需的技术和法律知识，因为这是一种独特的罪行，要理解有待证明的罪行要素以及满足这些要素所需的证据类型，可能需要特别的指导。 |
| Even though the ratification of the Convention on the Law of the Sea represents the clearest expression of states’ consent to be bound by international law and is a necessary legal act, it is insufficient for the effective enforcement of states’ obligations. | 尽管批准《海洋法公约》是各国同意受国际法约束的最明确表示，也是一项必要的法律行为，但这还不足以使各国有效履行义务。 |
| This observation is equally applicable to customary international law related to piracy and to the Convention on the High Seas which is still in force for six states. | 这一情况同样适用于与海盗行为有关的习惯国际法和仍然对六个国家有效的《公海公约》。 |
| In other words, a state cannot legally repress piracy acts by simply relying on the fact that it is a state party to one of the two relevant conventions or on customary international law. | 换句话说，一国不能仅凭它是相关两项公约之一的缔约国，或仅依靠习惯国际法来合法打击海盗行为。 |
| Even if international law has already defined the legal framework to combat piracy, states’ national laws are needed for the criminalisation of piracy. | 即使国际法已经界定了打击海盗行为的法律框架，但还是需要各国的国内法将海盗行为定为犯罪。 |
| 18. In addition to the lack of national legislation and the obsolescence of certain national laws on piracy, there is the issue of harmonisation of piracy law. | 18. 除了缺乏国内法和某些关于海盗行为的国内法已过时之外，还存在海盗法的统一问题。 |
| Some States’ national laws link maritime piracy only to acts committed on the high seas, while others link it only to acts within the States’ territorial sea or exclusive economic zone. | 一些国家的国内法只将海盗行为与在公海上实施的行为联系起来，而另一些国家的法律只将海盗行为与其领海或专属经济区内的行为联系起来。 |
| Ideally, States would have the same or similar laws addressing piracy in all areas outside the territorial seas. | 理想的情况是，各国对领海以外所有地区的海盗行为拥有相同或相似的法律。 |
| D. Clarifying the relationship of Maritime Piracy to Armed Robbery at Sea | D. 澄清海盗与海上武装抢劫的关系 |
| 19. A further issue, though related to Section C above, concerns analysing and helping to clarify the difference between maritime piracy as a crime and armed robbery at sea as a different crime. | 19. 另一个问题与上文C节有关，涉及分析和帮助澄清海盗作为一种犯罪行为与另一种罪行海上武装抢劫之间的区别。 |
| As a general matter, maritime piracy is a crime that has emerged in relation to the high seas (including what is now regarded as the exclusive economic zone). | 一般来说，海盗行为是在公海(包括现在被视为专属经济区的海域)发生的一种罪行。 |
| By contrast, the crime of armed robbery at sea occurs within a States territorial sea. | 反之，海上武装抢劫罪发生在一国的领海内。 |
| 20. It appears that many States have both types of crime, but are not clear in their national laws as to the distinction between the two offences and, in particular, with respect to the location of the offences. As such, a problem of “double incrimination” may arise, creating confusion regarding the applicable law. | 20. 许多国家似乎都有这两种罪行，但其国内法对这两种犯罪行为的区别，特别是犯罪地点的区别不明确， 因此可能会出现“双重定罪”的问题，造成适用法律的混乱。 |
| Based on international law and States practice, the Commission might analyse when these respective offences should apply, how they differ, and whether they are linked, as a means of clarifying the law in this area, which may be of value to States when developing national laws and exercising national jurisdiction. | 委员会可以根据国际法和国家实践，分析这些罪行应在何时适用，它们之间有何不同，以及它们是否存在联系，作为澄清这方面法律的一种手段，这可能有助于各国制定国内法和行使国家管辖权。 |
| III. Scope of the topic | 三. 本专题的范围 |
| 21. State actions at sea, whether unilateral or multilateral, are limited in their ability to deal comprehensively and efficiently with maritime piracy, leaving private vessels vulnerable. | 21. 国家的海上行动，无论是单边还是多边行动，全面有效应对海盗行为的能力有限，私人船只因而易受攻击。 |
| That vulnerability has led ship owners to pursue their own maritime security often through contracts with security companies. | 这种脆弱性导致船主往往与安保公司签订合同来保障自己的海上安全。 |
| Such private maritime security may consist of having armed security personnel on the private vessel, who may exercise lethal action when approached by other vessels. | 这种私人海上安保可以包括在私人船只上配备武装保安人员，当其他船只靠近时，他们可能采取致命行动。 |
| This phenomenon, in term of preventive measures, raises the questions of whether international law requires or should require the flag State, the State where the security company is incorporated, or other States to regulate such actions. | 就预防措施而言，这一现象提出了国际法是否要求或应该要求船旗国、安保公司注册国或其他国家对这类行动进行监管的问题。 |
| Private vessels are not authorized under the 1982 Convention to engage in hot pursuit. | 根据1982年《公约》，私人船只无权进行紧追。 |
| Thus, a private ship that is the victim of piracy has no recourse to undertake enforcement action under the law of law of the sea. | 因此，作为海盗行为受害者的私人船只无法根据海洋法采取执行行动。 |
| The Commission might consider the law and practice in this area to see if private vessels are prohibited from engaging in such action by international law and, if so, the line between such actions and defensive acts when attacked by maritime pirates. | 委员会不妨考虑这一领域的法律和实践，以了解国际法是否禁止私人船只采取这种行动，如果是，那么这类行动与遭到海盗袭击时的防御行动之间的界线在哪里。 |
| 22. The 1982 Convention on the law of the Sea allows exclusively pursuit against pirates by public vessels, such as military vessels and other vessels owned by the State and accomplishing a public service. | 22. 1982年《海洋法公约》仅允许公用船只追逐海盗，如军用船只和行使公务的其他国有船只。 |
| The Commission might analyse the operation of such rules in the context of piracy and armed robbery at sea based on contemporary State practice, and consider whether the rules set forth in the 1982 Convention in this regard have the status of customary international law, binding upon all States. | 委员会可以根据当代国家实践，分析这些规则在海盗和海上武装抢劫背景下的运用情况，并考虑1982年《公约》就此制定的规则是否具备对所有国家有约束力的习惯国际法地位。 |
| 23. In fact, pirates committing crimes in the high seas know that by staying in the high seas or the exclusive economic zone, they may be pursued and captured by any state on the basis of universal criminal jurisdiction. | 23. 事实上，在公海犯罪的海盗知道，如果停留在公海或专属经济区，任何国家都可以依据普遍刑事管辖权追捕他们。 |
| To avoid that situation, they typically will quickly move, after an act of piracy, to the nearest territorial sea of a State to escape pursuit by foreign vessels. | 为了避免这种情况，他们在实施海盗行为后，通常会迅速转移到最近的某国领海，以逃避外国船只的追捕。 |
| Moreover, the fact that many States do not have the capacity to control their territorial sea encourages pirates to move their operations in these waters by raiding and attacking ships waiting their turn to enter a port. | 此外，许多国家没有能力控制其领海，这促使海盗转移到这些水域行动，袭击和攻击等待入港的船只。 |
| 24. It was to solve this issue that the Security Council, on an exceptional basis, authorised foreign naval forces to engage in pursuing into the Somalian territorial sea from the adjacent high seas and exclusive economic zone for the purpose of capturing pirate vessels. | 24. 正是为了解决这一问题，安全理事会破例授权外国海军从邻近的公海和专属经济区进入索马里领海追捕海盗船。 |
| Moreover, the Council also authorized foreign naval vessels, with the consent of the Government of Somalia, to enter into Somalia’s territorial sea for the purpose of capturing pirate vessels. | 此外，安理会还授权外国海军船只经索马里政府同意，进入索马里领海追捕海盗船。 |
| In the same time, the Security Council made it clear that “the provisions of this resolution apply only with respect to the situation in Somalia and do not affect the rights and obligations or responsibilities of Member States under international law”, which means that these provisions should be enforced under the legal framework of the fight against piracy as established by the 1982 Convention on the law of the Sea and rules of customary international law. | 与此同时，安全理事会明确表示，“本决议的规定仅适用于索马里局势，不影响国际法为会员国规定的权力和义务或责任”， 这意味着这些规定应在1982年《海洋法公约》确立的打击海盗的法律框架 和习惯国际法规则下执行。 |
| 25. With respect to the Rights of Alleged Offenders, persons who are alleged to have committed maritime piracy are entitled to fair treatment, including a fair trial, and full protection of his or her rights under national and international law as demonstrated by case law through domestic courts’ decisions and international courts’ rulings dealing with pirates’ prosecution. | 25. 关于被指控罪犯的权利，被控实施海盗行为的人有权获得公平待遇，包括公平审判，其权利根据国内法和国际法得到充分保护，这体现在与起诉海盗相关的国内法院判决和国际法院裁决的判例中。 |
| 26. The operation of such rights in context of seizure of the person on the high seas and hence outside the sovereign jurisdiction of any State might be analysed so as to clarify how such rights operate in this context. | 26. 在公海上被抓获的人不属于任何国家的主权管辖范围，委员会可以对这类人员上述权利的行使情况进行分析，以澄清这些权利在这种情况下如何行使。 |
| 27. The scope of this topic is limited to the prevention and repression of piracy and armed robbery at sea. | 27. 本专题的范围仅限于防止和打击海盗和海上武装抢劫行为。 |
| The topic will address the following issues: the definition of piracy in the context of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea provisions and taking into account the current and evolving aspects of piracy, as well as the definition provided by relevant international organizations such as the International Maritime Organization. | 专题将讨论以下问题：对海盗行为的定义，以《联合国海洋法公约》条款为背景，并考虑海盗行为当前和不断演变的各个方面，以及国际海事组织等相关国际组织提供的定义。 |
| Other elements to be addressed include: the punishment of piracy, the cooperation in the suppression of piracy, the exercise of jurisdiction over the crime of piracy, including issues on criminalization, pursuit, arrest, detention, extradition, transfer agreement of suspected pirates, mutual legal assistance, prosecution, investigation, evidence, sentences, rights of alleged pirates, rights of victims of piracy and armed robbery at sea, etc. | 需要处理的其他要素包括：对海盗行为的处罚； 在打击海盗方面开展合作； 对海盗罪行使管辖权，包括刑事定罪、追捕、逮捕、拘留、引渡、海盗嫌疑人移交协议、司法协助、起诉、调查、证据、判决、海盗嫌疑人的权利、海盗和海上武装抢劫受害者的权利等问题。 |
| IV. The topic satisfies the requirements for addition to the Long-term Programme of Work of the International Law Commission | 四. 本专题符合列入国际法委员会长期工作方案的要求 |
| 28. For a topic to be included on the ILC’s long-term programme of work, it must be demonstrated that it satisfies the following criteria: a) the topic must reflect the needs of States in respect of the progressive development and codification of international law; | 28. 要将一个专题列入国际法委员会的长期工作方案，必须证明它符合以下标准：(a) 专题应反映各国在逐渐发展和编纂国际法方面的需要； |
| b) the topic should be at a sufficiently advanced stage in terms of state practice to permit progressive development and codification; | (b) 专题应在国家实践方面处于足够成熟阶段，从而允许逐渐发展和编纂； |
| c) the topic should be concrete and feasible for progressive development and codification; | (c) 专题应具体可行，宜于逐渐发展和编纂； |
| and d) the Commission should not restrict itself to traditional topics, but could also consider those that reflect new developments in international law and pressing concerns of the international community as a whole. | (d) 委员会不应局限于传统专题，也可考虑反映国际法新动态和整个国际社会紧迫关切事项的专题。 |
| 29. The topic of piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea responds to the criteria needed for its inclusion in the long term program of work of the Commission. | 29. 海盗和海上武装抢劫行为这一专题符合列入委员会长期工作方案所需的标准。 |
| 30. First: this topic responds to the needs of states to progressively develop this area of international law. | 30. 第一：本专题符合各国逐渐发展该领域国际法的需要。 |
| In fact, the interest in this topic is global since, as shown in the introductory section of this syllabus, it concerns the whole of the international community. | 事实上，本专题得到了全球性的关注，因为正如本大纲导言部分所示，这个专题关系到整个国际社会。 |
| The global nature of this concern has justified the adoption of several resolutions by the General Assembly and the Security Council of the United Nations on combating maritime piracy and armed robbery at sea. | 正因为这一关切的全球性，所以联合国大会和安全理事会通过了若干关于打击海盗和海上武装抢劫行为的决议。 |
| Coastal states, flag states, port states, states whose nationals have been victims of maritime piracy or armed robbery at sea, landlocked states, private maritime industry actors (ship owner, shipper, maritime insurer, etc.) whether they are loaders, receivers, importers or exporters of merchandises, international organisations, all have an interest that the seas be free of all safety concerns and criminality to ensure the development of states, and the security and socio-economic wellbeing of all people. | 沿海国、船旗国、港口国、海盗或海上武装抢劫行为受害者所属国、内陆国、私营海运业行为者(船主、托运人、海上保险公司等)，无论是货物的装载者、接收者、进口商或出口商、还是国际组织，都希望海上没有任何安全问题和犯罪，从而确保国家的发展及所有人的安全和社会经济福祉。 |
| 31. Second: the topic deserves to be considered by the Commission since there is State practice that lends itself to the codification and progressive development of international law in respect of the topic. | 31. 第二：本专题值得委员会审议，因为已有的国家实践适于就本专题编纂和逐渐发展国际法。 |
| As indicated above, there are global and regional treaties and other instruments that may be analysed in relation to this topic. | 如上所述，有些全球和区域条约及其他文书可以从本专题的角度进行分析。 |
| Further, according to the data provided by the Secretariat of the Ocean Affairs and Law of the Sea Division of the United Nations, there are more than 70 states that have adopted legislation for the prevention and repression of piracy and armed robbery at sea. | 此外，根据联合国海洋事务和海洋法司秘书处提供的数据，有70多个国家通过了防止和打击海盗和海上武装抢劫行为的立法。 |
| This practice is sufficiently advanced at this stage and will develop further as additional proposed bills on piracy progressively become applicable laws. | 这一实践在现阶段已经足够成熟，并将随着更多关于海盗问题的拟议法案逐渐成为适用法律而进一步发展。 |
| On this point, several African coastal states have tabled bills in their respective Parliaments which should be adopted in the near future. | 在这方面，几个非洲沿海国家已向各自的议会提出了法案，这些法案应在不久的将来获得通过。 |
| Generally, the available legislation on the topic represents the main region of the worlds and the main legal systems as they originate from Africa, Europe, Asia, the Americas and the Caribbean. | 总体而言，关于这一专题的现有立法代表了世界的主要区域和主要法律体系，因为它们来自非洲、欧洲、亚洲、美洲和加勒比地区。 |
| 32. Third: the topic deserves to be analysed in light of the applicable law while keeping in mind its concrete, practical and feasible nature. | 32. 第三：本专题值得根据适用的法律进行分析，同时铭记其具体性、实际性和可行性。 |
| The topic will not pose any particular difficulties as the majority of the work will involve existing international law: the lex lata codified by the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea that defines the legal regime and the framework for piracy and armed robbery at sea. | 专题不会造成任何特别困难，因为大多数工作将涉及现有国际法：1982年《海洋法公约》编纂的现行法，该法界定了海盗和海上武装抢劫行为的法律制度和框架。 |
| In addition to the existing and still developing state practice, we can rely on other universal legal instruments such as the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, and the relevant resolutions of the International Maritime Organisation on piracy and armed robbery at sea adopted between 2005 and 2012. | 除了现有的和仍在发展的国家实践之外，我们可以依靠其他普遍性法律文书，如《制止危及海上航行安全非法行为公约》和国际海事组织在2005年至2012年期间通过的关于海盗和海上武装抢劫行为的相关决议。 |
| There is an abundance of scholarly writings (see Selected Bibliography below) and national jurisprudence (American, English, French, Spanish, Tanzanian, Kenyan, Seychellois, European through the European Court of Human Rights, Japanese, Korean, etc) on the topic. | 有大量关于本专题的学术著作(见下文参考文献选编)和国家判例(美国、英国、法国、西班牙、坦桑尼亚、肯尼亚、塞舌尔、欧洲人权法院的欧洲判例、日本、韩国等)。 |
| These judicial domestics decisions will be analysed in light of applicable national laws and of the relevant international law they implement. | 将根据适用的国内法及其执行的相关国际法对这些国内司法裁决进行分析。 |
| The various regional approaches on maritime piracy and armed robbery at sea in the different seas of the world will be analysed taking in account the particular geographical context of each maritime region and regional sea as defined by the Regional Seas Programme of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). | 将考虑联合国环境规划署(环境署)区域海洋方案界定的每个海洋区域和区域海的特定地理背景，对各区域针对世界不同海域发生的海盗和海上武装抢劫行为采取的办法进行分析。 |
| 33. Fourth: International law relating to piracy and armed robbery at sea falls squarely within the scope of topics traditionally taken up by the Commission, which has long had a history of addressing rules relating to the law of the sea. | 33. 第四：与海盗和海上武装抢劫行为有关的国际法完全属于委员会传统上处理的专题范围，因为委员会长期以来一直处理与海洋法有关的规则。 |
| As such, inclusion of this topic in the long-term program of work should not, in principle, pose any problems due to the fact that this topic is a pressing concern of the international community as a whole. | 正因如此，将本专题列入长期工作方案原则上不应造成任何问题，因为本专题是整个国际社会迫切关注的问题。 |
| V. Methodology | 五. 方法 |
| 34. The point of departure of this study will be UNCLOS Provisions relating to piracy at sea. | 34. 《联合国海洋法公约》与海盗行为有关的规定将是这项研究的出发点。 |
| Therefore, the purpose when taking up this subject, as indicated above, is not to alter whatsoever these provisions. | 因此，如上所述，讨论这一专题的目的不是要改变这些规定。 |
| Further, aspects of this topic not directly regulated by such treaties would be analysed, using other instruments and State practice in this area, so as to further codify or progressively develop international law in a manner that may be helpful to States. | 此外，对于本专题中不受此类条约直接管制的方面，将通过这方面的其他文书和国家实践进行分析，以便以可能有助于各国的方式，进一步编纂或逐渐发展国际法。 |
| The analysed state practice, whether it is legislation or domestic court decisions, will be that of all States with a potential or real interest in the protection of the oceans against piracy and armed robbery at sea. | 所分析的国家实践，无论是立法还是国内法院裁决，将包括所有可能或真正关注保护海洋免受海盗和海上武装抢劫危害的国家的实践。 |
| These include coastal States, flag States, port States, landlocked States, States that are susceptible of exercising their active or passive jurisdiction regarding nationals that are victims of perpetrators of piracy acts, and other relevant actors and international organisations. | 这些国家包括沿海国、船旗国、港口国、内陆国、可能对海盗行为受害国民行使主动或被动管辖权的国家，还包括其他有关行为体和国际组织。 |
| VI. Form of the outcome | 六. 成果形式 |
| 35. The objective of this topic could be to develop draft articles on the prevention and repression of piracy and armed robbery at sea. | 35. 本专题的目标可以是制订关于防止和打击海盗和海上武装抢劫行为的条款草案。 |
| As the topic unfolds, it may become clearer whether the topic is an appropriate one for the development of new convention, in which case draft articles would remain the proper form for the Commission’s work. | 随着专题的展开，是否适合就本专题制订新公约的问题可能会更加明朗，在这种情况下，条款草案仍将是委员会工作的适当形式。 |
| If, however, it becomes apparent that the topic is best developed simply as guidance to States with respect to implementation of existing international obligations, then the outcome might be changed to “conclusion” or “guidelines”. | 然而，如果发展本专题的最好方式显然是只为各国履行现有国际义务提供指导意见，则成果可改为“结论”或“准则”。 |
| VII. Selected Bibliography 1. Articles | 七. 参考文献选编 |
| Andersen, Elizabeth, Benjamin Brockham-Hawe, and Patricia Goff. 2010. | 1 Articles |
| “Suppressing Maritime Piracy: Exploring the Options in International Law. ” A Workshop Report. Washington, D.C.: American Society of International Law & Academic Council on the United Nations System. | Andersen, Elizabeth, Benjamin Brockham-Hawe, and Patricia Goff. 2010. “Suppressing Maritime Piracy: Exploring the Options in International Law.” A Workshop Report. Washington, D.C.: American Society of International Law & Academic Council on the United Nations System. |
| Anderson, Elliot A. 2010. “It’s a Pirate’s Life for Some: The Development of an Illegal Industry in Response to an Unjust Global Power Dynamic. ” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 17(2): 319–39. | Anderson, Elliot A. 2010. “It’s a Pirate's Life for Some: The Development of an Illegal Industry in Response to an Unjust Global Power Dynamic.” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 17(2): 319–39. |
| Ariadno, Melda Kamil. 2009. “Maritime Security in South East Asia: Indonesian Perspective. ” Indonesian Journal of International Law 7(1): 88–99. | Ariadno, Melda Kamil. 2009. “Maritime Security in South East Asia: Indonesian Perspective.” Indonesian Journal of International Law 7(1): 88-99. |
| Azubuike, Lawrence. 2010. | |
| “International Law Regime against Piracy. ” Annual Survey of International & Comparative Law 15: 43–60. | Azubuike, Lawrence. 2010. “International Law Regime against Piracy.” Annual Survey of International & Comparative Law 15: 43–60. |
| Bahar, Michael. 2007. “Attaining Optimal Deterrence at Sea: A Legal and Strategic Theory for Naval Anti-Piracy Operations. ” Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 40(1): 1–86. | Bahar, Michael. 2007. “Attaining Optimal Deterrence at Sea: A Legal and Strategic Theory for Naval Anti-Piracy Operations.” Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 40(1): 1–86. |
| Baird, Rachel. 2012. | |
| “Transnational Security Issues in the Asian Maritime Environment: Responding to Maritime Piracy. ” Australian Journal of International Affairs 66(5): 501–13. | Baird, Rachel. 2012. “Transnational Security Issues in the Asian Maritime Environment: Responding to Maritime Piracy.” Australian Journal of International Affairs 66(5): 501–13. |
| Balmond, Louis, Sylvain Alunni and Fabien Grech. 2011. “Chronique des faits internationaux : 15 mars-15 juin 2011. ” Revue générale de droit international public 2011(3): 733–64. | Balmond, Louis, Sylvain Alunni and Fabien Grech. 2011. “Chronique des faits internationaux : 15 mars-15 juin 2011.” Revue générale de droit international public 2011(3): 733-64. |
| Barrios, Erik. 2005. “Casting a Wider Net : Addressing the Maritime Piracy Problem in Southeast Asia. ” Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 28(1): 149–63. | Barrios, Erik. 2005. “Casting a Wider Net : Addressing the Maritime Piracy Problem in Southeast Asia.” Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 28(1): 149–63. |
| Beckman, Robert C. 2002. “Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships in Southeast Asia : The Way Forward. ” Ocean Development & International Law 33(3): 317–41. | Beckman, Robert C. 2002. “Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships in Southeast Asia : The Way Forward.” Ocean Development & International Law 33(3): 317–41. |
| Behr, Timo, Mika Aaltola, and Erik Brattberg. 2013. “Maritime Security in a Multipolar World: Towards an EU Strategy for the Maritime Commons. | Behr, Timo, Mika Aaltola, and Erik Brattberg. 2013. “Maritime Security in a Multipolar World: Towards an EU Strategy for the Maritime Commons.” Finnish Institute of International Affairs Briefing Paper 103. |
| ” Finnish Institute of International Affairs Briefing Paper 103. Bellamy, Chris. 2011. “Maritime Piracy. | |
| Return of the World’s Second-Oldest Security Problem. ” The RUSI Journal 156(6): 78–83. Bellayer-Roille, Alexandra. | Bellamy, Chris. 2011. “Maritime Piracy. Return of the World’s Second-Oldest Security Problem.” The RUSI Journal 156(6): 78–83. |
| 2009. “Montée en puissance de la lutte contre la ‘piraterie’ maritime ‘sus a l’hostis humani generis’. ” Annuaire de droit maritime et océanique 27: 309–31. | Bellayer-Roille, Alexandra. 2009. “Montée en puissance de la lutte contre la ‘piraterie’ maritime ‘sus a l'hostis humani generis’.” Annuaire de droit maritime et océanique 27: 309-31. |
| Bento, Lucas. 2011. “Toward an international law of piracy sui generis: how the dual nature of maritime piracy law enables piracy to flourish. ” Berkeley Journal of International Law 29(2): 399–455. | Bento, Lucas. 2011. “Toward an international law of piracy sui generis: how the dual nature of maritime piracy law enables piracy to flourish.” Berkeley Journal of International Law 29(2): 399-455. |
| Berg, James. 2010. “‘You’re Gonna Need a Bigger Boat’: Somali Piracy and the Erosion of Customary Piracy Suppression. ” New England Law Review 44: 343–85. | Berg, James. 2010. “‘You’re Gonna Need a Bigger Boat’: Somali Piracy and the Erosion of Customary Piracy Suppression.” New England Law Review 44: 343–85. |
| Berndtsson, J. & Østensen, Å.G., 2015. “The Scandinavian Approach to Private Maritime Security—A Regulatory Façade? ” Ocean Development & International Law 46(2): 138–152. | Berndtsson, J. & Østensen, Å.G., 2015. “The Scandinavian Approach to Private Maritime Security—A Regulatory Façade?” Ocean Development & International Law 46(2): 138–152. |
| Le Bihan, Martine. 2003. “Sûreté maritime et terrorisme. | |
| ” Revue de Droit Commercial, Maritime, Aérien et des Transports 80(3): 86–93. Bodini, Stefano Piedimonte. 2011. | Le Bihan, Martine. 2003. “Sûreté maritime et terrorisme.” Revue de Droit Commercial, Maritime, Aérien et des Transports 80(3): 86-93. |
| “Fighting Maritime Piracy under the European Convention on Human Rights. ” European Journal of International Law 22(3): 829–48. | Bodini, Stefano Piedimonte. 2011. “Fighting Maritime Piracy under the European Convention on Human Rights.” European Journal of International Law 22(3): 829–48. |
| Boisson, Philippe. 2003. “La sûreté des navires et la prévention des actes de terrorisme dans le domaine maritime. ” Droit maritime français 640: 723–36. | Boisson, Philippe. 2003. “La sûreté des navires et la prévention des actes de terrorisme dans le domaine maritime.” Droit maritime français 640: 723-36. |
| Bonassies, Pierre. 2011. | |
| “Du régime de l’arrestation de pirates par un navire français dans les eaux territoriales somaliennes. ” Droit maritime français 726: 569–72. | Bonassies, Pierre. 2011. “Du régime de l'arrestation de pirates par un navire français dans les eaux territoriales somaliennes.” Droit maritime français 726: 569-72. |
| Booth, Forrest and Larry Altenbrun. 2002. “Maritime and Port Security, Piracy, and Stowaways: Renewed Concerns Over Old Problems. ” University of San Francisco Maritime Law Journal 15(1): 1–47. | Booth, Forrest and Larry Altenbrun. 2002. “Maritime and Port Security, Piracy, and Stowaways: Renewed Concerns Over Old Problems.” University of San Francisco Maritime Law Journal 15(1): 1-47. |
| Briand, Luc. 2011. “Lutte contre la piraterie maritime : la France renforce son arsenal législatif. ” Gazette du Palais 2011(20): 8–12. | Briand, Luc. 2011. “Lutte contre la piraterie maritime : la France renforce son arsenal législatif.” Gazette du Palais 2011(20): 8-12. |
| Bugnon, Caroline. 2010. | |
| “L’action contre les actes de piraterie maritime : A propos de l’affaire du voilier Ponant. ” Annuaire de droit maritime et océanique 28: 133–62. | Bugnon, Caroline. 2010. “L'action contre les actes de piraterie maritime : A propos de l'affaire du voilier Ponant.” Annuaire de droit maritime et océanique 28: 133-62. |
| Bulkeley, Jennifer C. 2003. “Regional Cooperation on Maritime Piracy: A Prelude to Greater Multilateralism in Asia? ” Journal of Public and International Affairs 14: Article 2. | Bulkeley, Jennifer C. 2003. “Regional Cooperation on Maritime Piracy: A Prelude to Greater Multilateralism in Asia?” Journal of Public and International Affairs 14: Article 2. |
| Bürgin, Annina and Schneider, Patricia. 2015. “Regulation of Private Maritime Security Companies in Germany and Spain: A Comparative Study. ” Ocean Development & International Law, 46(2): 123–137. | Bürgin, Annina and Schneider, Patricia. 2015. “Regulation of Private Maritime Security Companies in Germany and Spain: A Comparative Study.” Ocean Development & International Law, 46(2): 123–137. |
| Charles, Jean-Baptiste and Erwann Couty. 2011. “Loi relative à la piraterie maritime : le législateur rétablit l’arsenal pénal maritime. ” Revue de droit des transports 2011(6): 7–10. | Charles, Jean-Baptiste and Erwann Couty. 2011. “Loi relative à la piraterie maritime : le législateur rétablit l'arsenal pénal maritime.” Revue de droit des transports 2011(6): 7-10. |
| Charpenel, Yves. 2011. “Analyse prospective des dernières jurisprudences relatives à la sécurité des mers. ” Droit maritime français 726: 504–09. | Charpenel, Yves. 2011. “Analyse prospective des dernières jurisprudences relatives à la sécurité des mers.” Droit maritime français 726: 504-09. |
| Cormier-Salem, Marie-Christine and Tarik Dahou, eds. 2010. Gouverner la mer: états, pirates, sociétés. | Cormier-Salem, Marie-Christine and Tarik Dahou, eds. 2010. Gouverner la mer: états, pirates, sociétés. Politique Africaine 116: 1-208. |
| Politique Africaine 116: 1–208. Coulée, Frédérique and Hélène Picot (contributrice). 2010. | |
| “Pratique française du droit international : Piraterie. ” Annuaire français de droit international 56: 917–23. Coulée, Frédérique and Hélène Picot (contributrice). | Coulée, Frédérique and Hélène Picot (contributrice). 2010. “Pratique française du droit international : Piraterie.” Annuaire français de droit international 56: 917-23. |
| 2009. “Pratique française du droit international : Piraterie. ” Annuaire français de droit international 55: 921–26. | Coulée, Frédérique and Hélène Picot (contributrice). 2009. “Pratique française du droit international : Piraterie.” Annuaire français de droit international 55: 921-26. |
| Davey, Michael. 2010. | |
| “A Pirate Looks at the Twenty-First Century: The Legal Status of Somali Pirates in an Age of Sovereign Seas and Human Rights. ” Notre Dame Law Review 85(3): 1197–1230. | Davey, Michael. 2010. “A Pirate Looks at the Twenty-First Century: The Legal Status of Somali Pirates in an Age of Sovereign Seas and Human Rights.” Notre Dame Law Review 85(3): 1197-1230. |
| Davidson, Scott. 2000. “Dangerous Waters: Combating Maritime Piracy in Asia. ” Asian Yearbook of International Law 9: 3–30. | Davidson, Scott. 2000. “Dangerous Waters: Combating Maritime Piracy in Asia.” Asian Yearbook of International Law 9: 3–30. |
| Deans, Alistair. 2011. | |
| “Suing Organized Piracy: An Application of Maritime Torts to Pirate Attacks, and Subsequent Civil Actions Against the Supporters of Organized Piracy. ” Roger Williams University Law Review 16(3): 655–86. | Deans, Alistair. 2011. “Suing Organized Piracy: An Application of Maritime Torts to Pirate Attacks, and Subsequent Civil Actions Against the Supporters of Organized Piracy.” Roger Williams University Law Review 16(3): 655-86. |
| Diaz, Leticia M and Barry Hart Dubner. 2010. “Foreign Fishing Piracy vs. Somalia Piracy – Does Wrong Equal Wrong? ” Barry Law Review 14: 73–96. | Diaz, Leticia M and Barry Hart Dubner. 2010. “Foreign Fishing Piracy vs. Somalia Piracy – Does Wrong Equal Wrong?” Barry Law Review 14: 73-96. |
| Diaz, Leticia M and Barry Hart Dubner. 2009. “On the Evolution of the Law of International Sea Piracy: How property trumped human rights, the Environment and the Sovereign Rights of States in the Areas of Creation and Enforcement of Jurisdiction” Barry Law Review 13: 175–207. | Diaz, Leticia M and Barry Hart Dubner. 2009. “On the Evolution of the Law of International Sea Piracy: How property trumped human rights, the Environment and the Sovereign Rights of States in the Areas of Creation and Enforcement of Jurisdiction” Barry Law Review 13: 175-207. |
| Doeppe, Piper. 2014. “Redefining Maritime Piracy: A Call for Legislative Action to Equate Piracy to International Terrorism in a Previously Uncertain Regulatory Environment” Appalachian Journal of Law 14(1): 97–113. | Doeppe, Piper. 2014. “Redefining Maritime Piracy: A Call for Legislative Action to Equate Piracy to International Terrorism in a Previously Uncertain Regulatory Environment” Appalachian Journal of Law 14(1): 97-113. |
| Douse, Christopher N. 2010. “Combating Risk on the High Sea: An Analysis of the Effects of Modern Piratical Acts on the Marine Insurance Industry. ” Tulane Maritime Law Journal 35: 267–92. | Douse, Christopher N. 2010. “Combating Risk on the High Sea: An Analysis of the Effects of Modern Piratical Acts on the Marine Insurance Industry.” Tulane Maritime Law Journal 35: 267–92. |
| Drapier, Sandrine. 2012. | |
| “La capture de pirates en mer : de droit ou de force. ” Annuaire de droit maritime et océanique 30: 100–14. Dua, Jatin, and Ken Menkhaus. | Drapier, Sandrine. 2012. “La capture de pirates en mer : de droit ou de force.” Annuaire de droit maritime et océanique 30: 100-14. |
| 2012. “The Context of Contemporary Piracy: The Case of Somalia. ” Journal of International Criminal Justice 10(4): 749–66. | Dua, Jatin, and Ken Menkhaus. 2012. “The Context of Contemporary Piracy: The Case of Somalia.” Journal of International Criminal Justice 10(4): 749–66. |
| Dubner, Barry Hart. 2011. “On the Definition of the Crime of Sea Piracy Revisited: Customary vs. Treaty Law and the Jurisdictional Implications Thereof. ” Journal of Maritime Law & Commerce 42(1): 71–100. | Dubner, Barry Hart. 2011. “On the Definition of the Crime of Sea Piracy Revisited: Customary vs. Treaty Law and the Jurisdictional Implications Thereof.” Journal of Maritime Law & Commerce 42(1): 71-100. |
| Dumouchel, Anne Claire and Sébastien Touze. 2010. “Contenu et dernières avancées du projet de loi français de lutte contre la piraterie. ” Droit maritime français 720: 961–70. | Dumouchel, Anne Claire and Sébastien Touze. 2010. “Contenu et dernières avancées du projet de loi français de lutte contre la piraterie.” Droit maritime français 720: 961-70. |
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| “La France à l’abordage de la piraterie : la loi n° 2011-13 du 5 janvier 2011 relative à la lutte contre la piraterie et à l’exercice des pouvoirs de police de l’État en mer ou le renforcement de l’arsenal répressif. ” Droit pénal 23(4): 7–12. | Recio, Manuel. 2011. “La France à l'abordage de la piraterie : la loi n° 2011-13 du 5 janvier 2011 relative à la lutte contre la piraterie et à l'exercice des pouvoirs de police de l'État en mer ou le renforcement de l'arsenal répressif.” Droit pénal 23(4): 7-12. |
| Renaut, Marie-Hélène. 2002. “L’histoire du droit pénal de la marine marchande XVII éme-XXI éme siècle. ” Annuaire de droit maritime et océanique 20: 53–104. | Renaut, Marie-Hélène. 2002. “L'histoire du droit pénal de la marine marchande XVII éme-XXI éme siècle.” Annuaire de droit maritime et océanique 20: 53-104. |
| Roach, J. Ashley. 2010. | |
| “Agora: Piracy Prosecutions. Countering Piracy off Somalia: International Law and International and International Institutions. ” The American Journal of International Law 104(3): 397–416. | Roach, J. Ashley. 2010. “Agora: Piracy Prosecutions. Countering Piracy off Somalia: International Law and International and International Institutions.” The American Journal of International Law 104(3): 397–416. |
| Rubin, Alfred P. 1987. “The Law of Piracy. ” Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 15(2-3): 173–233. | Rubin, Alfred P. 1987. “The Law of Piracy.” Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 15(2-3): 173-233. |
| Sam Lefebvre, Awa. 2008. “La communauté internationale à l’assaut de la piraterie. ” Neptunus 14(2): 1–6. | Sam Lefebvre, Awa. 2008. “La communauté internationale à l'assaut de la piraterie.” Neptunus 14(2): 1-6. |
| Satkauskas, Rytis. 2011. “Piracy at Sea and the Limits of International Law. ” Aegean Review of the Law of the Sea and Maritime Law 1(2): 217–235. | Satkauskas, Rytis. 2011. “Piracy at Sea and the Limits of International Law.” Aegean Review of the Law of the Sea and Maritime Law 1(2): 217-235. |
| Scavelli, Michael G. 2011. “Uncharted Waters. The Private Sectors Fight against Piracy on the High Seas. | Scavelli, Michael G. 2011. “Uncharted Waters. The Private Sectors Fight against Piracy on the High Seas.” Brooklyn Law Review 76(1): 343–83. |
| ” Brooklyn Law Review 76(1): 343–83. Scharf, Michael P. and Matthew E. Carlton, eds. 2013. End Game! | |
| An International Conference on Combating Maritime Piracy. Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 46(1-2): 1–462. | Scharf, Michael P. and Matthew E. Carlton, eds. 2013. End Game! An International Conference on Combating Maritime Piracy. Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 46(1-2): 1-462. |
| Schumacher, Jamie. 2013. “From Blackbeard to Jack Sparrow - who are today’s pirates and why do we care? The effect the legal definition of piracy has on the international shipping industry and maritime insurance coverage. ” Journal of Law and Commerce 32(1): 135–53. | Schumacher, Jamie. 2013. “From Blackbeard to Jack Sparrow - who are today's pirates and why do we care? The effect the legal definition of piracy has on the international shipping industry and maritime insurance coverage.” Journal of Law and Commerce 32(1): 135-53. |
| Silva, Mario. 2010. “Somalia: State Failure, Piracy, and the Challenge to International Law. ” Virginia Journal of International Law 50(1): 553–78. | Silva, Mario. 2010. “Somalia: State Failure, Piracy, and the Challenge to International Law.” Virginia Journal of International Law 50(1): 553–78. |
| Sterio, Milena. 2009. | |
| “The Somali Piracy Problem: a Global Puzzle Necessitating a Global Solution. ” American University Law Review 59(5): 1449–1498. | Sterio, Milena. 2009. “The Somali Piracy Problem: a Global Puzzle Necessitating a Global Solution.” American University Law Review 59(5): 1449-1498. |
| Stillwell, Nicole. 2009. “Robbers or Robinhoods?: A Study of the Somali Piracy Crisis and a Call to Develop an International Framework to Combat Maritime Terrorism. ” Loyola Maritime Law Journal 7B: 127–46. | Stillwell, Nicole. 2009. “Robbers or Robinhoods?: A Study of the Somali Piracy Crisis and a Call to Develop an International Framework to Combat Maritime Terrorism.” Loyola Maritime Law Journal 7B: 127-46. |
| Tallec, Jean-François and Philippe Dezeraud. 2011. “L’évolution du cadre juridique de l’action de l’État en mer : une meilleure sécurité des espaces maritimes par le renforcement de la place de l’autorité judiciaire. | Tallec, Jean-François and Philippe Dezeraud. 2011. “L'évolution du cadre juridique de l'action de l'État en mer : une meilleure sécurité des espaces maritimes par le renforcement de la place de l'autorité judiciaire.” Droit maritime français 726: 497-503. |
| ” Droit maritime français 726: 497–503. Tassel, Yves. 2005. “Terrorisme, piraterie et guerre sous le rapport de l’assurance maritime. | Tassel, Yves. 2005. “Terrorisme, piraterie et guerre sous le rapport de l'assurance maritime.” Annuaire de droit maritime et océanique 23: 77-94. |
| ” Annuaire de droit maritime et océanique 23: 77–94. Treves, Tullio. 2009. | |
| “Piracy, Law of the Sea, and Use of Force: Developments off the Coast of Somalia. ” European Journal of International Law 20(2): 399–414. | Treves, Tullio. 2009. “Piracy, Law of the Sea, and Use of Force: Developments off the Coast of Somalia.” European Journal of International Law 20(2): 399–414. |
| Tuerk, Helmut. 2009. | |
| “The Resurgence of Piracy: A Phenomenon of Modern Times. ” University of Miami International & Comparative Law Review 17(1): 1–42. Van Ginkel, B. and M. Gardner, eds. | Tuerk, Helmut. 2009. “The Resurgence of Piracy: A Phenomenon of Modern Times.” University of Miami International & Comparative Law Review 17(1): 1–42. |
| 2012. Symposium: Testing the Waters: Assessing International Responses to Somali Piracy. Journal of International Criminal Justice 10(4): 723–880. | Van Ginkel, B. and M. Gardner, eds. 2012. Symposium: Testing the Waters: Assessing International Responses to Somali Piracy. Journal of International Criminal Justice 10(4): 723-880. |
| Van Hespen, Ilja. 2014. “Protecting merchant ships from maritime piracy by privately contracted armed security personnel: a comparative analysis of flag state legislation and port and coastal state requirements. ” Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce 45(3): 361–400. | Van Hespen, Ilja. 2014. “Protecting merchant ships from maritime piracy by privately contracted armed security personnel: a comparative analysis of flag state legislation and port and coastal state requirements.” Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce 45(3): 361-400. |
| Weckel, Philippe. 2010. “Journées méditerranéennes sur la piraterie maritime” Droit maritime français 710: 69–74. | Weckel, Philippe. 2010. “Journées méditerranéennes sur la piraterie maritime” Droit maritime français 710: 69-74. |
| White, G Edward. 1989. | |
| “The Marshall Court and International Law: The Piracy Cases. ” American Journal of International Law 83(4): 727–735. | White, G Edward. 1989. “The Marshall Court and International Law: The Piracy Cases.” American Journal of International Law 83(4): 727-735. |
| S Whitman and C Saurez. 2012. “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project: The Root Causes and True Costs of Marine Piracy. ” Marine Affairs Program Technical Report ·1. | S Whitman and C Saurez. 2012. “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project: The Root Causes and True Costs of Marine Piracy.” Marine Affairs Program Technical Report ·1. |
| Williamson, Hugh R. 2013. “New Thinking in the Fight against Marine Piracy: Financing and Plunder Pre-Empting Piracy before Prevention Becomes Necessary. ” Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 46:335–54. | Williamson, Hugh R. 2013. “New Thinking in the Fight against Marine Piracy: Financing and Plunder Pre-Empting Piracy before Prevention Becomes Necessary.” Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 46:335-54. |
| Zou, Keyuan. 2009. | |
| “New Developments in the International Law of Piracy. ” Chinese Journal of International Law 8(2): 323–45. | Zou, Keyuan. 2009. “New Developments in the International Law of Piracy.” Chinese Journal of International Law 8(2): 323–45. |
| 2. Monography | 2 Monography |
| Académie du Royaume du Maroc. 1986. La Piraterie au regard du droit des gens : Piracy and the law of nations : La pirateria en el derecho de gentes. Rabat: Publications de l’Académie du Royaume du Maroc. | Académie du Royaume du Maroc. 1986. La Piraterie au regard du droit des gens : Piracy and the law of nations : La pirateria en el derecho de gentes. Rabat: Publications de l’Académie du Royaume du Maroc. |
| Beckman, Robert C and J. Ashley Roach, eds. 2012. Piracy and International Maritime Crimes in ASEAN: Prospects for Cooperation. | Beckman, Robert C and J. Ashley Roach, eds. 2012. Piracy and International Maritime Crimes in ASEAN: Prospects for Cooperation. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. |
| Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Brannon, Stephen and Taufiq Rahim, eds. 2011. | |
| Conference on Global Challenge, Regional Responses: Forging a Common Approach to Maritime Piracy. Dubai: Dubai School of Government. Chapleau, Philippe and Jean-Paul Pancracio. | Brannon, Stephen and Taufiq Rahim, eds. 2011. Conference on Global Challenge, Regional Responses: Forging a Common Approach to Maritime Piracy. Dubai: Dubai School of Government. |
| 2014. La piraterie maritime : Droit, pratiques et enjeux. Paris: Vuibert. | Chapleau, Philippe and Jean-Paul Pancracio. 2014. La piraterie maritime : Droit, pratiques et enjeux. Paris: Vuibert. |
| Chevallier-Govers, Constance & Catherine Schneider, eds. 2015. L’Europe et la lutte contre la piraterie maritime. | Chevallier-Govers, Constance & Catherine Schneider, eds. 2015. L’Europe et la lutte contre la piraterie maritime. Paris: Éditions Pedone. |
| Paris: Éditions Pedone. Dubner, Barry Hart. 1980. The Law of International Sea Piracy. | Dubner, Barry Hart. 1980. The Law of International Sea Piracy. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. |
| The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Grangé, Ninon et al, eds. 2013. | |
| Carl Schmitt: normes, droit et conflit dans les relations internationales. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes. | Grangé, Ninon et al, eds. 2013. Carl Schmitt: normes, droit et conflit dans les relations internationales. Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes. |
| Guilfoyle, Douglas, ed. 2013. Modern Piracy: Legal Challenges and Responses. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. | Guilfoyle, Douglas, ed. 2013. Modern Piracy: Legal Challenges and Responses. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. |
| Guilfoyle, Douglas. 2009. Shipping Interdiction and the Law of the Sea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. | Guilfoyle, Douglas. 2009. Shipping Interdiction and the Law of the Sea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. |
| Le Hardy de Beaulieu, Louis et al, eds. 2007. Criminalité et trafics maritimes: des enjeux politiques aux conséquences juridiques. | Le Hardy de Beaulieu, Louis et al, eds. 2007. Criminalité et trafics maritimes: des enjeux politiques aux conséquences juridiques. Namur: Presses universitaires de Namur. |
| Namur: Presses universitaires de Namur. Hallwood, C. Paul, and Thomas J. Miceli. 2015. | Hallwood, C. Paul, and Thomas J. Miceli. 2015. Maritime Piracy and Its Control: An Economic Analysis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. |
| Maritime Piracy and Its Control: An Economic Analysis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Heller-Roazen, Daniel. | Heller-Roazen, Daniel. 2009. The Enemy of All: Piracy and the Law of Nations. New York: Zone Books. |
| 2009. The Enemy of All: Piracy and the Law of Nations. New York: Zone Books. Houry, Christophe. 2014. | |
| La piraterie maritime au regard du droit international: Incertitudes et évolutions contemporaine Incertitudes et évolutions contemporaines. Paris: Éditions l’Harmattan. Koutrakos, Panos and Achilleas Skordas, eds. | Houry, Christophe. 2014. La piraterie maritime au regard du droit international: Incertitudes et évolutions contemporaine Incertitudes et évolutions contemporaines. Paris: Éditions l’Harmattan. |
| 2014. The law and practice of piracy at sea: European and international perspectives. Oxford: Hart Publishing. | Koutrakos, Panos and Achilleas Skordas, eds. 2014. The law and practice of piracy at sea: European and international perspectives. Oxford: Hart Publishing. |
| Kraska, James. 2011. Contemporary Maritime Piracy: International Law, Strategy, and Diplomacy at Sea. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger Publishers. | Kraska, James. 2011. Contemporary Maritime Piracy: International Law, Strategy, and Diplomacy at Sea. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger Publishers. |
| Latrive, Florent. 2004. Du bon usage de la piraterie: culture libre, sciences ouvertes. | Latrive, Florent. 2004. Du bon usage de la piraterie: culture libre, sciences ouvertes. Paris: Exils. |
| Paris: Exils. Lehr, Peter, ed. 2007. Violence at Sea: Piracy in the Age of Global Terrorism. | Lehr, Peter, ed. 2007. Violence at Sea: Piracy in the Age of Global Terrorism. New York: Routledge. |
| New York: Routledge. Mejia, Maximo Q, Chie Kojima and Mark Sawyer, eds. | Mejia, Maximo Q, Chie Kojima and Mark Sawyer, eds. 2013. Piracy at Sea. New York: Springer. |
| 2013. Piracy at Sea. New York: Springer. Neri, Kiara. 2013. | |
| L’emploi de la force en mer. Bruxelles: Éditions Bruylant. Papastavridis, Efthymios. | Neri, Kiara. 2013. L’emploi de la force en mer. Bruxelles: Éditions Bruylant. |
| 2013. The interception of vessels on the high seas: contemporary challenges to the legal order of the oceans. London: Hart Publishing. | Papastavridis, Efthymios. 2013. The interception of vessels on the high seas: contemporary challenges to the legal order of the oceans. London: Hart Publishing. |
| Petrig, Anna. 2014. Human Rights and Law Enforcement at Sea Arrest, Detention and Transfer of Piracy Suspects. Leiden: Brill. | Petrig, Anna. 2014. Human Rights and Law Enforcement at Sea Arrest, Detention and Transfer of Piracy Suspects. Leiden: Brill. |
| Petrig, Anna, ed. 2010. Sea Piracy Law: Selected National Legal Frameworks and Regional Legislative Approaches / Droit de la piraterie maritime: Cadres juridiques nationaux et approaches législatives regionals. Berlin: Duncker & Humbolt. | Petrig, Anna, ed. 2010. Sea Piracy Law: Selected National Legal Frameworks and Regional Legislative Approaches / Droit de la piraterie maritime: Cadres juridiques nationaux et approaches législatives regionals. Berlin: Duncker & Humbolt. |
| Petrig, Anna, and Robin Geiß. 2011. Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea: The Legal Framework for Counter-Piracy Operations in Somalia and the Gulf of Aden. Oxford: Oxford University Press. | Petrig, Anna, and Robin Geiß. 2011. Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea: The Legal Framework for Counter-Piracy Operations in Somalia and the Gulf of Aden. Oxford: Oxford University Press. |
| Scharf, Michael P, Michael A. Newton and Milena Sterio, eds. 2015. Prosecuting Maritime Piracy: Domestic Solutions to International Crimes. | Scharf, Michael P, Michael A. Newton and Milena Sterio, eds. 2015. Prosecuting Maritime Piracy: Domestic Solutions to International Crimes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. |
| Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Struett, Michael J, Jon D Carlson and Mark T Nance, eds. | Struett, Michael J, Jon D Carlson and Mark T Nance, eds. 2012. Maritime Piracy and the Construction of Global Governance. New York: Routledge. |
| 2012. Maritime Piracy and the Construction of Global Governance. New York: Routledge. Rothwell, Donald, et al, eds. 2016. | |
| The Oxford handbook of the law of the sea. Oxford: Oxford University Press. van Ginkel, Bibi and Frans-Paul van der Putten, eds. | Rothwell, Donald, et al, eds. 2016. The Oxford handbook of the law of the sea. Oxford: Oxford University Press. |
| 2010. The International Response to Somali Piracy: Challenges and Opportunities. Leiden: Brill. | van Ginkel, Bibi and Frans-Paul van der Putten, eds. 2010. The International Response to Somali Piracy: Challenges and Opportunities. Leiden: Brill. |
| Young, Adam J. 2007. Contemporary Maritime Piracy in Southeast Asia: History, Causes and Remedies. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. | Young, Adam J. 2007. Contemporary Maritime Piracy in Southeast Asia: History, Causes and Remedies. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. |
| 3. National Legislations on Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea | 3 National Legislations on Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea |
| Africa | Africa |
| Côte d’Ivoire: loi No.2017-442 du 30 juin 2017 portant Code Maritime ; | Côte d’Ivoire: loi No.2017-442 du 30 juin 2017 portant Code Maritime ; |
| Articles 1008-1010 ; | Articles 1008-1010 ; |
| Article 1018 | Article 1018 |
| Kenya: Act 4 of 2009 – Merchant Shipping, Part XVI – Maritime Security, articles 369-372 | Kenya: Act 4 of 2009 – Merchant Shipping, Part XVI – Maritime Security, articles 369-372 |
| Liberia: Title 26 of the Liberian Code of Laws Revised and Approved July 22, 2008, Vol.IV, page 816, Article 15.31. Piracy | Liberia: Title 26 of the Liberian Code of Laws Revised and Approved July 22, 2008, Vol.IV, page 816, Article 15.31. Piracy |
| Morocco: Code disciplinaire et penal de la marine marchande, Annexe2 du Code maritime de 1919, Article 23(3) crime de piraterie | Morocco: Code disciplinaire et penal de la marine marchande, Annexe2 du Code maritime de 1919, Article 23(3) crime de piraterie |
| South Africa: Act No.42, 2002, Defence Act 2002, Chapter 4: Law Enforcement Powers of Defence Force at Sea | South Africa: Act No.42, 2002, Defence Act 2002, Chapter 4: Law Enforcement Powers of Defence Force at Sea |
| Tanzania: Penal Code, Chapter 16 of the Laws (Revised) | Tanzania: Penal Code, Chapter 16 of the Laws (Revised) |
| Togo: Ordonnance No.129 du 12 Aout 1971, Code de la Marine Marchande, révisée en 2018 ? | Togo: Ordonnance No.129 du 12 Aout 1971, Code de la Marine Marchande, révisée en 2018 ? |
| Union des Comores: Projet de code maritime, Article 81 (sur la piraterie maritime) | Union des Comores: Projet de code maritime, Article 81 (sur la piraterie maritime) |
| Americas | Americas |
| North America | North America |
| Canada: Criminal Code (2009); | Canada: Criminal Code (2009); |
| C-46, Part II, Sections 74-75 | C-46, Part II, Sections 74-75 |
| United States of America: 18 U.S.C. §2280; | United States of America: 18 U.S.C. §2280; |
| 18 U.S.C. § Piracy under law of nations; | 18 U.S.C.§ Piracy under law of nations; |
| 18 U.S.C. § 1652 Citizens as pirates | 18 U.S.C.§ 1652 Citizens as pirates |
| Latin America and the Caribbean | Latin America and the Caribbean |
| Argentina: Penal Code, Chapter III (piracy), Articles 198 and 199 | Argentina: Penal Code, Chapter III (piracy), Articles 198 and 199 |
| Argentina: Penal Code, Section VII, « Crimes against Public Safety », Chapter III-Piracy, Articles 198 and 199 | Argentina: Penal Code, Section VII, « Crimes against Public Safety », Chapter III-Piracy, Articles 198 and 199 |
| Bahamas: Penal Code, Chapter 84, Article 404 (piracy) | Bahamas: Penal Code, Chapter 84, Article 404 (piracy) |
| Brazil: Criminal Code, as Decree Law No 2828 from 7 December 1940, Chapter II, Article 157: Robbery and Extorsion | Brazil: Criminal Code, as Decree Law No 2828 from 7 December 1940, Chapter II, Article 157: Robbery and Extorsion |
| Chile: Codigo Penal : Titulo I del Decreto No.5839 de 30 de septiembre de 1948, Art.6 (7): la pirateria | Chile: Codigo Penal : Titulo I del Decreto No.5839 de 30 de septiembre de 1948, Art.6 (7): la pirateria |
| Cuba: la Ley No. 93 de 20 de Diciembre de 2001, « Ley contra actos de terrorismo », Capitulo IV: Actos contra la Seguridad de la Navegacion Maritima, Articulo 16.1 ; | Cuba: la Ley No. 93 de 20 de Diciembre de 2001, « Ley contra actos de terrorismo », Capitulo IV: Actos contra la Seguridad de la Navegacion Maritima, Articulo 16.1 ; |
| Capitulo VI : Otros Actos que Atentan contra la Seguridad Aerea y Maritima, Articulo 21 | Capitulo VI : Otros Actos que Atentan contra la Seguridad Aerea y Maritima, Articulo 21 |
| Guatemala: Decreto Numero 56-96 | Guatemala: Decreto Numero 56-96 |
| Mexico: Federal Penal Code, Chapter I: Piracy, Article 146 (I, II, III) | Mexico: Federal Penal Code, Chapter I: Piracy, Article 146 (I, II, III) |
| Asia | Asia |
| Indonesia: Penal Code, Chapter XXIX, Article 438-448 | Indonesia: Penal Code, Chapter XXIX, Article 438-448 |
| Iran: Islamic Punishment Act, Article 683, Article 185 | Iran: Islamic Punishment Act, Article 683, Article 185 |
| Japan: Law on Punishment of and Measures against Acts of Piracy | Japan: Law on Punishment of and Measures against Acts of Piracy |
| Philippines: Act No.9372, “Human Security Act of 2007”, Section 3: Terrorism, (a) Article 122 (piracy in general and Munity in the High Seas or in the Philippine Waters); | Philippines: Act No.9372, “Human Security Act of 2007”, Section 3: Terrorism, (a) Article 122 (piracy in general and Munity in the High Seas or in the Philippine Waters); |
| (5) Presidential Decree No.532 (Anti-Piracy and Anti-Highway Robbery Law of 1974 | (5) Presidential Decree No.532 (Anti-Piracy and Anti-Highway Robbery Law of 1974 |
| Republic of Korea: Laws and Ordinances on Punishment of Act of Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea, Article 340 | Republic of Korea: Laws and Ordinances on Punishment of Act of Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea, Article 340 |
| Singapore: Penal Code, Cf.12 and 13 Victoria c.96 (Admiralty Offences (Colonial Act 1849), Article 130B (piracy); | Singapore: Penal Code, Cf.12 and 13 Victoria c.96 (Admiralty Offences (Colonial Act 1849), Article 130B (piracy); |
| Article 130C (piratical acts) | Article 130C (piratical acts) |
| Sri Lanka: Act No.9 of 2001 (Piracy) and Act No.42 of 2000 (Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against The Safety of Maritime Navigation) | Sri Lanka: Act No.9 of 2001 (Piracy) and Act No.42 of 2000 (Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against The Safety of Maritime Navigation) |
| Thailand: Act on Prevention and Suppression of Piracy, B.E.2534 (1991), Anti-Piracy Law | Thailand: Act on Prevention and Suppression of Piracy, B.E.2534 (1991), Anti-Piracy Law |
| Turkey: Turkey Penal Code, Articles 8, 12, 13, 35, 36, 37, 223, 224 | Turkey: Turkey Penal Code, Articles 8, 12, 13, 35, 36, 37, 223, 224 |
| United Arab Emirates: Commercial Maritime Law No.26 of 1981, Articles 208, 209, 210 | United Arab Emirates: Commercial Maritime Law No.26 of 1981, Articles 208, 209, 210 |
| Europe and others | Europe and others |
| Australia: Crimes Act 1914, Sections 51, 52, 54, Part IV – Piracy and Criminal Code Act 1899 | Australia: Crimes Act 1914, Sections 51, 52, 54, Part IV – Piracy and Criminal Code Act 1899 |
| Austria: Criminal Code, Section 65 | Austria: Criminal Code, Section 65 |
| Belgium: Loi relative a la lutte contre la piraterie maritime et modifiant le Code judiciaire (1), 30 décembre 2009 | Belgium: Loi relative a la lutte contre la piraterie maritime et modifiant le Code judiciaire (1), 30 décembre 2009 |
| Bulgaria: Penal Code, Article 6, para.2 | Bulgaria: Penal Code, Article 6, para.2 |
| Czech Republic: Law No.40/2009 Coll., Criminal Code, January 1, 2010, Section 290 (Gaining Control over the Aircraft, Civil Vessel and Fixed Platform) | Czech Republic: Law No.40/2009 Coll., Criminal Code, January 1, 2010, Section 290 (Gaining Control over the Aircraft, Civil Vessel and Fixed Platform) |
| Cyprus: Criminal Code, Part I: Offences related to Piracy, Section 69, and Part II: Other Cyprus legislative provisions on certain acts of piracy/armed robbery | Cyprus: Criminal Code, Part I: Offences related to Piracy, Section 69, and Part II: Other Cyprus legislative provisions on certain acts of piracy/armed robbery |
| Denmark: Criminal Code, Section 183a (piracy) and b (Armed robbery at Sea) | Denmark: Criminal Code, Section 183a (piracy) and b (Armed robbery at Sea) |
| Estonia: Penal Code, Section 110 (piracy) | Estonia: Penal Code, Section 110 (piracy) |
| Finland: Criminal Code, Chapter 1, Section 2 | Finland: Criminal Code, Chapter 1, Section 2 |
| France: Decret No.2011-1213 du 29 septembre 2011 pour l’application de l’article 4 de la loi No.94-589 du 15 juillet 1994 relative a la lutte contre la piraterie et aux modalites de l’exercice par l’Etat de ses pouvoirs de police en mer | France: Decret No.2011-1213 du 29 septembre 2011 pour l’application de l’article 4 de la loi No.94-589 du 15 juillet 1994 relative a la lutte contre la piraterie et aux modalites de l’exercice par l’Etat de ses pouvoirs de police en mer |
| Greece: Greek Code on Public Maritime Law, Article 215 (crime of piracy), Article 8 of the Penal Code (piracy as a crime jure gentium) | Greece: Greek Code on Public Maritime Law, Article 215 (crime of piracy), Article 8 of the Penal Code (piracy as a crime jure gentium) |
| Italy: Decree of December 30, 2008, no209 converted by Law 24th February 2009, n.12, Article 5 of Italian Navigation Code, Article 1135 (Piracy); | Italy: Decree of December 30, 2008, no209 converted by Law 24th February 2009, n.12 , Article 5 of Italian Navigation Code, Article 1135 (Piracy); |
| Article 1136 (Ship on suspicion of Piracy) Israel: Anti-Piracy Legislation: Penal Law, 1977, Section 169 | Article 1136 (Ship on suspicion of Piracy) Israel: Anti-Piracy Legislation: Penal Law, 1977, Section 169 |
| Latvia: Criminal Law of 17th June, 1998, Article 176 (Robbery), Article 268 (Seizure of an Air or Water Transport vehicle) | Latvia: Criminal Law of 17th June, 1998, Article 176 (Robbery), Article 268 (Seizure of an Air or Water Transport vehicle) |
| Malta: Criminal Code: CAP.9, Sub-title IV B of Piracy, Article 328N (Definition of piracy, Added by XI.2009.7) | Malta: Criminal Code: CAP.9, Sub-title IV B of Piracy, Article 328N (Definition of piracy, Added by XI.2009.7) |
| New Zealand: The Crimes Act 1961, s92-97 | New Zealand: The Crimes Act 1961, s92-97 |
| Norway: General Civil Penal Code, Section 49 | Norway: General Civil Penal Code, Section 49 |
| Poland: Polish Penal Code, Chapter XVI, Chapter XX and Chapter XXXII | Poland: Polish Penal Code, Chapter XVI, Chapter XX and Chapter XXXII |
| Russia: Federal Act No.162-FZ of December 2003, Article 227. Piracy | Russia: Federal Act No.162-FZ of December 2003, Article 227. Piracy |
| Spain: La legislacion Espagnola en material de Pirateria, 2009, la Ley Organica 6/1985, Articulo 23 aparatado 4 (c) : Pirateria y apoderamiento illicito de aeronaves | Spain: La legislacion Espagnola en material de Pirateria, 2009, la Ley Organica 6/1985, Articulo 23 aparatado 4 (c) : Pirateria y apoderamiento illicito de aeronaves |
| Ukraine: Criminal Code of 2001, Article 446 | Ukraine: Criminal Code of 2001, Article 446 |
| United Kingdom: Merchant Shipping and Maritime Security Act of 1997, Article 26; | United Kingdom: Merchant Shipping and Maritime Security Act of 1997, Article 26; |
| and Piracy Act 1837 c.88 | and Piracy Act 1837 c.88 |
| 4. National Court Decisions | 4 National Court Decisions |
| Africa | AFRICA |
| Tanzania | Tanzania |
| Ibrahim Sangoro v. Republic, Court of Appeal of Tanzania, Case No.298 of 1992; [1984] TZHC 13; | Ibrahim Sangoro v. Republic, Court of Appeal of Tanzania, Case No.298 of 1992;[1984] TZHC 13; |
| (12 May 1984); | (12 May 1984); |
| 1984 TLR 314 (TZHC) | 1984 TLR 314 (TZHC) |
| Magendo Paul and Others v. Republic, [1992] TLR 220; | Magendo Paul and Others v. Republic, [1992] TLR 220; |
| [1993] TZCA 23; | [1993] TZCA 23; |
| (25 October 1993); | (25 October 1993); |
| 1993 TLR 220 (TZCA) | 1993 TLR 220 (TZCA) |
| Manju Salum Msambya v. Attorney General and kifu Gulamu Hussein kifu | Manju Salum Msambya v. Attorney General and kifu Gulamu Hussein kifu |
| Makoye Samwal Kashinge and 4 Others v. Republic | Makoye Samwal Kashinge and 4 Others v. Republic |
| Michael Haishi v. Republic, [1992] TLR 92; | Michael Haishi v. Republic, [1992] TLR 92; |
| [1992] TZCA 15; | [1992] TZCA 15; |
| (13 May 1992); | (13 May 1992); |
| 1992 TLR 92 (TZCA) | 1992 TLR 92 (TZCA) |
| Mohamed Said Matula v. Republic, [1995] TLR3; | Mohamed Said Matula v. Republic, [1995] TLR3; |
| [1994] TZCA 8; | [1994] TZCA 8; |
| (11 April 1994); | (11 April 1994); |
| 1995 TLR 3 (TZCA) | 1995 TLR 3 (TZCA) |
| Raymond Francis v. Republic, [1994] TLR 100; | Raymond Francis v. Republic, [1994] TLR 100; |
| [1994] TZCA 2; | [1994] TZCA 2; |
| (14 February 1994); | (14 February 1994); |
| 1994 TLR 100 (TZCA) | 1994 TLR 100 (TZCA) |
| Republic v. Mohamed Bin Akui | Republic v. Mohamed Bin Akui |
| Republic v. Mohamed Nuru Adam and Others | Republic v. Mohamed Nuru Adam and Others; |
| Seychelles | Seychelles |
| Hassan Thaliil Ahmed and Others v. Republic, Supreme Court Decision CR73/2013, Criminal Appeal SCA06-13/2015; (SCA 06-13/2015) [2016] SCCA 32 | Hassan Thaliil Ahmed and Others v. Republic, Supreme Court Decision CR73/2013, Criminal Appeal SCA06-13/2015;(SCA 06-13/2015) [2016] SCCA 32 |
| Mohamed Abdi barre and Others v. Republic, Criminal Appeal SCA 07/2013, Appeal from Supreme Court Decision, 28/2012;SCA No. 7 /2013) [2015] SCCA 2 | Mohamed Abdi barre and Others v. Republic, Criminal Appeal SCA 07/2013, Appeal from Supreme Court Decision, 28/2012;SCA No. 7 /2013) [2015] SCCA 2 |
| Mohamed Hassan Ali and Others v. Republic, Seychelles Court of Appeal, Appeal from Supreme Court Decision CR08/2012, 12 December 2014; | Mohamed Hassan Ali and Others v. Republic, Seychelles Court of Appeal, Appeal from Supreme Court Decision CR08/2012, 12 December 2014; |
| (CO 06/2014) [2016] SCSC 129 | (CO 06/2014) [2016] SCSC 129 |
| Mohamed Shire v. The Republic, [2015] SCCA 25 (Seychelles Court of Appeal); (SCA CR 31-37/2014) [2015] SCCA 25 | Mohamed Shire v. The Republic, [2015] SCCA 25 (Seychelles Court of Appeal);(SCA CR 31-37/2014) [2015] SCCA 25 |
| R v. Ise, (2011) SLR 220;(75 of 2010) [2011] SCSC 37 | R v. Ise, (2011) SLR 220;(75 of 2010) [2011] SCSC 37 |
| R v. Osman, (2011) SLR 345;CO 19/2011) [2011] SCSC 74 | R v. Osman, (2011) SLR 345;CO 19/2011) [2011] SCSC 74 |
| Republic v. Aden, (2011) SLR 41; (CO 75/2010) [2011] SCSC 100 | Republic v. Aden, (2011) SLR 41;(CO 75/2010) [2011] SCSC 100 |
| Republic v. Ali, (2010) SLR 341, Supreme Court of Seychelles; | Republic v. Ali, (2010) SLR 341, Supreme Court of Seychelles; |
| SCA 22/2012) [2014] SCCA 34 | SCA 22/2012) [2014] SCCA 34 |
| Republic v. Farad Ahmed and Others, Supreme Court of Seychelles, Criminal Side No. 16 of 2012; | Republic v. Farad Ahmed and Others, Supreme Court of Seychelles, Criminal Side No. 16 of 2012; |
| (Criminal Side No: 16 of 2012) [2013] SCSC 17 | (Criminal Side No: 16 of 2012) [2013] SCSC 17 |
| Republic v. Mohamed Ahmed Dahir & TEN (10) Others, Supreme Court of Seychelles, Criminal Side No. 51 of 2009; | Republic v. Mohamed Ahmed Dahir & TEN (10) Others, Supreme Court of Seychelles, Criminal Side No. 51 of 2009; |
| (51 of 2009) [2010] SCSC 81 | (51 of 2009) [2010] SCSC 81 |
| Republic v. Mohammed Ali Hossein and Others, [2016] SCSC 129, 20 January 2016, Supreme Court of Seychelles; | Republic v. Mohammed Ali Hossein and Others, [2016] SCSC 129, 20 January 2016, Supreme Court of Seychelles; |
| (CO 06/2014) [2016] SCSC 129 | (CO 06/2014) [2016] SCSC 129 |
| The Sunshine incident; | The Sunshine incident; |
| No citation available | No citation available |
| The Al Molai incident; | The Al Molai incident; |
| No citation available | No citation available |
| Kenya | Kenya |
| Abdiaziz Ali Abdulahi & 23 others v Republic, [2014] EKLR | Abdiaziz Ali Abdulahi & 23 others v Republic, [2014] EKLR |
| Abdikadir Isey Ali & 8 others v Republic, [2015] EKLR | Abdikadir Isey Ali & 8 others v Republic, [2015] EKLR |
| Abdirahman Mohamed Roble & 10 others v Republic, [2013] EKLR | Abdirahman Mohamed Roble & 10 others v Republic, [2013] EKLR |
| Attorney General V Mohamud Mohammed Hashi & 8 Others, [2012] EKLR | Attorney General V Mohamud Mohammed Hashi & 8 Others, [2012] EKLR |
| Hassan M. Ahmed v. Republic, [2009] EKLR | Hassan M. Ahmed v. Republic, [2009] EKLR |
| Omar Shariff Abdalla v. Corporate Insurance Co Ltd, [2005] EKLR | Omar Shariff Abdalla v. Corporate Insurance Co Ltd, [2005] EKLR |
| Republic v. Chief Magistrate Court, Mombasa Ex-parte Mohamud Mohamed Hashi & 8 Others, [2010] EKLR | Republic v. Chief Magistrate Court, Mombasa Ex-parte Mohamud Mohamed Hashi & 8 Others, [2010] EKLR |
| Asia | ASIA |
| Enrica Lexie case 2012 (India/Italy) | Enrica Lexie case 2012 (India/Italy) |
| Lia incident 2009 (China) | Lia incident 2009 (China) |
| MV Guanabara case 2011 (Japan) | MV Guanabara case 2011 (Japan) |
| M/V Guanabara Case, Tokyo High Court, 18 December 2013 (Japan) | M/V Guanabara Case, Tokyo High Court, 18 December 2013 (Japan) |
| MV Jag Arnav case 2008 (India) | MV Jag Arnav case 2008 (India) |
| MV Stolt Valor (India) | MV Stolt Valor (India) |
| MV Zhenhua 2009 (China) | MV Zhenhua 2009 (China) |
| Europe & others | EUROPE & OTHERS |
| Alakrana case 2009 (Spain) | Alakrana case 2009 (Spain) |
| Athens Maritime Enterprises Corp v. Hellenic Mutual War Risks Association (Bermuda) Limited or the Andreas Lemos, [1983] 1 All ER 590 (UK); | Athens Maritime Enterprises Corp v. Hellenic Mutual War Risks Association (Bermuda) Limited or the Andreas Lemos, [1983] 1 All ER 590 (UK); |
| [1982] 2 Lloyd’s Rep. 483 | [1982] 2 Lloyd's Rep. 483 |
| Carré d’As Case (France) | Carré d’As Case (France) |
| The case In Re Piracy Jure Gentium, [1934] AC 586 (UK) | The case In Re Piracy Jure Gentium, [1934] AC 586 (UK) |
| Castle John case (Belgium) | Castle John case (Belgium) |
| The Cygnus case (Somali Pirates), Rotterdam District Court, 17 June 2010, 145 International Law Report 491, 499 (Netherlands); | The Cygnus case (Somali Pirates), Rotterdam District Court, 17 June 2010, 145 International Law Report 491, 499 (Netherlands); |
| 145 I.L.R. 491, 491–92 (Rb. Rotterdam 2010) | 145 I.L.R. 491, 491–92 (Rb. Rotterdam 2010) |
| Feddah case 2012 (Netherlands);22-004920-12 (ECLI:NL:GHDHA:2014:1006) | Feddah case 2012 (Netherlands);22-004920-12 (ECLI:NL:GHDHA:2014:1006) |
| Fidelio case, Court of Cassation decision of 1 February 1993 (Italy) | Fidelio case, Court of Cassation decision of 1 February 1993 (Italy) |
| MV Faina case 2009 (Russia) | MV Faina case 2009 (Russia) |
| MV Taipan case 2012 (Germany) | MV Taipan case 2012 (Germany) |
| New South Wales v. Commonwealth, (1975) 135 CLR 337 (Australia) | New South Wales v. Commonwealth, (1975) 135 CLR 337 (Australia) |
| Petral case 2010 (Belgium) | Petral case 2010 (Belgium) |
| Pompei case 2009 (Belgium) | Pompei case 2009 (Belgium) |
| Ponant Case (France) | Ponant Case (France) |
| Re Castioni, [1891] 1QB 149 (UK) | Re Castioni, [1891] 1QB 149 (UK) |
| Republic of Bolivia v. Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Company Limited, [1909] 1 KB 785 (UK) | Republic of Bolivia v. Indemnity Mutual Marine Assurance Company Limited, [1909] 1 KB 785 (UK) |
| Samanyulo case 2009 (Netherlands) | Samanyulo case 2009 (Netherlands) |
| Tanit Case (France) | Tanit Case (France) |
| Winner Case 2008 (France) | Winner Case 2008 (France) |
| Americas | AMERICAS |
| United States of America | United States of America |
| The Belfast, Supreme Court of the United States, December 1, 1868, 74 U.S. 624. | The Belfast, Supreme Court of the United States, December 1, 1868, 74 U.S. 624. |
| Ex parte Gordon, Supreme Court of the United States, December 1, 1861, 66 U.S. 503. | Ex parte Gordon, Supreme Court of the United States, December 1, 1861, 66 U.S. 503. |
| Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co., Supreme Court of the United States, April 17, 2013, 569 U.S. 108. | Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co., Supreme Court of the United States, April 17, 2013, 569 U.S. 108. |
| Manro v. Almeida, Supreme Court of the United States, March 8, 1825, 23 U.S. 473. | Manro v. Almeida, Supreme Court of the United States, March 8, 1825, 23 U.S. 473. |
| New Jersey Steam Nav Co. v. Merchant’s Bank of Boston, Supreme Court of the United States, January 1, 1848, 47 U.S. 344. | New Jersey Steam Nav Co. v. Merchant’s Bank of Boston, Supreme Court of the United States, January 1, 1848, 47 U.S. 344. |
| United States v. Flores, Supreme Court of the United States, April 10, 1933, 289 U.S. 137. | United States v. Flores, Supreme Court of the United States, April 10, 1933, 289 U.S. 137. |
| U.S. v. ALI, United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit, June 11, 2013, 718 F.3d 929 782 F.3d 159. | U.S. v. ALI, United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit, June 11, 2013, 718 F.3d 929 782 F.3d 159. |
| U.S. v. ALI, United States District Court, District of Columbia, July 13, 2012, 885 F.Supp.2d 17. | U.S. v. ALI, United States District Court, District of Columbia, July 13, 2012, 885 F.Supp.2d 17. |
| U.S. v. Beyle, United States Court of Appeals, Fourth Circuit, April 3, 2015, 782 F.3d 159. | U.S. v. Beyle, United States Court of Appeals, Fourth Circuit, April 3, 2015, 782 F.3d 159. |
| U.S. v. Dire, United States Court of Appeals, Fourth Circuit, February 28, 2014, 680 F.3d 446 | U.S. v. Dire, United States Court of Appeals, Fourth Circuit, February 28, 2014, 680 F.3d 446 |
| U.S. v. Smith, Supreme Court of the United States, February 25, 1820, 18 U.S. 153. | U.S. v. Smith, Supreme Court of the United States, February 25, 1820, 18 U.S. 153. |
| U.S. v. Wiltberger, Supreme Court of the United States, February 18, 2018, 18 U.S. 76. | U.S. v. Wiltberger, Supreme Court of the United States, February 18, 2018, 18 U.S. 76. |
| 5. International case law relating to the use of force at sea | 5 International case law relating to the use of force at sea |
| Affaires Yassin Abdullah Kadi et Al Barakaat International Foundation/Conseil et Commission, 3 Septembre 2008, CJUE; | Affaires Yassin Abdullah Kadi et Al Barakaat International Foundation/Conseil et Commission, 3 Septembre 2008, CJUE; |
| Joined cases C-402/05 P and C-415/05 P. | Joined cases C-402/05 P and C-415/05 P. |
| Enrica Lexie case, India v. Italy, 2012; | Enrica Lexie case, India v. Italy, 2012; |
| AIR 2012 SC 2134; | AIR 2012 SC 2134; |
| 2013(4) SCALE 578. (2013) 4 SCC 721 | 2013(4) SCALE 578. (2013) 4 SCC 721 |
| Guyana v. Suriname, (2008) 47 ILM 164;ICGJ 370 (PCA 2007), 47 ILM 166, 2008 | Guyana v. Suriname, (2008) 47 ILM 164;ICGJ 370 (PCA 2007), 47 ILM 166, 2008 |
| Medvedyev v. France, judgment, March 29, 2010, para.85 (Eur.Ct.H.R 2010); | Medvedyev v. France, judgment, March 29, 2010, para.85 (Eur.Ct.H.R 2010); |
| GC] 3394/03 Judgment 29.3.2010 [GC] | [GC]-3394/03 Judgment 29.3.2010 [GC] |
| M/V Saiga (No.2) (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines v. Guinea), judgment, [1999] 3 ITLOS Rep 10 at 48; | M/V Saiga (No.2) (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines v. Guinea), judgment, [1999] 3 ITLOS Rep 10 at 48; |
| [1999] 3 ITLOS Rep 10 at 48 | [1999] 3 ITLOS Rep 10 at 48 |
| SS I’m Alone (Canada v. United States), (1935) 3 RIAA 1609; | SS I’m Alone (Canada v. United States), (1935) 3 RIAA 1609; |
| 3 RIAA 1609 | 3 RIAA 1609 |
| The Red Crusader (Denmark v. UK), (1962) 35 ILR 485; | The Red Crusader (Denmark v. UK), (1962) 35 ILR 485; |
| (1962) 35 ILR 485 | (1962) 35 ILR 485 |
| 6. Legal Instruments (regional and multilateral legal instruments) | 6 International Legal Instruments (regional and multilateral legal instruments) |
| UNCLOS, Articles 100-107, 110, 111, Article 87 | UNCLOS, Articles 100-107, 110, 111, Article 87 |
| IMO Resolutions, Documents and Guidance | IMO Resolutions, Documents and Guidance |
| • Assembly Resolution Res.A.922 (22) (November 29, 2001): Code of Practice for the Investigation of the Crimes of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships, | • Assembly Resolution Res.A.922 (22) (November 29, 2001): Code of Practice for the Investigation of the Crimes of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships, |
| • “Piracy : elements of national legislation pursuant to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982” (Doc LEG 98/8/1 and LEG 98/8/3, submitted by DOALOS | • “Piracy : elements of national legislation pursuant to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982” (Doc LEG 98/8/1 and LEG 98/8/3, submitted by DOALOS |
| • “Establishment of a legislative framework to allow for effective and efficient piracy prosecutions” (Doc LEG 98/8/2, submitted by UNODC | • “Establishment of a legislative framework to allow for effective and efficient piracy prosecutions” (Doc LEG 98/8/2, submitted by UNODC |
| • “Uniform and consistent application for the provisions of international conventions relating to piracy” (DOC LEG 98/8), submitted by IMO Secretariat | • “Uniform and consistent application for the provisions of international conventions relating to piracy” (DOC LEG 98/8), submitted by IMO Secretariat |
| • “Establishment of a legislative framework to allow for effective and efficient piracy prosecutions” (DOC LEG 98/4), submitted by Ukraine | • “Establishment of a legislative framework to allow for effective and efficient piracy prosecutions” (DOC LEG 98/4), submitted by Ukraine |
| • Implications of the United Nations Convention on the Law pf the Sea for the International Maritime Organization¨, IMO, LEG/MISC.8, January 30, 2014; | • Implications of the United Nations Convention on the Law pf the Sea for the International Maritime Organization¨, IMO, LEG/MISC.8, January 30, 2014; |
| at 46-51 (Chapter on piracy | at 46-51 (Chapter on piracy |
| IMO Assembly Resolutions | IMO Assembly Resolutions |
| • A.545(13) (1983), Measures to prevent acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships | • A.545(13) (1983), Measures to prevent acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships |
| • A.683(17) (1991), Prevention and suppression of acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships | • A.683(17) (1991), Prevention and suppression of acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships |
| • A.738(18) (1993), Measures to prevent and suppress piracy and armed robbery against ships | • A.738(18) (1993), Measures to prevent and suppress piracy and armed robbery against ships |
| • A.979(24) (2005), Piracy and armed robbery against ships in waters off the coast of Somalia | • A.979(24) (2005), Piracy and armed robbery against ships in waters off the coast of Somalia |
| • A.1002(25) (2007), Piracy and armed robbery against ships in waters off the coast of Somalia | • A.1002(25) (2007), Piracy and armed robbery against ships in waters off the coast of Somalia |
| • MSC.1/Circ. 1333 (2009), Recommendations to Governments for preventing and suppressing piracy and armed robbery against ships (replaces MSC/Circ.622/Rev.1) | • MSC.1/Circ. 1333 (2009), Recommendations to Governments for preventing and suppressing piracy and armed robbery against ships (replaces MSC/Circ.622/Rev.1) |
| • MSC.1/Circ. 1334 (2009), Guidance to Shipowners and ship operators, shipmasters and crews on preventing and suppressing acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships (replaces MSC/Circ.623/Rev.3) | • MSC.1/Circ. 1334 (2009), Guidance to Shipowners and ship operators, shipmasters and crews on preventing and suppressing acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships (replaces MSC/Circ.623/Rev.3) |
| • MSC.1/Circ. 1332 (2009), Piracy and armed robbery against ships in waters off the coast of Somalia | • MSC.1/Circ. 1332 (2009), Piracy and armed robbery against ships in waters off the coast of Somalia |
| • MSC/Circ.1073 (2003), Directives for Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centres (MRCCs) on Acts of Violence against Ships, Conference Report: Overview of legal issues relating to different private interests | • MSC/Circ.1073 (2003), Directives for Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centres (MRCCs) on Acts of Violence against Ships, Conference Report: Overview of legal issues relating to different private interests |
| • Draft 26th IMO Assembly Resolution, Adoption of the Code of Practice for Investigation of crimes of piracy and armed robbery against ships (2009), to replace A.922(22), MSC 86/26/Add.2, Annex 23 | • Draft 26th IMO Assembly Resolution, Adoption of the Code of Practice for Investigation of crimes of piracy and armed robbery against ships (2009), to replace A.922(22), MSC 86/26/Add.2, Annex 23 |
| • Code of Conduct Concerning the Repression of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden, 2009, IMO doc. C 102/14, Annex | • Code of Conduct Concerning the Repression of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden, 2009, IMO doc. C 102/14, Annex |
| • SN.1/Circ.281, Information on Internationally Recommended Transit Corridor (IRTC) for Ships Transiting the Gulf of Aden, 32 August 2009 | • SN.1/Circ.281, Information on Internationally Recommended Transit Corridor (IRTC) for Ships Transiting the Gulf of Aden, 32 August 2009 |
| • Seoul Statement on Piracy off the Coast of Somalia, 10 June 2009, IMO doc. C 102/INF.3, Annex | • Seoul Statement on Piracy off the Coast of Somalia, 10 June 2009, IMO doc. C 102/INF.3, Annex |
| SOLAS Convention (Convention on Safety of Life at Sea) | SOLAS Convention (Convention on Safety of Life at Sea) |
| UNODC Regulations | UNODC Regulations |
| ICC; | ICC; |
| International Chamber of Commerce | International Chamber of Commerce |
| IMB (International Maritime Bureau) | IMB (International Maritime Bureau) |
| FAO Resolutions | FAO Resolutions |
| INTERPOL: | INTERPOL: |
| • INTERPOL’s Global Piracy Database ; | • INTERPOL’s Global Piracy Database ; |
| and its case: Greece to Prosecute First Maritime Piracy Case with Evidence Gathered by INTERPOL Team, December 12, 2012 | and its case: Greece to Prosecute First Maritime Piracy Case with Evidence Gathered by INTERPOL Team, December 12, 2012 |
| • The EVEXI (Evidence Exploitation Intelligence) | • The EVEXI (Evidence Exploitation Intelligence) |
| IOCA Rules | IOCA Rules |
| 7. Security Council Resolutions | 7 Security Council Resolutions |
| S/Res/1816(2008), November 6, 2008 | S/Res/1816(2008), November 6, 2008 |
| S/Res/1838(2008), October 7, 2008 | S/Res/1838(2008), October 7, 2008 |
| S/Res/1846(2008), December 2, 2008 | S/Res/1846(2008), December 2, 2008 |
| S/Res/1851(2008), December 16, 2008 | S/Res/1851(2008), December 16, 2008 |
| S/Res/1897(2009), November 30, 2009 | S/Res/1897(2009), November 30, 2009 |
| S/Res/1918(2010), April 23, 2010 | S/Res/1918(2010), April 23, 2010 |
| S/Res/1950(2010), November 23, 2010 | S/Res/1950(2010), November 23, 2010 |
| S/Res/1976(2011), April 11, 2011 | S/Res/1976(2011), April 11, 2011 |
| S/Res/2015(2011), October 24, 2011 | S/Res/2015(2011), October 24, 2011 |
| S/Res/2018(2011), October 31, 2011 | S/Res/2018(2011), October 31, 2011 |
| S/Res/2020(2011), November 22, 2011 | S/Res/2020(2011), November 22, 2011 |
| S/Res/2039(2012), February 29, 2012 | S/Res/2039(2012), February 29, 2012 |
| S/Res/2077(2012), November 21, 2012 | S/Res/2077(2012), November 21, 2012 |
| S/Res/2125(2013), November18, 2013 | S/Res/2125(2013), November18, 2013 |
| S/Res/2383(2017), 7 November 2017 | S/Res/2383(2017), 7 November 2017 |
| S/2012/45(2012), January 19, 2012 | S/2012/45(2012), January 19, 2012 |
| S/2012/50, January 20, 2012: Report of the Secretary-General on specialized anti-piracy courts in Somalia and other States in the region | S/2012/50, January 20, 2012: Report of the Secretary-General on specialized anti-piracy courts in Somalia and other States in the region |
| 8. United Nations General Assembly Resolutions and Documents | 8 United Nations General Assembly Resolutions and Documents |
| G.A. Res. 63/111, para.61, U.N. Doc. A/RES/63/111, December 5, 2008 | G.A. Res. 63/111, para.61, U.N. Doc. A/RES/63/111, December 5, 2008. |
| G.A. Res. 66/231, para.81, U.N. Doc. A/RES/66/231, December 24, 2011 | G.A. Res. 66/231, para.81, U.N. Doc. A/RES/66/231, December 24, 2011 |
| G.A. Res. 67/78, para.88, U.N. Doc. A/RES/67/78, December 11, 2012 | G.A. Res. 67/78, para.88, U.N. Doc. A/RES/67/78, December 11, 2012 |
| UNGA: International Expert Group on Piracy off the Somali Coast: Final Report: Assessment and Recommendations (workshop commissioned by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the United Nations to Somalia, 21 November 2008 | UNGA: International Expert Group on Piracy off the Somali Coast: Final Report: Assessment and Recommendations (workshop commissioned by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the United Nations to Somalia, 21 November 2008 |
| UN Basic Principles on Firearms, UN DocA /CONF.144/28/Rev.1, article 9 | UN Basic Principles on Firearms, UN DocA /CONF.144/28/Rev.1, article 9 |
| UN Doc. S/2011/30, January 25, 2011, Special Advisor to the Secretary-General on Legal Issues Related to Piracy off the Coast of Somalia (Special Advisor Jack Lang) | UN Doc. S/2011/30, January 25, 2011, Special Advisor to the Secretary-General on Legal Issues Related to Piracy off the Coast of Somalia (Special Advisor Jack Lang) |
| 9. Reports of the UN Secretary-General | 9 Reports of the UN Secretary-General |
| S/2010/394, July 26, 2010 | S/2010/394, July 26, 2010 |
| S/2010/556, October 27, 2010 | S/2010/556, October 27, 2010 |
| S/2011/360, June 15, 2011 | S/2011/360, June 15, 2011 |
| S/2011/662, October 25, 2011 | S/2011/662, October 25, 2011 |
| S/2012/50, January 20, 2012 | S/2012/50, January 20, 2012 |
| S/2012/783, October 22, 2012 | S/2012/783, October 22, 2012 |
| S/2013/623, October 21, 2013 | S/2013/623, October 21, 2013 |
| 10. International Cooperation | 10 International Cooperation |
| States involved: Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, India, the Netherlands, the Russian federation, Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, China, South Korea, Germany, etc | States involved: Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, India, the Netherlands, the Russian federation, Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, China, South Korea, Germany, etc |
| EU NAVFOR Atalanta, 2008 | EU NAVFOR Atalanta, 2008 |
| NATO Operation Ocean Shield, 2009 | NATO Operation Ocean Shield, 2009 |
| American-Led Combined Maritime Forces (Task Force 151 on piracy, 2009 | American-Led Combined Maritime Forces (Task Force 151 on piracy, 2009 |
| “Exchange of Letters between the European union and the Government of Kenya on the Conditions and Modalities for the Transfer of Persons Suspected of having Committed Acts of Piracy”, Introductory Note by Eugene Kontorovich, in (2009) 48 ILM 747, 747-9 | “Exchange of Letters between the European union and the Government of Kenya on the Conditions and Modalities for the Transfer of Persons Suspected of having Committed Acts of Piracy”, Introductory Note by Eugene Kontorovich, in (2009) 48 ILM 747, 747-9 |
| 11. Regional Cooperation | 11 Regional Cooperation |
| Regional Cooperation Agreement in Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia, 2006 (ReCAAP, 2006) | Regional Cooperation Agreement in Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia, 2006 (ReCAAP, 2006) |
| The Code of Conduct Concerning the Repression of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden, (Djibouti Code of Conduct, 2009) | The Code of Conduct Concerning the Repression of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden, (Djibouti Code of Conduct, 2009) |
| Code of Conduct Concerning the Repression of Piracy, Armed Robbery against Ships, and illicit Maritime Activity in West and Central Africa (Gulf of Guinea Code of Conduct, 2013) | Code of Conduct Concerning the Repression of Piracy, Armed Robbery against Ships, and illicit Maritime Activity in West and Central Africa (Gulf of Guinea Code of Conduct, 2013) |
| Mr. Georg Nolte, Mr. Ernest Petrič and Mr. Eduardo Valencia-Ospina. | 格奥尔格·诺尔特先生、埃内斯特·彼得里奇先生、爱德华多·巴伦西亚－奥斯皮纳先生。 |
| Ms. Concepción Escobar Hernández, Mr. Juan Manuel Gómez Robledo, Ms. Marja Lehto, Mr. Shinya Murase, Mr. Sean D. Murphy, Mr. Dire D. Tladi and Mr. Marcelo Vázquez-Bermúdez. | 康塞普西翁·埃斯科瓦尔·埃尔南德斯女士、胡安·曼努埃尔·戈麦斯－罗夫莱多先生、玛丽亚·莱赫托女士、村濑信也先生、肖恩·墨菲先生、迪雷·特拉迪先生、马塞洛·巴斯克斯－贝穆德斯先生。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/73/10), para. 88. | 《大会正式记录，第七十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/73/10)，第88段。 |
| Ibid., para. 36. | 同上，第36段。 |
| Ibid., annex B. | 同上，附件B。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/69/10), para. 266. | 《大会正式记录，第六十九届会议，补编第10号》(A/69/10)，第266段。 |
| See A/CN.4/680 and Corr.1 (first report), A/CN.4/690 (second report), and A/CN.4/704 (third report). | 见A/CN.4/680和Corr.1(第一次报告)、A/CN.4/690(第二次报告)以及A/CN.4/704(第三次报告)。 |
| A/CN.4/698. | A/CN.4/698。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-second Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/72/10), paras. 38–42. | 《大会正式记录，第七十二届会议，补编第10号》(A/72/10)，第38至第42段。 |
| Ibid., para. 43. | 同上，第43段。 |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Paris, 9 December 1948), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 78, No. 1021, p. 277. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》(1948年12月9日，巴黎)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第78卷，第1021号，第277页。 |
| Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (Geneva, 12 August 1949), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 75, No. 970, p. 31 (hereinafter “Geneva Convention I”); | 《改善战地武装部队伤者病者境遇之日内瓦公约》(1949年8月12日，日内瓦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第75卷，第970号，第31页(下称“《日内瓦第一公约》”)； |
| Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (Geneva, 12 August 1949), ibid., No. 971, p. 85 (hereinafter “Geneva Convention II”); | 《改善海上武装部队伤者病者及遇船难者境遇之日内瓦公约》(1949年8月12日，日内瓦)，同上，第971号，第85页(下称“《日内瓦第二公约》”)； |
| Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Geneva, 12 August 1949), ibid., No. 972, p. 135 (hereinafter “Geneva Convention III”); | 《关于战俘待遇之日内瓦公约》(1949年8月12日，日内瓦)，同上，第972号，第135页(下称“《日内瓦第三公约》”)； |
| Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Geneva, 12 August 1949), ibid., No. 973, p. 287 (hereinafter “Geneva Convention IV”); | 《关于战时保护平民之日内瓦公约》(1949年8月12日，日内瓦)，同上，第973号，第287页(下称“《日内瓦第四公约》”)。 |
| Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Geneva, 8 June 1977), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1125, No. 17512, p. 3 (hereinafter “Additional Protocol I”). | 《一九四九年八月十二日四公约关于保护国际性武装冲突受难者的附加议定书》，(1977年6月8日，日内瓦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1125卷，第17512号，第3页(下称“《第一附加议定书》”)。 |
| See Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015, p. 3, at p. 64, para. 139 (“The Court recalls that, in 2007, it held that the intent to destroy a national, ethnic, racial or religious group as such is specific to genocide and distinguishes it from other related criminal acts such as crimes against humanity and persecution”.) (citing to Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007, p. 43, at pp. 121–122, paras. 187–188). | 见《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(克罗地亚诉塞尔维亚)，判决，《2015年国际法院案例汇编》，第3页起，见第64页，第139段(“法院回顾说，2007年法院认定摧毁民族、族裔、种族或宗教群体的意向是灭绝种族的特定要件，使这种犯罪与诸如危害人类罪、迫害等其他有关犯罪行为相区分”)(引自《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那诉塞尔维亚和黑山)，判决，《2007年国际法院案例汇编》，第43页起，见第121-122页，第187-188段)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption (New York, 31 October 2003), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2349, No. 42146, p. 41. | 《联合国反腐败公约》(2003年10月31日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2349卷，第42146号，第41页。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (New York, 15 November 2000), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2225, No. 39574, p. 209. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》(2000年11月15日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2225卷，第39574号，第209页。 |
| See report of the International Law Commission on the work of its sixty-fifth session (2013), Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/68/10), annex B, para. 3. | 见国际法委员会第六十五届会议工作报告(2013年)，《大会正式记录，第六十八届会议，补编第10号》(A/68/10)，附件B, 第3段。 |
| Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Rome, 17 July 1998), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2187, No. 38544, p. 3 (hereinafter “Rome Statute”). | 《国际刑事法院罗马规约》(1998年7月17日，罗马)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2187卷，第38544号，第3页(下称“《罗马规约》”)。 |
| Charter of the United Nations (San Francisco, 26 June 1945), Article 2, paras. 1 and 4. | 《联合国宪章》(1945年6月26日，旧金山)，第二条，第一和第四款。 |
| See Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, General Assembly resolution 26/25 (XXV) of 24 October 1970. | 见《关于各国依联合国宪章建立友好关系与合作的国际法原则宣言》，1970年10月24日联大第26/25(XXV)号决议。 |
| United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property (New York, 2 December 2004), Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 49 (A/59/49), vol. I, resolution 59/38, preamble; | 《联合国国家及其财产管辖豁免公约》(2004年12月2日，纽约)，《大会正式记录，第五十九届会议，补编第49号》(A/59/49)。 第一卷，第59/38号决议，序言； |
| Rome Statute, preamble. | 《罗马规约》，序言。 |
| Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Vienna, 23 May 1969), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1155, No. 18232, p. 331, art. 53. | 《维也纳条约法公约》(1969年5月23日，维也纳)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1155卷，第18232号，第331页，第五十三条。 |
| See also draft conclusion 2 of the draft conclusions on peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) adopted by the Commission on first reading (see paragraph 56 below). | 另见委员会一读通过的关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的结论草案中的结论草案2(见下文第56段)。 |
| Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, p. 85, para. (5) of the commentary to art. 26 of the draft articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts (maintaining that those “peremptory norms that are clearly accepted and recognized include the prohibition[] of … crimes against humanity”). | 《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第85页，《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》第26条评注第(5)段(认为“已经被明确接受和承认的强制性规范包括[禁止]…危害人类罪行”)。 |
| See also draft conclusion 23 of the draft conclusions on peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) adopted by the Commission on first reading (see paragraph 56 below); | 另见委员会一读通过的关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的结论草案中的结论草案23(见下文第56段)； |
| Fragmentation of international law: difficulties arising from the diversification and expansion of international law, report of the Study Group of the International Law Commission finalized by Martti Koskenniemi (A/CN.4/L.682 and Corr.1 and Add.1), para. 374 (identifying crimes against humanity as one of the “most frequently cited candidates for the status of jus cogens”). | “国际法不成体系问题：国际法多样化和扩展引起的困难”，马尔蒂·科斯肯涅米定稿的国际法委员会研究组报告(A/CN.4/L.682和Corr.1及Add.1)，第374段(指出危害人类罪是“最常援引的具有强行法地位的备选规范”之一)。 |
| See Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (New York, 10 December 1984), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1465, No. 24841, p. 85 (hereinafter “Convention against Torture”). | 见《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》(1984年12月10日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1465卷，第24841号，第85页(下称“《禁止酷刑公约》”)。 |
| Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012, p. 422, at p. 457, para. 99. | 与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(比利时诉塞内加尔)，判决，《2012年国际法院案例汇编》，第422页起，见第457页，第99段。 |
| See Almonacid-Arellano et al. v. Chile, Judgment of 26 September 2006 (Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs), Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 154, para. 99 (acknowledging the jus cogens status of crimes against humanity); | 见Almonacid-Arellano等人诉智利案，2006年9月26日的判决(初步反对意见，实质问题、赔偿和费用)，美洲人权法院，C辑，第154号，第99段(承认危害人类罪的强行法地位)； |
| Miguel Castro-Castro Prison v. Peru, Judgment (Merits, Reparations and Costs), Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 25 November 2006, Series C, No. 160, para. 402 (citing to Almonacid-Arellano on this point); | Miguel Castro-Castro Prison诉秘鲁案，判决(实质问题、赔偿和费用)，美洲人权法院，2006年11月25日，C辑，第160号，第402段(在这一点上引用Almonacid-Arellano案)； |
| Manuel Cepeda Vargas v. Colombia, Judgment (Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs), Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 26 May 2010, Series C, No. 213, para. 42 (stating that “the prohibition of crimes against humanity … is ius cogens”). | Manuel Cepeda Vargas 诉哥伦比亚案，判决(初步反对意见、实质问题、赔偿和费用)，美洲人权法院，2010年5月26日，C辑，第213号，第42段(声明“禁止危害人类罪…是强行法”)。 |
| See Prosecutor v. Zoran Kupreškić et al., Case No. IT-95-16-T, Judgment, 14 January 2000, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Judicial Supplement No. 11, para. 520 (“Furthermore, most norms of international humanitarian law, in particular those prohibiting war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide, are also peremptory norms of international law or jus cogens, i.e. of a non-derogable and overriding character.”); | 见检察官诉Zoran Kupreškić等人案，案件号IT-95-16-T, 判决，2000年1月14日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，《司法补编第11号》，第520段(“此外，大多数国际人道法规范，尤其是那些禁止战争罪、危害人类罪和灭绝种族罪的规范，也是国际法强制性规范或强行法，即具有不可减损和压倒一切的性质”)； |
| Prosecutor v. William Samoei Ruto and Joshua Arap Sang, ICC-01/09-01/11, Decision on Mr. Ruto’s Request for Excusal from Continuous Presence at Trial, 18 June 2013, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Court, para. 90 (“It is generally agreed that the interdiction of crimes against humanity enjoys the stature of jus cogens”). | 检察官诉William Samoei Ruto和Joshua Arap Sang案，ICC-01/09-01/11, 关于Ruto先生要求免除持续出庭的决定，2013年6月18日，国际刑事法院审判分庭，第90段 (“普遍认为，禁止危害人类罪具有强行法地位”)。 |
| See Mazzeo, Julio Lilo y otros, Appeal Judgment, Supreme Court of Argentina, 13 July 2007, Fallos: 330:3248, para. 15 (recognizing the prohibition of crimes against humanity as jus cogens); | 见Mazzeo、Julio Lilo等人案，上诉判决，阿根廷最高法院，2007年7月13日，第330:3248号判决，第15段(承认禁止危害人类罪是强行法)； |
| Arancibia Clavel, Enrique Lautaro, Appeal Judgment, Supreme Court of Argentina, 24 August 2004, Fallos: 327:3312, para. 28 (stating that the Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity implied the recognition of the prohibition of crimes against humanity as a jus cogens norm); | Arancibia Clavel、Enrique Lautaro案，上诉判决，阿根廷最高法院，2004年8月24日，第327:3312号判决，第28段(指出《战争罪及危害人类罪不适用法定时效公约》意味着承认禁止危害人类罪是强行法规范)； |
| Priebke, Erich, Judgment, Supreme Court of Argentina, 2 November 1995, Fallos: 318:2148, paras. 2–5 (recognizing the prohibition of crimes against humanity as jus cogens); | Priebke、Erich案，判决，阿根廷最高法院，1995年11月2日，第318:2148号判决，第2-5段 (承认禁止危害人类罪为强行法)； |
| Exp No. 0024-2010-PI/TC, Judgment, Peruvian Constitutional Court, 21 March 2011, para. 53, available at https://www.tc.gob.pe/jurisprudencia/2011/00024-2010-AI.html (same); | Exp No. 0024-2010-PI/TC, 判决，秘鲁宪法法院，2011年3月21日，第53段，可查阅https://www.tc.gob.pe/jurisprudencia/2011/00024-2010-AI.html (相同)； |
| National Commissioner of the South African Police Service v. Southern African Litigation Centre and Another, Judgment, South African Constitutional Court, 30 October 2014, South African Law Reports 2015, vol. 1, p. 315, para. 37 (“Along with torture, the international crimes of piracy, slave-trading, war crimes, crimes against humanity, genocide and apartheid require states, even in the absence of binding international treaty law, to suppress such conduct because ‘all states have an interest as they violate values that constitute the foundation of the world public order’. | 南非警察部长诉南部非洲诉讼中心和另一方案，判决，南非宪法法院，2014年10月30日，《2015年南非法律报告》，第一卷，第315页，第37段(“与酷刑一样，海盗罪、贩奴罪、战争罪、危害人类罪、灭绝种族罪和种族隔离罪这些国际罪行，即使不存在具有约束力的国际条约法，各国也必须予以制止，因为‘这些行为违反了构成世界公共秩序基础的价值观，所有国家均与之相关’。 |
| Torture, whether on the scale of crimes against humanity or not, is a crime in South Africa in terms of section 232 of the Constitution because the customary international law prohibition against torture has the status of a peremptory norm”); | 根据《宪法》第232条，酷刑无论是否达到危害人类罪的规模，在南非都是一种罪行，因为习惯国际法中对酷刑的禁止具有强制性规范的地位”)； |
| Attorney-General and 2 Others v. Kenya Section of International Commission of Jurists, Judgment, Court of Appeal of Kenya, 16 February 2018, available at http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/148746/ (“Some of the largely accepted examples of those norms from which no derogation is permitted but are obligatory equally upon State and non-State actors include prohibition of[:] genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes[,] torture, piracy and slavery”). | 司法部长和其他2人诉国际法学家委员会肯尼亚分会案，判决，肯尼亚上诉法院，2018年2月16日，可查阅http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/case/view/148746/(“这些准则不可减损、对国家和非国家行为体同样具有强制性，被广为接受的例子包括对以下行为的禁止：灭绝种族罪、危害人类罪、战争罪、酷刑、海盗和奴役”)。 |
| Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, art. 28. | 《维也纳条约法公约》，第二十八条。 |
| Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (see footnote 23 above), p. 457, para. 100. | 与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(见上文脚注23)，第457页，第100段。 |
| Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis, and Charter of the International Military Tribunal, art. 6 (c) (London, 8 August 1945), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 82, No. 251, p. 279 (hereinafter “Nürnberg Charter”). | 《关于控诉和惩处欧洲各轴心国主要战犯的协定》，以及《国际军事法庭宪章》第6条(c)项(1945年8月8日，伦敦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第82卷，第251号，第279页(下称“《纽伦堡宪章》”)。 |
| Yearbook … 1950, vol. II, document A/1316, Part III, p. 377, para. 119. | 《1950年…年鉴》，第二卷，A/1316号文件，第三部分，第377页，第119段。 |
| Yearbook … 1954, vol. II, p. 150, para. 50, art. 2, para. 11. | 《1954年…年鉴》，第二卷，第150页，第50段(第2条第11款)。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, approved by the Security Council in its resolution 827 (1993) of 25 May 1993 and contained in the report of the Secretary-General pursuant to paragraph 2 of Security Council resolution 808 (1993), S/25704 and Add.1, annex, art. 5 (hereinafter “Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia”). | 《起诉应对1991年以来前南斯拉夫境内所犯严重违反国际人道法行为负责者的国际刑事法庭规约》，经安全理事会1993年5月25日第827(1993)号决议通过，载于秘书长按照安理会第808(1993)号决议第2段提出的报告，S/25704号文件和Add.1，附件，第5条(下称《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》)。 |
| Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to paragraph 2 of Security Council resolution 808 (1993), document S/25704 and Corr.1, p. 13, para. 48. | 秘书长按照安全理事会第808(1993)号决议第2段提出的报告，S/25704号文件和Corr.1，第13页，第48段。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Genocide and Other Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of Rwanda and Rwandan Citizens Responsible for Genocide and Other Such Violations Committed in the Territory of Neighbouring States, between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994, approved by the Security Council in its resolution 955 (1994) of 8 November 1994, annex, art. 3 (hereinafter “Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda”). | 《起诉应对1994年1月1日至12月31日期间在卢旺达境内的种族灭绝和其他严重违反国际人道法行为负责者和应对这一期间邻国境内种族灭绝和其他这类违法行为负责的卢旺达公民的国际刑事法庭规约》，安全理事会1994年11月8日第955(1994)号决议批准，附件，第3条(下称《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》)。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 47, art. 18. | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第47页，第18条。 |
| See, for example, Agreement between the United Nations and the Government of Sierra Leone on the Establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone (with Statute) (Freetown, 16 January 2002), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2178, No. 38342, p. 137, at p. 145, art. 2 (hereinafter “Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone”); | 例如见《联合国和塞拉利昂政府关于设立塞拉利昂特别法庭协定》(附《规约》)(2002年1月16日，弗里敦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2178卷，第38342号，第137页起，见第145页，第2条(下称《塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约》)； |
| Law on the Establishment of Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic Kampuchea, 27 October 2004, art. 5 (hereinafter “Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law”). | 《建立柬埔寨特别法庭以起诉民主高棉期间所犯罪行法》，2004年10月27日，第5条(下称《柬埔寨特别法庭法》)。 |
| For information submitted by Governments to the Commission on their national laws in this regard, see http://legal.un.org/ilc/guide/7_7.shtml. | 关于各国政府在这方面向委员会提交的国内法资料，见http://legal.un.org/ilc/guide/7_7.shtml。 |
| For a table compiling national laws, see Coalition for the International Criminal Court, Chart on the Status of Ratification and Implementation of the Rome Statute and the Agreement on Privileges and Immunities (APIC) (2012), at http://iccnow.org/documents/Global_Ratificationimplementation_chart_May2012.pdf. | 关于各国国内法汇编表格，见国际刑事法院联盟，“《罗马规约》及《特权和豁免协定》批准和执行情况表”(2012年)，可查阅http://iccnow.org/documents/Global_Ratificationimpl ementation_chart_May2012.pdf。 |
| At present, however, not all national laws addressing crimes against humanity contain the same definition that appears in article 7 of the Rome Statute. | 但是目前，并非所有处理危害人类罪的国内法都包含与《罗马规约》第七条相同的定义。 |
| See International Criminal Court, Elements of Crimes, adopted at the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court First session, New York, 3–10 September 2002, (Official Records, ICC-ASP/1/3), and amended at the Review Conference of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Kampala, 31 May–11 June 2010 (International Criminal Court publication, RC/11) consolidated version of 2011, available from www.icc-cpi.int, pp. 5–12. | 见国际刑事法院，《犯罪要件》，2002年9月3日至10日在纽约举行的国际刑事法院罗马规约缔约国大会第一届会议通过(《正式记录》，ICC-ASP/1/3)，并经2010年5月31日至6月11日在坎帕拉举行的国际刑事法院罗马规约审查会议修订(国际刑事法院出版物，RC/11)，2011年合订本，可查阅www.icc-cpi.int, 第5-12页。 |
| Unlike the English version, the French version of article 3 of the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda used a conjunctive formulation (“généralisée et systématique”). | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》第3条的法文本与英文本不同，使用了联合式的表述(“généralisée et systématique”)。 |
| In the Akayesu case, the Trial Chamber indicated: “In the original French version of the Statute, these requirements were worded cumulatively … thereby significantly increasing the threshold for application of this provision. | 在Akayesu案中，审判分庭指出：“在《规约》最初的法文本中，对这些条件使用了累加式措辞…进而大大提高了适用这一条款的门槛。 |
| Since Customary International Law requires only that the attack be either widespread or systematic, there are sufficient reasons to assume that the French version suffers from an error in translation”. | 习惯国际法只要求有关攻击是广泛或有系统的，鉴此，有充分理由认为法文本存在翻译错误。 |
| Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Judgment, 2 September 1998, Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, para. 579, footnote 144. | ”检察官诉Jean-Paul Akayesu案，案件号ICTR-96-4-T, 判决，1998年9月2日，卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭第一审判分庭，第579段，脚注144。 |
| Prosecutor v. Tihomir Blaškić, Case No. IT-95-14-T, Judgment, 3 March 2000, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Judicial Reports 2000, para. 202; | 检察官诉Tihomir Blaškić案，案件号IT-95-14-T, 判决，2000年3月3日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，《2000年司法案例汇编》，第202段； |
| Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić a/k/a “Dule”, Case No. IT-94-1-T, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Judicial Reports 1997, para. 648. | 检察官诉Duško Tadić a/k/a “Dule”案，案件号IT-94-1-T, 意见和判决，1997年5月7日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，《1997年司法案例汇编》，第648段。 |
| See, for example, Prosecutor v. Mile Mrkšić, Miroslav Radić and Veselin Šljivančanin, Case No. IT-95-13/1-T, Judgment, 27 September 2007, Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, para. 437 (“[T]he attack must be widespread or systematic, the requirement being disjunctive rather than cumulative”.); | 例如见检察官诉Mile Mrkšić、Miroslav Radić和Veselin Šljivančanin案，案件号IT-95-13/1-T, 判决，2007年9月27日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭第二审判分庭，第437段(“攻击必须是广泛或有系统的，这是择一条件而非累加条件”)； |
| Prosecutor v. Clément Kayishema and Obed Ruzindana, Case No. ICTR-95-1-T, Judgment, 21 May 1999, Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, para. 123 (“The attack must contain one of the alternative conditions of being widespread or systematic”.); | 检察官诉Clément Kayishema和Obed Ruzindana案，案件号ICTR-95-1-T, 判决，1999年5月21日，卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭第二审判分庭，第123段(“有关攻击必须包括广泛或有系统这两个条件中的任意一个”)； |
| Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998 (footnote 39 above), para. 579; | Akayesu案，判决，1998年9月2日(上文脚注39)，第579段； |
| Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (footnote 40 above), para. 648 (“either a finding of widespreadness … or systematicity … fulfils this requirement”). | Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(上文脚注40)，第648段(“只要认定存在广泛性…或系统性…二者之一，即达到这一条件”)。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 47, para. (4) of the commentary to art. 18. | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第47页，第18条评注第(4)段。 |
| See also the report of the Ad hoc Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fiftieth Session, Supplement No. 22 (A/50/22), p. 17, para. 78 (“elements that should be reflected in the definition of crimes against humanity included … [that] the crimes usually involved a widespread or systematic attack” (emphasis added)); | 另见设立国际刑事法院问题特设委员会的报告，《大会正式记录：第五十届会议，补编第22号》(A/50/22)，第17页，第78段(“关于危害人类罪行定义中所应反映[的]成分…罪行通常涉及广泛或有系统的…攻击”)(强调是后加的)； |
| Yearbook … 1995, vol. II (Part Two), p. 25, para. 90 (“the concepts of ‘systematic’ and ‘massive’ violations were complementary elements of the crimes concerned”); | 《1995年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第25页，第90段(“‘有系统’和‘大规模’侵害等概念是有关罪行的补充要素”)； |
| Yearbook … 1994, vol. II (Part Two), p. 40, para. (14) of the commentary to art. 20 (“the definition of crimes against humanity encompasses inhumane acts of a very serious character involving widespread or systematic violations” (emphasis added)); Yearbook … | 《1994年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第40页，第20条评注第(14)段(“危害人类罪的定义包括…性质非常严重的不人道行为。 这种罪行的特点在于其广泛或有系统的性质”)(强调是后加的)； |
| 1991, vol. II (Part Two), p. 103, para. (3) of the commentary to art. 21 (“Either one of these aspects – systematic or mass-scale – in any of the acts enumerated … is enough for the offence to have taken place”). | 《1991年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第103页，第21条评注第(3)段(“实现…所列举的任何一项行为，无论是有系统还是大规模，只要具有其中一方面，就足以构成侵害行为”)。 |
| See United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Rome, 15 June–17 July 1998, Official Records, Volume II (A/CONF.183/13 Vol. II), p. 148 (India); | 见《联合国设立国际刑事法院全权代表外交会议，1998年6月15日至7月17日，罗马，正式记录，第二卷》(A/CONF.183/13 (Vol. II))，第148页(印度)； |
| ibid., p. 150 (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, France); | 同上，第150页(大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国、法国)； |
| ibid., p. 151 (Thailand, Egypt); | 同上，第151页(泰国、埃及)； |
| ibid., p. 152 (Islamic Republic of Iran); | 同上，第152页(伊朗伊斯兰共和国)； |
| ibid., p. 154 (Turkey); | 同上，第154页(土耳其)； |
| ibid., p. 155 (Russian Federation); | 同上，第155页(俄罗斯联邦)； |
| ibid., p. 156 (Japan). | 同上，第156页(日本)。 |
| Case law of the International Criminal Court has affirmed that the conditions of “widespread” and “systematic” in article 7 of the Rome Statute are disjunctive. | 国际刑事法院判例已经确认，《罗马规约》第七条中“广泛”和“有系统”这两项条件为择一条件。 |
| See Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Case No. ICC-01/09, Decision pursuant to Article 15 of the Rome Statute on the authorization of an investigation into the situation in the Republic of Kenya, 31 March 2010, Pre-Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Court, para. 94. | 见肯尼亚共和国状况案，案件号ICC-01/09, 根据《罗马规约》第十五条作出的关于授权调查肯尼亚共和国状况案的决定，2010年3月31日，国际刑事法院第二预审分庭，第94段。 |
| See also Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Case No. ICC-01/05-01/08, Decision pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute on the charges of the Prosecutor against Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, 15 June 2009, Pre-Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Court, para. 82; | 另见检察官诉Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo案，案件号ICC-01/05-01/08, 根据《罗马规约》第六十一条第(七)款第1项和第2项作出的关于检察官对Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo所提指控的决定，2009年6月15日，国际刑事法院第二预审分庭，第82段； |
| Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Case No. ICC-01/05-01/08, Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 21 March 2016, Trial Chamber III, International Criminal Court, para. 162. | 检察官诉Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo案，案件号ICC-01/05-01/08, 根据《罗马规约》第七十四条作出的判决，2016年3月21日，国际刑事法院第三审判分庭，第162段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovač and Zoran Vuković, Case No. IT-96-23-T & IT-96-23/1-T, Judgment, 22 February 2001, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, para. 428, Judicial Supplement No. 23, February/March 2001. | 检察官诉Dragoljub Kunarac、Radomir Kovač和Zoran Vuković案，案件号IT-96-23-T & IT-96-23/1-T, 判决，2001年2月22日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，第428段，《司法补编第23号》，2001年2月/3月。 |
| See also Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (footnote 44 above), para. 163; | 另见Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(上文脚注44)，第163段； |
| Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/07, Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute, 7 March 2014, Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Court, para. 1123; | 检察官诉Germain Katanga案, 案件号ICC-01/04-01/07, 根据《规约》第七十四条作出的判决，2014年3月7日，国际刑事法院第二审判分庭，第1123段； |
| Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/07, Decision on the confirmation of charges, 30 September 2008, Pre-Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Court, para. 394; | 检察官诉Germain Katanga和Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui案，案件号ICC-01/04-01/07, 关于确认指控的决定，2008年9月30日，国际刑事法院第一预审分庭，第394段； |
| Prosecutor v. Vidoje Blagojević and Dragan Jokić, Case No. IT-02-60-T, Judgment, 17 January 2005, Trial Chamber I Section A, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, paras. 545–546; | 检察官诉Vidoje Blagojević和Dragan Jokić案，案件号IT-02-60-T, 判决，2005年1月17日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭第一审判分庭A庭，第545-546段； |
| Prosecutor v. Dario Kordić and Mario Čerkez, Case No. IT-95-14/2-A, Judgment [and corrigendum], 17 December 2004, Appeals Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, para. 94. | 检察官诉Dario Kordić和Mario Čerkez案，案件号IT-95-14/2-A, 判决[和更正]，2004年12月17日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭上诉分庭，第94段。 |
| Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (see footnote 44 above), para. 83; | Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(见上文脚注44)，第83段； |
| Kayishema, Judgment, 21 May 1999 (see footnote 41 above), para. 123; | Kayishema案，判决，1999年5月21日(见上文脚注41)，第123段； |
| Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998 (see footnote 39 above), para. 580; | Akayesu案, 判决，1998年9月2日(见上文脚注39)，第580段； |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 47, art. 18 (using the phrase “on a large scale” instead of widespread). | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第47页，第18条(使用了“大规模”这一短语，而非“广泛”)； |
| See also Mrkšić, Judgment, 27 September 2007 (see footnote 41 above), para. 437 (“‘widespread’ refers to the large scale nature of the attack and the number of victims”). | 另见Mrkšić案，判决，2007年9月27日(见上文脚注41)，第437段(“‘广泛’指攻击的大规模性质及其受害者人数的众多”)。 |
| In Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Case No. ICC-01/04-02/06, Decision pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute on the charges of the Prosecutor against Bosco Ntaganda, 9 June 2014, Pre-Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Court, para. 24, the Chamber found that the attack against the civilian population was widespread “as it resulted in a large number of civilian victims”. | 在检察官诉Bosco Ntaganda案，案件号ICC-01/04-02/06, 根据《罗马规约》第六十一条第(七)款第1项和第2项作出的关于检察官对Bosco Ntagand提出指控的决定，2014年6月9日，国际刑事法院第二预审分庭，第24段，分庭认定对平民人口的攻击是广泛的，“因为产生了大量平民受害者。 ” |
| See Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Case No. ICC-01/04-02/06, Decision on the Prosecutor’s application under Article 58, 13 July 2012, Pre-Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Court, para. 19; | 见检察官诉Bosco Ntaganda案，案件号ICC-01/04-02/06, 根据第五十八条作出的关于检察官申请书的决定，2012年7月13日，国际刑事法院第二预审分庭，第19段； |
| Prosecutor v. Ahmad Muhammad Harun and Ali Muhammad al abd-al-Rahman, Case No. ICC-02/05-01/07, Decision on the prosecution application under Article 58(7) of the Statute, 27 April 2007, Pre-Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Court, para. 62. | 检察官诉Ahmad Muhammad Harun和Ali Muhammad al abd-al-Rahman案，案件号ICC-02/05-01/07, 根据《规约》第五十八条第(七)款作出的关于检察官申请书的决定，2007年4月27日，国际刑事法院第一预审分庭，第62段。 |
| See also Prosecutor v. Georges Anderson Nderubumwe Rutaganda, Case No. ICTR-96-3-T, Judgment and Sentence, 6 December 1999, Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, paras. 67–69; | 另见检察官诉Georges Anderson Nderubumwe Rutaganda案，案件号ICTR-96-3-T, 判决和判刑，1999年12月6日，卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭第一审判分庭，第67-69段； |
| Kayishema, Judgment, 21 May 1999 (footnote 41 above), paras. 122–123; | Kayishema案，判决，1999年5月21日(上文脚注41)，第122-123段； |
| para. (4) of the commentary to art. 18 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 47; | 《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第18条评注第(4)段，《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第47页； |
| para. (3) of the commentary to art. 21 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Yearbook … 1991, vol. II (Part Two), p. 103. | 《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第21条评注第(3)段，《1991年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第103页。 |
| Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (see footnote 44 above), para. 163 (citing to Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (see footnote 44 above), para. 83). | Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(见上文脚注44)，第163段(引自Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(见上文脚注44)，第83段)。 |
| Kupreškić, Judgment, 14 January 2000 (see footnote 25 above), para. 550; | Kupreškić案，判决，2000年1月14日(见上文脚注25)，第550段； |
| Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (see footnote 40 above), para. 649. | Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(见上文脚注40)，第649段。 |
| See, for example, Ntaganda, Decision, 13 July 2012 (footnote 47 above), para. 30; | 例如见Ntaganda案，决定，2012年7月13日(上文脚注47)，第30段； |
| Prosecutor v. William Samoei Ruto, Henry Kiprono Kosgey and Joshua Arap Sang, Case No. ICC-01/09-01/11, Decision on the confirmation of charges pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute, 23 January 2012, Pre-Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Court, paras. 176–177. | 检察官诉William Samoei Ruto、Henry Kiprono Kosgey和Joshua Arap Sang案，案件号ICC-01/09-01/11, 根据《罗马规约》第六十一条第(七)款第1项和第2项作出的关于确认指控的决定，2012年1月23日，国际刑事法院第二预审分庭，第176-177段。 |
| Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (see footnote 44 above), paras. 117–124. | Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(见上文脚注44)，第117-124段。 |
| See Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (see footnote 44 above), paras. 688–689. | 见Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(见上文脚注44)，第688-689段。 |
| Kordić, Judgment, 17 December 2004 (see footnote 45 above), para. 94; | Kordić案，判决，2004年12月17日(见上文脚注45)，第94段； |
| Blaškić, Judgment, 3 March 2000 (see footnote 40 above), para. 206. | Blaškić案，判决，2000年3月3日(见上文脚注40)，第206段。 |
| Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision, 31 March 2010 (see footnote 44 above), para. 95. | 肯尼亚共和国状况案，决定，2010年3月31日(见上文脚注44)，第95段。 |
| See also Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (footnote 44 above), para. 163. | 另见Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(上文脚注44)，第163段。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 47, para. (4) of the commentary to art. 18 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind. | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第47页； 《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第18条评注第(4)段。 |
| See also Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (footnote 44 above), para. 83 (finding that widespread “entails an attack carried out over a large geographical area or an attack in a small geographical area directed against a large number of civilians”). | 另见Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(上文脚注44)，第83段(认定广泛“指在广大地域实施的攻击或在较小地域针对大量平民实施的攻击”)。 |
| See para. (3) of the commentary to art. 18 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 47; | 见《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第18条评注第(3)段，《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第47页； |
| para. (3) of the commentary to art. 21 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Yearbook … 1991, vol. II (Part Two), p. 103. | 《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第21条评注第(3)段，《1991年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第103页。 |
| Mrkšić, Judgment, 27 September 2007 (see footnote 41 above), para. 437; | Mrkšić案，判决，2007年9月27日(见上文脚注41)，第437段； |
| Kunarac, Judgment, 22 February 2001 (see footnote 45 above), para. 429. | Kunarac案，判决，2001年2月22日(见上文脚注45)，第429段。 |
| See, for example, Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (footnote 40 above), para. 648. | 例如见Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(上文脚注40)，第648段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Case No. IT-96-23 & IT-96-23/1-A, Judgment, 12 June 2002, Appeals Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, para. 94, Judicial Supplement No. 34, June 2002. | 检察官诉Kunarac案，案件号IT-96-23 & IT-96-23/1-A, 判决，2002年6月12日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭上诉分庭，第94段，《司法补编第34号》，2002年6月。 |
| Kayishema, Judgment, 21 May 1999 (see footnote 41 above), para. 123; | Kayishema案，判决，1999年5月21日(见上文脚注41)，第123段； |
| Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998 (see footnote 39 above), para. 580. | Akayesu案，判决，1998年9月2日(见上文脚注39)，第580段。 |
| Harun, Decision, 27 April 2007 (see footnote 47 above), para. 62 (citing to Kordić, Judgment, 17 December 2004 (see footnote 45 above), para. 94, which in turn cites to Kunarac, Judgment, 22 February 2001 (see footnote 45 above), para. 429). | Harun案，决定，2007年4月27日(见上文脚注47)，第62段(引自Kordić案，判决，2004年12月17日(见上文脚注45)，第94段，原引自Kunarac案，判决，2001年2月22日(见上文脚注45)，第429段)。 |
| See also Ruto, Decision, 23 January 2012 (see footnote 50 above), para. 179; | 另见Ruto案，决定，2012年1月23日(见上文脚注50)，第179段； |
| Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision, 31 March 2010 (see footnote 44 above), para. 96; | 肯尼亚共和国状况案，决定，2010年3月31日(见上文脚注44)，第96段； |
| Katanga, Decision, 30 September 2008 (see footnote 45 above), para. 394. | Katanga案，决定，2008年9月30日(见上文脚注45)，第394段。 |
| Katanga, Decision, 30 September 2008 (see footnote 45), para. 397. | Katanga案，决定，2008年9月30日(见上文脚注45)，第397段。 |
| Ntaganda, Decision, 13 July 2012 (see footnote 47 above), para. 31. | Ntaganda案，决定，2012年7月13日(见上文脚注47)，第31段。 |
| See also Ruto, Decision, 23 January 2012 (see footnote 50 above), para. 179. | 另见Ruto案，决定，2012年1月23日(见上文脚注50)，第179段。 |
| Ntaganda, Decision, 9 June 2014 (see footnote 46 above), para. 24. | Ntaganda案，决定，2014年6月9日(见上文脚注46)，第24段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Laurent Gbagbo, Case No. ICC-02/11-01/11, Decision on the confirmation of charges against Laurent Gbagbo, 12 June 2014, Pre-Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Court, para. 225. | 检察官诉Laurent Gbagbo案，案件号ICC-02/11-01/11, 关于确认对Laurent Gbagbo指控的决定，2014年6月12日，国际刑事法院第二预审分庭，第225段。 |
| See Rome Statute. | 见《罗马规约》； |
| See also International Criminal Court, Elements of Crimes (footnote 38 above), p. 5. | 另见国际刑事法院，《犯罪要件》(上文脚注38)，第5页。 |
| See, for example, Kunarac, Judgment, 22 February 2001 (footnote 45 above), para. 421 (“The expression ‘directed against’ specifies that in the context of a crime against humanity the civilian population is the primary object of the attack”). | 例如见Kunarac案，判决，2001年2月22日(上文脚注45)，第421段(“‘针对’这一表述说明，在某危害人类罪的罪行中，平民人口是攻击的首要目标”)。 |
| Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision, 31 March 2010 (see footnote 44 above), para. 82; | 肯尼亚共和国状况案，决定，2010年3月31日(见上文脚注44)，第82段； |
| Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (see footnote 44 above), para. 76. | Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(见上文脚注44)，第76段。 |
| Katanga, Judgment, 7 March 2014 (see footnote 45 above), para. 1104; | Katanga案，判决，2014年3月7日(见上文脚注45)，第1104段； |
| Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016, (see footnote 44 above), para. 154. | Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(见上文脚注44)，第154段。 |
| Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (see footnote 44 above), para. 94. | Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(见上文脚注44)，第94段。 |
| See also Ntaganda, Decision, 13 July 2012 (see footnote 47 above), paras. 20–21. | 另见Ntaganda案，决定，2012年7月13日(见上文脚注47)，第20-21段。 |
| Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (see footnote 44 above), para. 94. | Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(见上文脚注44)，第94段。 |
| Ibid., paras. 95–98. | 同上，第95-98段。 |
| See, for example, Blaškić, Judgment, 3 March 2000 (footnote 40 above), para. 208, footnote 401. | 例如见Blaškić案，判决，2000年3月3日(上文脚注40)，第208段，脚注401。 |
| Kunarac, Judgment, 12 June 2002 (see footnote 58 above), para. 103. | Kunarac案，判决，2002年6月12日(见上文脚注58)，第103段。 |
| Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (see footnote 44 above), para. 674. | Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(见上文脚注44)，第674段。 |
| Ibid., para. 153 (citing to the jurisprudence of various international courts and tribunals). | 同上，第153段(引自各国际性法院和法庭的判例)。 |
| See, for example, Mrkšić, Judgment, 27 September 2007 (footnote 41 above), para. 442; | 例如见Mrkšić案，判决，2007年9月27日(上文脚注41)，第442段； |
| Kupreškić, Judgment, 14 January 2000 (footnote 25 above), para. 547 (“[A] wide definition of ‘civilian’ and ‘population’ is intended. | Kupreškić案，判决，2000年1月14日(上文脚注25)，第547段(“对‘平民’和‘人口’予以广泛定义是有意之举。 |
| This is warranted first of all by the object and purpose of the general principles and rules of humanitarian law, in particular by the rules prohibiting crimes against humanity”.); | 这首先是人道法各项一般原则和规则(特别是禁止危害人类罪的规则)的目的和宗旨所保障的”)； |
| Kayishema, Judgment, 21 May 1999 (footnote 41 above), para. 127; | Kayishema案，判决，1999年5月21日(上文脚注41)，第127段； |
| Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (footnote 40 above), para. 643. | Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(上文脚注40)，第643段。 |
| Katanga, Decision, 30 September 2008 (see footnote 45 above), para. 399 (quoting Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (see footnote 40 above), para. 635). | Katanga案，决定，2008年9月30日(见上文脚注45)，第399段(引自Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(见上文脚注40)，第635段)。 |
| See also Katanga, Judgment, 7 March 2014 (see footnote 45 above), para. 1103; | 另见Katanga案，判决，2014年3月7日(见上文脚注45)，第1103段； |
| Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (see footnote 44 above), para. 155. | Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(见上文脚注44)，第155段。 |
| See, for example, Kunarac, Judgment, 22 February 2001 (footnote 45 above), para. 423. | 例如见Kunarac案，判决，2001年2月22日(上文脚注45)，第423段。 |
| Ruto, Decision, 23 January 2012 (see footnote 50 above), para. 164. | Ruto案，决定，2012年1月23日(见上文脚注50)，第164段。 |
| See Additional Protocol I, art. 50, para. 1; | 见《第一附加议定书》，第五十条第一款； |
| Blaškić, Judgment, 3 March 2000 (footnote 40 above), para. 180 (recognizing civilians for the purpose of common article 3 to the 1949 Geneva Conventions as “persons who are not, or no longer, members of the armed forces”). | Blaškić案，判决，2000年3月3日(上文脚注40)，第180段(承认，为1949年日内瓦四公约共同第三条之目的，平民是“不是或不再属于武装部队成员的人”)。 |
| See, for example, Katanga, Judgment, 7 March 2014 (footnote 45 above), para. 1105 (holding that the population targeted “must be primarily composed of civilians” and that the “presence of non-civilians in its midst has therefore no effect on its status of civilian population”); | 例如见Katanga案，判决，2014年3月7日(见上文脚注45)，第1105段(裁定目标人口“必须主要由平民组成”，“因此，其中存在非平民人员不影响其平民人口的法律身份”)； |
| Mrkšić, Judgment, 27 September 2007 (footnote 41 above), para. 442; | Mrkšić案，判决，2007年9月27日(见上文脚注41)，第442段； |
| Kunarac, Judgment, 22 February 2001 (footnote 45 above), para. 425 (“the presence of certain non-civilians in its midst does not change the character of the population”); | Kunarac案，判决，2001年2月22日(见上文脚注45)，第425段(“其中存在一定数量的非平民人员不改变人口的性质”)； |
| Prosecutor v. Dario Kordić and Mario Čerkez, Case No. IT-95-14/2-T, Judgment, 26 February 2001, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, para. 180; | 检察官诉Dario Kordić和Mario Čerkez案，案件号IT-95-14/2-T, 判决，2001年2月26日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，第180段； |
| Blaškić, Judgment, 3 March 2000, (footnote 40 above), para. 214 (“the presence of soldiers within an intentionally targeted civilian population does not alter the civilian nature of that population”); | Blaškić案，判决，2000年3月3日(上文脚注40)，第214段(“被蓄意针对的平民人口中存在士兵不改变这一人口的平民性质”)； |
| Kupreškić, Judgment, 14 January 2000 (footnote 25 above), para. 549 (“the presence of those actively involved in the conflict should not prevent the characterization of a population as civilian”); | Kupreškić案，判决，2000年1月14日(上文脚注25)，第549段(“某人口中存在活跃参与冲突的人员不应影响将这一人口划为平民”)； |
| Kayishema, Judgment, 21 May 1999 (footnote 41 above), para. 128; | Kayishema案，判决，1999年5月21日(上文脚注41)，第128段； |
| Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998 (footnote 39 above), para. 582 (“Where there are certain individuals within the civilian population who do not come within the definition of civilians, this does not deprive the population of its civilian character”); | Akayesu案，判决，1998年9月2日(上文脚注39)，第582段(“若平民人口中有一定数量的人员不符合平民的定义，这并不使这一人口失去平民性质”)； |
| Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (footnote 40 above), para. 638. | Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(上文脚注40)，第638段。 |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 50, para. 3. | 《第一附加议定书》，第五十条第三款。 |
| Kayishema, Judgment, 21 May 1999 (see footnote 41 above), para. 127 (referring to “all persons except those who have the duty to maintain public order and have the legitimate means to exercise force. | Kayishema案，判决，1999年5月21日(见上文脚注41)，第127段(指“除负责维护公共秩序并有合法手段行使武力的人员之外的所有人员。 |
| Non-civilians would include, for example, members of the [Forces armées rwandaises], the [Rwandese Patriotic Front], the police and the Gendarmerie Nationale”). | 举例而言，非平民包括：卢旺达武装部队、卢旺达爱国阵线、警察和国家宪兵队的成员”)。 |
| With respect to members of armed forces, differing views have been expressed. | 关于武装部队成员，表达了不同观点。 |
| The Blaškić Appeals Chamber found that members of the armed forces, militias, volunteer corps and members of resistance groups cannot be considered civilians for this purpose, even when hors de combat. | BlašKić案上诉分庭认为，武装部队、民兵、志愿部队人员和抵抗团体成员，即使丧失战斗能力，也不能为这一目的被视为平民。 |
| Prosecutor v. Tihomir Blaškić, Case No. IT-95-14-A, Judgment, 29 July 2004, Appeals Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Judicial Reports 2004, paras. 110–114. | 检察官诉Tihomir Blaškić案，案件号IT-95-14-A, 判决，2004年7月29日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭上诉分庭，《2004年司法案例汇编》，第110-114段。 |
| Some other tribunals, however, have followed the approach of the Blaškić Trial Chamber, Blaškić, Judgment, 3 March 2000 (see footnote 40 above), para. 214, which said that “the specific situation of the victim at the moment the crimes were committed, rather than his status, must be taken into account in determining his standing as a civilian”. | 然而，其他一些法庭沿用了BlašKić案审判分庭的处理办法，Blaškić案，判决，2000年3月3日(见上文脚注40)，第214段，其中指出，“在确定受害者是否属于平民时，必须考虑其在犯罪实施时的具体情况而非法律身份”。 |
| See, for example, Notification on the Interpretation of “Attack against the Civilian Population” in the Context of Crimes against Humanity with Regard to a State’s or Regime’s Own Armed Forces, Case No. 3/07-09-2009-ECCC-OCIJ, 7 February 2017, Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, para. 56 (“[A]s a matter of principle, between 1975 and 1979 an attack by a state or organisation against its own armed forces, when carried out in peacetime, satisfied the chapeau requirement of an attack against any civilian population. | 例如见，关于在涉及国家或政权本国武装部队危害人类罪的背景下“攻击平民人口”的解释通告，案件号3/07-09-2009-ECCC-OCIJ, 2017年2月7日，柬埔寨法院特别法庭，第56段 (“原则上，1975至1979年期间，一个国家或组织对其本国武装部队的攻击，若是在和平时期施行，则符合攻击平民人口的首要标准。 |
| ”). | ”)。 |
| See also Prosecutor v. Paul Bisengimana, Case No. ICTR-00-60-T, Judgment and Sentence, 13 April 2006, Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, paras. 48–51; | 另见检察官诉Paul Bisengimana案，案件号ICTR-00-60-T, 判决和判刑，2006年4月13日，卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭第二审判分庭，第48-51段； |
| Prosecutor v. Tharcisse Muvunyi, Case No. ICTR-00-55A-T, Judgment, 12 September 2006, Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, para. 513. | 检察官诉Tharcisse Muvunyi案，案件号ICTR-00-55A-T, 判决，2006年9月12日，卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭第二审判分庭，第513段。 |
| See Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision, 31 March 2010 (footnote 44 above), para. 82; | 见肯尼亚共和国状况案，决定，2010年3月31日(上文脚注44)，第82段； |
| Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (footnote 44 above), para. 77; | Bemba, 决定，2009年6月15日(上文脚注44)，第77段； |
| Kunarac, Judgment, 22 February 2001 (footnote 45 above), para. 424; | Kunarac案, 判决，2001年2月22日(上文脚注45)，第424段； |
| Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (footnote 40 above), para. 644. See also Yearbook … | Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(上文脚注40)，第644段； |
| 1994, vol. II (Part Two), p. 40, para. (14) of the commentary to art. 21 (defining crimes against humanity as “inhumane acts of a very serious character involving widespread or systematic violations aimed at the civilian population in whole or in part” (emphasis added)). | 另见《1994年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第40页，第21条评注第(14)段(将危害人类罪定义为“针对全体或部分平民人口广泛或有系统地施加暴行的、性质非常严重的不人道行为”(强调是后加的))。 |
| See Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (footnote 40 above), para. 644. | 见Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(上文脚注40)，第644段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Ante Gotovina, Ivan Čermak and Mladen Markač, Case No. IT-06-90-T, Judgment, vol. II, 15 April 2011, Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, para. 1704. | 检察官诉Ante Gotovina、Ivan Čermak和Mladen Markač案，案件号IT-06-90-T, 判决，第二卷，2011年4月15日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭第一审判分庭，第1704段。 |
| Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision, 31 March 2010 (see footnote 44 above), para. 81; | 肯尼亚共和国状况案，决定，2010年3月31日(见上文脚注44)，第81段； |
| Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (see footnote 44 above), para. 77; | Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(见上文脚注44)，第77段； |
| Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (see footnote 44 above), para. 154. | Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(见上文脚注44)，第154段。 |
| See, for example, Kunarac, Judgment, 22 February 2001 (footnote 45 above), para. 415 (defining attack as “a course of conduct involving the commission of acts of violence”); | 例如见Kunarac案，判决，2001年2月22日(上文脚注45)，第415段(将攻击定义为“涉及实施暴力行为的行为过程”)； |
| Kayishema, Judgment, 21 May 1999 (footnote 41 above), para. 122 (defining attack as the “event in which the enumerated crimes must form part”); | Kayishema案, 判决，1999年5月21日(上文脚注41)，第122段(将攻击定义为“必定包括所列举罪行的活动”)； |
| Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998 (footnote 39 above), para. 581 (“The concept of ‘attack’ may be defined as a[n] unlawful act of the kind enumerated [in the Statute] … | Akayesu案，判决，1998年9月2日(上文脚注39)，第581段(“可将攻击这一概念定义为[《规约》中]列举的非法行为。 |
| An attack may also be non violent in nature, like imposing a system of apartheid … or exerting pressure on the population to act in a particular manner”). | …攻击也可以是性质上并不暴力的行为，比如强制实施隔离制度…或向人口施加压力，要他们以某种特定方式行事”)。 |
| See International Criminal Court, Elements of Crimes (footnote 38 above), p. 5. | 见国际刑事法院，《犯罪要件》(上文脚注38)，第5页。 |
| Katanga, Judgment, 7 March 2014 (footnote 45 above), para. 1101. | Katanga案，判决，2014年3月7日(上文脚注45)，第1101段。 |
| Article 6 (c) of the Nürnberg Charter contains no explicit reference to a plan or policy. | 《纽伦堡宪章》第6(c)条没有明确提到计划或政策。 |
| The Nürnberg Judgment, however, did use a “policy” descriptor when discussing article 6 (c) in the context of the concept of the “attack” as a whole. | 但《纽伦堡判决书》在以“攻击”概念为背景整体讨论第6(c)条时确实使用了“政策”这一描述词。 |
| See Judgment of 30 September 1946, International Military Tribunal, in Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg 14 November 1945–1 October 1946), vol. 22 (1948), p. 493 (“The policy of terror was certainly carried out on a vast scale, and in many cases was organized and systematic. | 见1946年9月30日判决，国际军事法庭，载于《国际军事法庭对主要战争罪犯的审判》(1945年11月14日至1946年10月1日，纽伦堡)，第22卷(1948年)，第493页(“恐怖政策无疑是大规模实施的，在许多情况下是有组织和有系统地实施的。 |
| The policy of persecution, repression and murder of civilians in Germany before the war of 1939, who were likely to be hostile to the Government, was most ruthlessly carried out”). | 1939年大战之前，德国以最无情的方式执行了对可能敌视政府的平民进行迫害、压迫和谋杀的政策”)。 |
| Article II (1) (c) of Control Council Law No. 10 on Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes, Crimes against Peace and against Humanity also contains no reference to a plan or policy in its definition of crimes against humanity. | 管制委员会关于惩治战争罪、危害和平罪和危害人类罪罪犯的第10号法令第二条第1款(c)项在对危害人类罪的定义中也未提到计划或政策。 |
| Control Council Law No. 10 on Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes, Crimes Against Peace and Against Humanity, 20 December 1945, in Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany, vol. 3, p. 52 (1946). | 管制委员会关于惩治战争罪、危害和平罪和危害人类罪罪犯的第10号法令，1945年12月20日，德国管制委员会官方公报，第3卷第52页(1946年)。 |
| The Appeals Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia determined that there was no policy element on crimes against humanity in customary international law, see Kunarac, Judgment, 12 June 2002 (footnote 58 above), para. 98 (“There was nothing in the Statute or in customary international law at the time of the alleged acts which required proof of the existence of a plan or policy to commit these crimes”), although that position has been criticized in writings. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭上诉分庭确定，习惯国际法中危害人类罪没有政策要件，见Kunarac案，判决，2002年6月12日(上文脚注58)，第98段(“在所称行为发生时，《规约》和习惯国际法均未要求证明存在实施这些罪行的计划或政策”)，但该立场受到了一些文章的批评。 |
| See, for example, Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (footnote 40 above), paras. 626, 644, and 653–655. | 例如见Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(上文脚注40)，第626、644和653-655段。 |
| Ibid., para. 653. | 同上，第653段。 |
| Ibid., para. 655 (citing to Prosecutor v. Dragan Nikolić a/k/a “Jenki”, Case No. IT-94-2-R61, Review of indictment pursuant to Rule 61 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, 20 October 1995, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, para. 26). | 同上，第655段(引自检察官诉Dragan Nikolić a/k/a“Jenki”案，案件号IT-94-2-R61, 根据《程序和证据规则》规则61审查起诉书，1995年10月20日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，第26段)。 |
| See, for example, Kunarac, Judgment, 12 June 2002 (footnote 58 above), para. 98; | 例如见Kunarac案，判决，2002年6月12日(上文脚注58)，第98段； |
| Kordić, Judgment, 26 February 2001 (footnote 81 above), para. 182 (finding that “the existence of a plan or policy should better be regarded as indicative of the systematic character of offences charged as crimes against humanity”); | Kordić案，判决，2001年2月26日(上文脚注81)，第182段(认定“宜将计划或政策的存在视作被指控为危害人类罪的罪行具有系统性的标志”)； |
| Kayishema, Judgment, 21 May 1999 (footnote 41 above), para. 124 (“For an act of mass victimisation to be a crime against humanity, it must include a policy element. | Kayishema案，判决，1999年5月21日(上文脚注41)，第124段(“大规模侵害行为只有包含政策要件，才能构成危害人类罪。 |
| Either of the requirements of widespread or systematic are enough to exclude acts not committed as part of a broader policy or plan”); | 具备广泛或有系统这两个条件之一，即足以证明有关行为是作为某更广泛的政策或计划的一部分实施的”)； |
| Akayesu, Judgment, 2 September 1998 (footnote 39 above), para. 580. | Akayesu案，判决，1998年9月2日(上文脚注39)，第580段。 |
| Art. 2, para. 11, of the draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Yearbook … 1954, vol. II, p. 150 (emphasis added). | 《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第2条第11款，《1954年…年鉴》，第二卷，第150页(强调是后加的)。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| Art. 18 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 47 (emphasis added). | 《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第18条，《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第47页(强调是后加的)。 |
| Para. (5) of the commentary to art. 18 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, ibid. | 《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第18条评注第(5)段，同上。 |
| In explaining its inclusion of the policy requirement, the Commission noted: “It would be extremely difficult for a single individual acting alone to commit the inhumane acts as envisaged in article 18”. | 委员会在解释为何加入这一政策要件时表示：“个别人单凭自己极难进行第18条所指的非人道行为”。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| International Criminal Court, Elements of Crimes (see footnote 38 above), p. 5. | 国际刑事法院，《犯罪要件》(见上文脚注38)，第5页。 |
| Ibid. Other precedents also emphasize that deliberate failure to act can satisfy the policy element. | 同上。 其他先例也强调，故意不采取行动可满足政策要件。 |
| See Kupreškić, Judgment, 14 January 2000 (footnote 25 above), paras. 554–555 (discussing acts “approved”, “condoned”, and for which “explicit or implicit approval” has been given); | 见Kupreškić案，判决，2000年1月14日(上文脚注25)，第554-555段(讨论了“批准的”、“纵容的”、“明确或暗中许可”的行为)； |
| Yearbook … 1954, vol. II, p. 150, art. 2, para. 11 of the draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind (“toleration”); | 《1954年…年鉴》，第二卷，第150页，《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第2条第11款(“容忍”)； |
| Security Council, Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council resolution 780 (1992), document S/1994/674, para. 85 (“[u]nwillingness to manage, prosecute and punish”). | 安全理事会，安全理事会第780(1992)号决议所设专家委员会的最后报告，S/1994/674号文件，第85段(“不愿意管理、起诉和惩罚”)。 |
| See, for example, Ntaganda, Decision, 13 July 2012 (footnote 47 above), para. 24; | 例如见Ntaganda案，决定，2012年7月13日(上文脚注47)，第24段； |
| Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (footnote 44 above), para. 81; | Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(上文脚注44)，第81段； |
| Katanga, Decision, 30 September 2008 (footnote 45 above), para. 396. | Katanga案，决定，2008年9月30日(上文脚注45)，第396段。 |
| Katanga, Judgment, 7 March 2014 (see footnote 45 above), paras. 1111–1112. | Katanga案，判决，2014年3月7日(见上文脚注45)，第1111-1112段。 |
| See also ibid., para. 1101; | 另见同上，第1101段； |
| Gbagbo, Decision, 12 June 2014 (see footnote 64 above), para. 208. | Gbagbo案，决定，2014年6月12日(见上文脚注64)，第208段。 |
| Katanga, Judgment, 7 March 2014 (see footnote 45 above), paras. 1111–1113. | Katanga案，判决，2014年3月7日(见上文脚注45)，第1111-1113段。 |
| Ibid., para. 1113. | 同上，第1113段。 |
| Ibid., paras. 1108–1109 and 1113. | 同上，第1108-1109段和第1113段。 |
| Ibid., para. 1109. | 同上，第1109段。 |
| See also Gbagbo, Decision, 12 June 2014 (see footnote 64 above), paras. 211–212, and 215. | 另见Gbagbo案，决定，2014年6月12日(见上文脚注64)，第211-212段，和第215段。 |
| Katanga, Judgment, 7 March 2014 (see footnote 45 above), para. 1110. | Katanga案，判决，2014年3月7日(见上文脚注45)，第1110段。 |
| Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (see footnote 44 above), para. 161. | Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(见上文脚注44)，第161段。 |
| Gbagbo, Judgment, 12 June 2014 (see footnote 64 above), paras. 208 and 216. | Gbagbo案，判决，2014年6月12日(见上文脚注64)，第208段和第216段。 |
| Ibid., para. 216. | 同上，第216段。 |
| Ibid., para. 217. | 同上，第217段。 |
| Ibid., para. 215. | 同上，第215段。 |
| Ibid., para. 214. | 同上，第214段。 |
| Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (see footnote 44 above), para. 115. | Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(见上文脚注44)，第115段。 |
| Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (see footnote 44 above), para. 669. | Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(见上文脚注44)，第669段。 |
| Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision, 31 March 2010 (see footnote 44 above), para. 89. | 肯尼亚共和国状况案，决定，2010年3月31日(见上文脚注44)，第89段。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| Katanga, Decision, 30 September 2008 (see footnote 45 above), para. 396 (citing case law of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, as well as the Commission’s 1991 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, para. (5) of the commentary to art. 21 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Yearbook … 1991, vol. II (Part Two), p. 103. | Katanga案，决定，2008年9月30日(见上文脚注45)，第396段(引用前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭和卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭判例，以及委员会1991年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》，《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第21条评注第(5)段，《1991年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第103页)。 |
| See Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (see footnote 44 above), para. 81. | 另见Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(见上文脚注44)，第81段。 |
| Katanga, Judgment, 7 March 2014 (see footnote 45 above), para. 1119. | Katanga案，判决，2014年3月7日(见上文脚注45)，第1119段。 |
| Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision, 31 March 2010 (see footnote 44 above), para. 90. | 肯尼亚共和国状况案，决定，2010年3月31日(见上文脚注44)，第90段。 |
| This understanding was similarly adopted by the Trial Chamber in the Katanga judgment, which stated: “That the attack must further be characterised as widespread or systematic does not, however, mean that the organisation that promotes or encourages it must be structured so as to assume the characteristics of a State” (Katanga, Judgment, 7 March 2014 (see footnote 45 above), para. 1120). | Katanga案的审判分庭也采用了类似理解，表示：“必须进一步确定攻击是广泛的或有系统的，但这并不意味着推动或鼓励有关攻击的组织的结构必须具备国家特征。 ”Katanga案，判决，2014年3月7日(见上文脚注45)，第1120段。 |
| The Trial Chamber also found that “the ‘general practice accepted as law’… adverts to crimes against humanity committed by States and organisations that are not specifically defined as requiring quasi-State characteristics” (ibid., para. 1121). | 该审判分庭还认定，“‘被接受为法律的一般惯例’…指向由国家和由未被具体界定为需有半国家特点的组织所实施的危害人类罪。 ”同上，第1121段。 |
| Ruto, Decision, 23 January 2012 (see footnote 50 above), para. 185. | Ruto案，决定，2012年1月23日(见上文脚注50)，第185段； |
| See also Situation in the Republic of Kenya, Decision, 31 March 2010 (see footnote 44 above), para. 93; | 另见肯尼亚共和国状况案，决定，2010年3月31日(见上文脚注44)，第93段； |
| Situation in the Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, Case No. ICC-02/11, Corrigendum to the Decision pursuant to Article 15 of the 1998 Rome Statute on the authorization of an investigation into the situation in the Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, 15 November 2011, Pre-Trial Chamber III, International Criminal Court, paras. 45–46. | 科特迪瓦共和国状况案，案件号ICC-02/11, 根据1998年《罗马规约》第十五条作出的关于授权调查科特迪瓦共和国状况的决定的更正，2011年11月15日，国际刑事法院第三预审分庭，第45-46段。 |
| Yearbook … 1991, vol. II (Part Two), pp. 103–104, para. (5) of the commentary to art. 21 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind. | 《1991年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第103-104页，《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第21条评注第(5)段。 |
| The United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime defines an “organized criminal group” as “a structured group of three or more persons, existing for a period of time and acting in concert with the aim of committing one or more serious crimes or offences established in accordance with this Convention, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》将“有组织犯罪集团”定义为“由三人或多人所组成的、在一定时期内存在的、为了实施一项或多项严重犯罪或根据本公约确立的犯罪以直接或间接获得金钱或其他物质利益而一致行动的有组织结构的集团。 |
| ” United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 2 (a). | ”《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第2条(a)项。 |
| Art. 18 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 47 (emphasis added). | 《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第18条，《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第47页(强调是后加的)。 |
| Ibid., para. (5) of the commentary to art. 18 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind. | 同上，《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第18条评注第(5)段。 |
| Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (see footnote 40 above), para. 654. | Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(见上文脚注40)，第654段。 |
| For further discussion of non-State perpetrators, see ibid., para. 655. | 关于非国家行为体的进一步讨论，见同上，第655段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Fatmir Limaj, Haradin Bala and Isak Musliu, Case No. IT-03-66-T, Judgment, 30 November 2005, Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia, paras. 212–214. | 检察官诉Fatmir Limaj、Haradin Bala和Isak Musliu案，案件号IT-03-66-T, 判决，2005年11月30日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭第二审判分庭，第212-214段。 |
| Ntaganda, Decision, 13 July 2012 (see footnote 47 above), para. 22. | Ntaganda案，决定，2012年7月13日(见上文脚注47)，第22段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Callixte Mbarushimana, Decision on the confirmation of charges, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/10, 16 December 2011, Pre-Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Court, para. 2. | 检察官诉Callixte Mbarushimana案，关于确认指控的决定，案件号ICC-01/04-01/10, 2011年12月16日，国际刑事法院第一预审分庭，第2段。 |
| Situation in Uganda, Case No. ICC-02/04-01/05, Warrant of arrest for Joseph Kony issued on 8 July 2005 as amended on 27 September 2005, 27 September 2005, Pre-Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Court, para. 5. | 乌干达状况案，案件号ICC-02/04-01/05, 2005年7月8日签发、2005年9月27日修正的对Joseph Kony的逮捕令，2005年9月27日，国际刑事法院第二预审分庭，第5段。 |
| Ibid., para. 7. | 同上，第7段。 |
| Ruto, Decision, 23 January 2012 (see footnote 50 above), para. 182. | Ruto案，决定，2012年1月23日(见上文脚注50)，第182段。 |
| Situation in the Republic of Kenya in the case of the Prosecutor v. Francis Kirimi Muthaura, Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta and Mohammed Hussein Ali, Case No. ICC-01/09-02/11, Decision on the confirmation of charges pursuant to Article 61 (7) (a) and (b) of the Rome Statute, 23 January 2012, Pre-Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Court, para. 102. | 肯尼亚共和国状况案中检察官诉Francis Kirimi Muthaura、Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta和Mohammed Hussein Ali案，案件号ICC-01/09-02/11, 根据《罗马规约》第六十一条第(七)款第1项和第2项作出的关于确认指控的决定，2012年1月23日，国际刑事法院第二预审分庭，第102段。 |
| See, for example, Kunarac, Judgment, 22 February 2001 (footnote 45 above), para. 418; | 例如见Kunarac案，判决，2001年2月22日(上文脚注45)，第418段； |
| Kayishema, Judgment, 21 May 1999 (footnote 41 above), para. 133. | Kayishema案，判决，1999年5月21日(上文脚注41)，第133段。 |
| International Criminal Court, Elements of Crimes (see footnote 38 above), p. 5. | 国际刑事法院，《犯罪要件》(见上文脚注38)，第5页。 |
| Gbagbo, Decision, 12 June 2014 (see footnote 64 above), para. 214. | Gbagbo案，决定，2014年6月12日(见上文脚注64)，第214段。 |
| Kunarac, Judgment, 22 February 2001 (see footnote 45 above), para. 434 (finding that the knowledge requirement “does not entail knowledge of the details of the attack”). | Kunarac案，判决，2001年2月22日(见上文脚注45)，第434段(认定知情条件“不需要知晓攻击的详情”)。 |
| See Blaškić, Judgment, 3 March 2000 (footnote 40 above), para. 259 (finding that knowledge of the broader context of the attack may be surmised from a number of facts, including “the nature of the crimes committed and the degree to which they are common knowledge”); | 见Blaškić案，判决，2000年3月3日(上文脚注40)，第259段(认定对攻击的更广泛背景的知情可从若干事实推测得出，包括：“所犯犯罪的性质及其为人所共知的程度”)； |
| Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (footnote 40 above), para. 657 (“While knowledge is thus required, it is examined on an objective level and factually can be implied from the circumstances”. ). | Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(上文脚注40)，第657段(“虽然因此要求知情这一条件，但知情与否要经过客观分析，并可根据有关情况从事实上推导得出”)。 |
| See also Kayishema, Judgment, 21 May 1999 (footnote 41 above), para. 134 (finding that “actual or constructive knowledge of the broader context of the attack” is sufficient). | 另见Kayishema案，判决，1999年5月21日(上文脚注41)，第134段(认定“对攻击的更广泛背景实际知情或推定知情”即可)。 |
| Bemba, Decision, 15 June 2009 (see footnote 44 above), para. 126. | Bemba案，决定，2009年6月15日(见上文脚注44)，第126段。 |
| See Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (see footnote 44 above), paras. 166–169. | 见Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(见上文脚注44)，第166-169段。 |
| Katanga, Decision, 30 September 2008 (see footnote 45 above), para. 402. | Katanga案，决定，2008年9月30日(见上文脚注45)，第402段。 |
| See, for example, Kunarac, Judgment, 12 June 2002 (footnote 58 above), para. 103; | 例如见Kunarac案，判决，2002年6月12日(上文脚注58)，第103段； |
| Kupreškić, Judgment, 14 January 2000 (footnote 25 above), para. 558. | Kupreškić案，判决，2000年1月14日(上文脚注25)，第558段。 |
| Kunarac, Judgment, 12 June 2002 (see footnote 58 above), para. 103. | Kunarac案，判决，2002年6月12日(见上文脚注58)，第103段。 |
| See, for example, Kunarac, Judgment, 22 February 2001 (footnote 45 above), para. 592. | 例如见Kunarac案，判决，2001年2月22日(上文脚注45)，第592段。 |
| Ibid., paras. 2–11 | 同上，第2-11段。 |
| Ibid., para. 592. | 同上，第592段。 |
| Katanga, Judgment, 7 March 2014 (see footnote 45 above), para. 1125. | Katanga案，判决，2014年3月7日(见上文脚注45)，第1125段。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| See, for example, Kunarac, Judgment, 12 June 2002 (footnote 58 above), para. 100; | 例如见Kunarac案，判决，2002年6月12日(上文脚注58)，第100段； |
| Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, 7 May 1997 (footnote 40 above), para. 649. | Tadić案，意见和判决，1997年5月7日(上文脚注40)，第649段。 |
| Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (footnote 44 above), para. 165. | Bemba案，判决，2016年3月21日(上文脚注44)，第165段。 |
| See, for example, Prosecutor v. Mile Mrkšić and Veselin Šljivančanin, Case No. IT-95-13/1-A, Judgment, 5 May 2009, Appeals Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, para. 41; | 例如见检察官诉Mile Mrkšić和Veselin Šljivančanin案，案件号IT-95-13/1-A, 判决，2009年5月5日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭上诉分庭，第41段； |
| Prosecutor v. Mladen Naletilić aka “Tuta” and Vinko Martinović aka “Štela”, Case No. IT-98-34-T, Judgment, 31 March 2003, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, para. 234, Judicial Supplement No. 42, June 2003; | 检察官诉Mladen Naletilić aka “Tuta”和Vinko Martinović aka“Štela”案，案件号IT-98-34-T, 判决，2003年3月31日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，第234段，《司法补编第42号》，2003年6月； |
| Mrkšić, Judgment, 27 September 2007 (footnote 41 above), para. 438; | Mrkšić案，判决，2007年9月27日(上文脚注41)，第438段； |
| Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić, Case No. IT-94-1-A, Judgment, 15 July 1999, Appeals Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, para. 249, Judicial Supplement No. 6, June/July 1999. | 检察官诉Duško Tadić案，案件号IT-94-1-A, 判决，1999年7月15日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭上诉分庭，第249段，《司法补编第6号》，1999年6月/7月。 |
| See Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, art. 5 (h) (although it is noted that the Tribunal’s definition of crimes against humanity included “when committed in armed conflict”); | 见《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第5条(h)项 (尽管注意到该法庭对危害人类罪的定义包括“在武装冲突中犯下”)； |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 3 (h); | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第3条(h)项； |
| Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, art. 2 (h); | 《塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约》，第2条(h)项； |
| Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law, art. 5; | 《柬埔寨特别法庭法》，第5条； |
| Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights (Malabo Protocol) (Malabo, 27 June 2014), art. 28C, para. 1 (h), available from https://au.int/en/treaties/protocol-amendments-protocol-statute-african-court-justice-and-human-rights. | 《非洲司法和人权法院规约议定书修正议定书》(《马拉博议定书》) (马拉博，2014年6月27日)，第28 C条第1款(h)项，可查阅https://au.int/en/treaties/protocol-amendments-protocol-statute-african-court-justice-and-human-rights。 |
| Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, “Policy on Children” (2016), para. 51 (“The Office considers that … acts targeting children on the basis of age or birth may be charged as persecution on ‘other grounds’”). | 国际刑事法院检察官办公室，“儿童政策”(2016年)，第51段 (“本办公室认为…基于年龄或出生针对儿童的行为可被指控为基于‘其他理由’的迫害”)。 |
| See International Criminal Court, Elements of Crimes (footnote 38 above), p. 12. | 见国际刑事法院，《犯罪要件》(上文脚注38)，第12页。 |
| The definition of “enslavement” refers in part to “trafficking in persons”. | “奴役”的定义部分是指“人口贩运”。 |
| The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (New York, 15 November 2000), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2237, No. 39574, p. 319, defines “trafficking in persons” at article 3 (a) as follows: | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于预防、禁止和惩治贩运人口特别是妇女和儿童行为的补充议定书》(2000年11月15日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2237卷，第39574号，第319页，第3条(a)项对“人口贩运”做出如下定义： |
| “‘Trafficking in persons’ shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. | “‘人口贩运’系指为剥削目的而通过暴力威胁或使用暴力手段，或通过其他形式的胁迫，通过诱拐、欺诈、欺骗、滥用权力或滥用脆弱境况，或通过授受酬金或利益取得对另一人有控制权的某人的同意等手段招募、运送、转移、窝藏或接收人员。 |
| Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs”. | 剥削应至少包括利用他人卖淫进行剥削或其他形式的性剥削、强迫劳动或服务、奴役或类似奴役的做法、劳役或切除器官”。 |
| ICRC, Addressing the Needs of Women Affected by Armed Conflict: an ICRC Guidance Document, Geneva, 2004, p. 7 (“The term ‘gender’ refers to the culturally expected behaviour of men and women based on roles, attitudes and values ascribed to them on the basis of their sex, whereas the term ‘sex’ refers to biological and physical characteristics”). | 红十字委员会，“解决受武装冲突影响的妇女的需要：红十字委员会指导文件”，日内瓦，2004年，第7页(“‘性别’一词是指男子和妇女根据其生物性别所赋予的角色、态度和价值观，在文化上的预期行为； |
| Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 28 (2010) on the core obligations of States parties under article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 38 (A/66/38 (Part Two)), annex III, p. 108. | 而‘性’是指生物学特征和生理特征”)。 消除对妇女歧视委员会，关于缔约国在《消除对妇女一切形式歧视公约》第二条之下的核心义务的第28号一般性建议(2010年)，《大会正式记录，第六十六届会议，补编第38号》(A/66/38 (第二部分))，附件三，第108页。 |
| Paragraph 5 of the recommendation refers to gender as “socially constructed identities, attributes and roles for women and men and society’s social and cultural meaning for these biological differences”. | 该建议第5段称性别是指“妇女与男子由社会构建的身份、属性和角色，以及社会对这类生理差异赋予的社会和文化含义”。 |
| Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul, 11 May 2011), Council of Europe, Treaty Series, No. 210. | 《欧洲委员会防止和打击暴力侵害妇女行为及家庭暴力公约》(2011年5月11日，伊斯坦布尔)，欧洲委员会，《条约汇编》，第210号。 |
| Article 3 (c) of the Convention defines “gender” for purposes of the Convention to “mean the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for women and men”. | 该公约第3条(c)项规定，为该公约的目的，“性别”的定义“是指某一社会认为适于妇女和男子的由社会构建的角色、行为、活动和特质”。 |
| See, for example, the report of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions on a gender-sensitive approach to arbitrary killings (2017) (A/HRC/35/23), paras. 17 et seq.; | 例如见法外处决、即决处决或任意处决问题特别报告员关于对任意处决采取性别敏感办法的报告(2017年)(A/HRC/35/23)，第17段起； |
| the report of the Independent Expert on protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity (2018) (A/73/152), para. 2 (“Gender identity refers to each person’s deeply felt internal and individual experience of gender, which may or may not correspond with the sex assigned at birth, including the personal sense of the body (which may involve, if freely chosen, modification of bodily appearance or function by medical, surgical or other means) and other gender expressions, including dress, speech and mannerisms.”). | 防止基于性取向和性别认同的暴力和歧视问题独立专家的报告(2018年)(A/73/152)，第2段(“性别认同是指每个人深刻感受到的内在及个体的性别体验，这种体验可能符合或不符合出生时被派定的性别，包括个人对身体的感觉(如果自由选择，这可能涉及到通过医疗、手术或其他手段对身体外观或功能作出改动)和其他性别表达方式，包括衣着、言谈和举止”)。 |
| Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, “Policy paper on sexual and gender-based crimes” (2014), para. 15. | 国际刑事法院检察官办公室，“关于性犯罪和性别犯罪的政策文件”(2014年)，第15段。 |
| Article 21 of the Rome Statute on “applicable law” begins in paragraph 3 as follows: “The application and interpretation of law pursuant to this article must be consistent with internationally recognized human rights … | 《罗马规约》第二十一条“适用的法律”第(三)款起首如下：“依照本条适用和解释法律，必须符合国际承认的人权…”。 |
| ”. Identidad de género, e igualdad y no discriminación a parejas del mismo sexo [Gender identity, and equality and non-discrimination against same-sex couples], Advisory Opinion OC-24/17 of 24 November 2017, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, para. 32 (available only in Spanish); | Identidad de género, e igualdad y no discriminación a parejas del mismo sexo [性别认同与同性伴侣的平等和不歧视]，2017年11月24日第OC-24/17号咨询意见，美洲人权法院，第32段(只有西班牙文本)； |
| Committee against Torture, ninth annual report of the Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (2016) (CAT/C/57/4 and Corr.1), para. 53; | 禁止酷刑委员会，防范酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格待遇或处罚小组委员会第九次年度报告(2016年)(CAT/C/57/4和Corr.1)，第53段； |
| Committee against Torture, general comment No. 2 (2007) on the implementation of article 2, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-third Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/63/44), annex VI; | 禁止酷刑委员会，关于执行第2条的第2号一般性意见(2007年)，《大会正式记录，第六十三届会议，补编第44号》(A/63/44)，附件六； |
| Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 33 (2015) on women’s access to justice (CEDAW/C/GC/33); | 消除对妇女歧视委员会，关于妇女获得司法救助的第33号一般性建议(2015年)，(CEDAW/C/GC/33)； |
| Committee against Torture, general comment No. 3 (2012) on the implementation of article 14 by States parties, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/68/44), annex X; | 禁止酷刑委员会，关于缔约国执行第14条的第3号一般性意见(2012年)，《大会正式记录，第六十八届会议，补编第44号》(A/68/44)，附件十； |
| Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 16 (2005) on the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights (art. 3 of the Covenant), Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, Report on the Thirty-fourth and Thirty-fifth Sessions, Supplement No. 2 (E/2006/22-E/C.12/2005/4), annex VIII; | 经济、社会及文化权利委员会，关于男女在享受一切经济、社会及文化权利方面的平等权利(《公约》第三条)的第16号一般性意见(2005年)，《经济及社会理事会正式记录，第三十四届和第三十五届会议报告，补编第2号》(E/2006/22-E/C.12/2005/4)，附件八； |
| Report of the Secretary-General, Question of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (2001) (A/56/156); | 秘书长的报告：酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚问题(2001年)(A/56/156)； |
| Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 28 (2000) on article 3 (equality of rights between men and women), Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/55/40), vol. I, annex VI B; | 人权事务委员会，关于第三条(男女权利平等)的第28号一般性意见(2000年)，《大会正式记录，第五十五届会议，补编第40号》(A/55/40)，第一卷，附件六B； |
| Report of the Secretary-General: Implementation of the Outcome of the Fourth World Conference on Women (1996) (A/51/322); | 秘书长的报告：第四次妇女问题世界会议成果的执行情况(1996年)(A/51/322)； |
| Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 19 (1993) on violence against women, Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 38 (A/47/38), chap. I. | 消除对妇女歧视委员会，关于对妇女的暴力行为的第19号一般性建议(1993年)，《大会正式记录，第四十七届会议，补编第38号》(A/47/38)，第一章。 |
| Prosecutor v. Ferdinand Nahimana, Jean Bosco and Hassan Ngeze, Case No. ICTR-99-52-T, Judgment and Sentence, 3 December 2003, Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Reports of Orders, Decisions and Judgements 2003, p. 376, at p. 1116, para. 1079; | 检察官诉Ferdinand Nahimana, Jean Bosco和Hassan Ngeze案，案件号ICTR-99-52-T, 判决和判刑，2003年12月3日，卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭第一审判分庭，《2003年命令、决定和判决汇编》，第376页起，见第1116页，第1079段； |
| Prosecutor v. Miroslav Kvočka et al., Case No. IT-98-30/1-T, Judgment, 2 November 2001, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, para. 327; | 检察官诉Miroslav Kvočka等人案，案件号IT-98-30/1-T, 判决，2001年11月2日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，第327段； |
| Prosecutor v. Miroslav Kvočka et al., Case No. IT-98-30/1-A, Judgment, 28 February 2005, Appeals Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, paras. 369–370; | 检察官诉Miroslav Kvočka等人案，案件号IT-98-30/1-A, 判决，2005年2月28号，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭上诉分庭，第369-370段； |
| Situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo in the case of the Prosecutor v. Lubanga Dyilo, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/06, Decision establishing the principles and procedures to be applied to reparations, 7 August 2012, Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Court, para. 191. | 刚果民主共和国状况案中检察官诉Lubanga Dyilo案，案件号ICC-01/04-01/06, 确定对赔偿适用的原则和程序的决定，2012年8月7日，国际刑事法院第一审判分庭，第191段。 |
| Convention against Torture, art. 1, para. 2. | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第1条第2款。 |
| Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, General Assembly resolution 47/133 of 18 December 1992, art. 1. | 《保护所有人不遭受强迫失踪宣言》，联大1992年12月18日第47/133号决议，第1条。 |
| Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons (Belem, 9 June 1994), Organization of American States, Treaty Series, No. 60, art. II. | 《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》(1994年6月9日，贝伦)，美洲国家组织，《条约汇编》，第60号，第2条。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (New York, 20 December 2006), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2716, No. 48088, p. 3, art. 2. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》(2006年12月20日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2716卷，第48088号，第3页，第二条。 |
| Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment (see footnote 13 above), p. 43 at p. 113, para. 166. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那诉塞尔维亚和黑山)，判决(见上文脚注13)，第43页起，见第113页，第166段。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| Ibid., p. 120, para. 183. | 同上，第120页，第183段。 |
| Ibid., p. 114, para. 167 (noting that international responsibility is “quite different in nature from criminal responsibility”). | 同上，第114页，第167段(指出国际责任“与刑事责任截然不同”)。 |
| Yearbook … 1998, vol. II (Part Two), p. 65, para. 249 (finding that the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide “did not envisage State crime or the criminal responsibility of States in its article IX concerning State responsibility”). | 《1998年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第65页，第249段(结论是：《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》“没有在关于国家责任的第九条中设想国家罪行或国家刑事责任的问题”)。 |
| Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part. Two) and corrigendum, p. 142, para. (3) of the commentary to art. 58 of the draft articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第142页，对《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》第58条的评注第(3)段。 |
| Ibid., p. 27, arts. 16–18 of the draft articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 同上，第27页，《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》第16-18条。 |
| Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) (see footnote 13 above), p. 43, at p. 113, para. 166. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那诉塞尔维亚和黑山)(见上文脚注13)，第43页起，见第113页，第166段。 |
| Ibid., p. 221, para. 430. | 同上，第221页，第430段。 |
| Ibid., p. 221, para. 431. See Yearbook … | 同上，第221页，第431段。 |
| 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, p. 27, art. 14, para. 3 of the draft articles on responsibility of states for internationally wrongful acts: “The breach of an international obligation requiring a State to prevent a given event occurs when the event occurs”). | 见《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第27页(《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》第14条第3款：“违反国家须防止某一特定事件的国际义务产生于该事件发生之时”)。 |
| Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 3, at p. 22, para. 45. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案，1993年4月8日临时措施令，《1993年国际法院案例汇编》，第3页起，见第22页，第45段。 |
| Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment (see footnote 13 above), p. 43, at p. 111, para. 162. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那诉塞尔维亚和黑山)，判决(见上文脚注13)，第43页起，见第111页，第162段。 |
| Ibid., p. 219, para. 426. | 同上，第219页，第426段。 |
| Ibid., para. 425. | 同上，第425段。 |
| Ibid., p. 220, para. 427. | 同上，第220页，第427段。 |
| Judgment of 30 September 1946 (see footnote 92 above), p. 466. | 1946年9月30日判决，(见上文脚注92)，第466页。 |
| Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, art. 5 (c) (Tokyo, 19 January 1946) (as amended on 26 April 1946), Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America 1776–1949, vol. 4, C. Bevans, ed. (Washington, D.C., Department of State, 1968), p. 20, at p. 23, art. 5 (c) (hereinafter “Tokyo Charter”). | 《远东国际军事法庭宪章》第5条(c)款，(1946年1月19日，东京)(1946年4月26日修正)，Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America 1776-1949, vol. 4, C. Bevans ed. (Washington, D.C.，Department of State, 1968), p. 20, at p. 23, art. 5(c) (下称《东京宪章》)。 |
| No persons, however, were convicted of this crime by that tribunal. | 不过，在东京法庭上无人被判定犯有此罪。 |
| Affirmation of the principles of international law recognized by the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal, General Assembly resolution 95 (I) of 11 December 1946. | “确认纽伦堡法庭组织法所认定之国际法原则”，联大1946年12月11日第95(I)号决议。 |
| Formulation of the principles recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and the judgment of the Tribunal, General Assembly resolution 177 (II) of 21 November 1947. | “纽伦堡法庭组织法及法庭判决中所确认原则之编订问题”，联大1947年11月21日第177(II)号决议。 |
| Yearbook … 1950, vol. II, document A/1316, Part III, p. 376, principle VI of the Nürnberg Principles. | 《1950年…年鉴》，第二卷，A/1316号文件，第三部分，第376页，《纽伦堡原则》原则六。 |
| Yearbook … 1954, vol. II, p. 150, art. 1 of the draft Code of Offences against the Peace and Security of Mankind. | 《1954年…年鉴》，第二卷，第150页，《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第1条。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 17, para. 50, art. 1 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind. | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第17页，第50段，《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第1条。 |
| The 1996 draft Code contained five categories of crimes, one of which was crimes against humanity. | 1996年《治罪法草案》列出五类罪行，其中之一是危害人类罪。 |
| See footnote 21 above and accompanying text. | 见上文脚注21和所附案文。 |
| See ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention: Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 2nd ed., 2016, para. 218 of the commentary to common article 2 (hereinafter “ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016”) (“Armed conflicts in the sense of Article 2(1) are those which oppose High Contracting Parties (i.e. States) and occur when one or more States have recourse to armed force against another State, regardless of the reasons for or the intensity of the confrontation.”); | 见红十字委员会，《〈日内瓦第一公约：改善战地武装部队伤者病者境遇之日内瓦公约〉评注》，第二版，2016年，共同第二条的评注(下称“红十字委员会，2016年《〈日内瓦第一公约〉评注》)第218段(“第2条第1款意义上的武装冲突是指那些缔约国(即国家)之间的对抗，在一国或多国针对另一国诉诸武力时就会发生，而不论对抗产生的原因或激烈程度”)； |
| ibid., para. 387 of the commentary to common article 3 (“A situation of violence that crosses the threshold of an ‘armed conflict not of an international character’ is a situation in which organized Parties confront one another with violence of a certain degree of intensity. | 同上，共同第三条的评注第387段 (“当有组织的冲突方与另一方发生达到一定强度的暴力时，这种局势便超过了“非国际性武装冲突”所要求的最低标准。 |
| It is a determination made based on the facts.”). | 这些都需要基于事实作出判断”)。 |
| Protocol Rectifying Discrepancy in Text of Charter (Berlin, 6 October 1945), in Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg 14 November 1945–1 October 1946), vol. 1 (1947), pp. 17–18 (hereinafter “Berlin Protocol”). | 《关于纠正组织法案文偏差的议定书》(1945年10月6日，柏林)，载于《国际军事法庭对主要战争罪犯的审判》(1945年11月14日至1946年10月1日，纽伦堡)，第1卷(1947年)，第17-18页(下称“《柏林议定书》”)。 |
| The Berlin Protocol replaced a semi-colon after “during the war” with a comma, so as to harmonize the English and French texts with the Russian text. | 《柏林议定书》将英文“during the war”之后的分号改为逗号，以便使英文和法文本与俄文本取得一致。 |
| Ibid., p. 17. | 同上，第17页。 |
| The effect of doing so was to link the first part of the provision to the latter part of the provision (“in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal”) and hence to the existence of an international armed conflict. | 这样就将该项规定的第一部分与后一部分联系在一起(“与本法庭管辖范围内的任何罪行有关者”)，由此也就与国际武装冲突的存在联系在一起。 |
| See United Nations War Crimes Commission, History of the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Development of the Laws of War (His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1948), p. 179 (“Only crimes which either by their magnitude and savagery or by their large number or by the fact that a similar pattern was applied at different times and places, endangered the international community or shocked the conscience of mankind, warranted intervention by States other than that on whose territory the crimes had been committed, or whose subjects had become their victims”). | 见联合国战争罪行委员会，《联合国战争罪行委员会的历史和战争法的发展》(His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1948)，第179页(“只有当罪行的规模、野蛮程度、数量或在不同时期和地点采用的类似模式危及到国际社会或震撼人类良知时，发生上述罪行所在国或国民沦为受害者的国家以外的国家才有理由进行干预”)。 |
| See, for example, Kupreškić, Judgment, 14 January 2000 (footnote 25 above), para. 576 (noting the tenuous link between the crimes against humanity committed by Baldur von Schirach and the other crimes within the jurisdiction of the International Military Tribunal). | 例如见Kupreškić案，判决，2000年1月14日(上文脚注25)，第576段(其中指出Baldur von Schirach所犯危害人类罪与国际军事法庭管辖范围内其他罪行之间关系薄弱)。 |
| Yearbook … 1950, vol. II, document A/1316, Part III, p. 377, principle VI (c) of the Nürnberg Principles. | 《1950年…年鉴》，第二卷，A/1316号文件，第三部分，第377页，《纽伦堡原则》原则六(三)。 |
| Ibid., para. 123. | 同上，第123段。 |
| Ibid., para. 124. | 同上，第124段。 |
| Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity (New York, 26 November 1968), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 754, No. 10823, p. 73. | 《战争罪及危害人类罪不适用法定时效公约》(1968年11月26日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第754卷，第10823号，第73页。 |
| As of July 2019, there were 55 States parties to this Convention. | 截至2019年7月，该公约有55个缔约国。 |
| For a regional convention of a similar nature, see the European Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitation to Crimes against Humanity and War Crimes (Strasbourg, 25 January 1974), Council of Europe, Treaty Series, No. 82. | 类似性质的区域公约，见《危害人类罪和战争罪不适用法定时效欧洲公约》(1974年1月25日，斯特拉斯堡)，欧洲委员会，《条约汇编》，第82号。 |
| As of July 2019, there were eight States parties to this Convention. | 截至2019年7月，该公约有8个缔约国。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, art. 5. | 《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第5条。 |
| Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić a/k/a “Dule”, Case No. IT-94-1-AR72, Decision on the defence motion for interlocutory appeal on jurisdiction, 2 October 1995, Appeals Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Judicial Reports 1994–1995, vol. I, para. 140. | 检察官诉Duško Tadić a/k/a“Dule”案，案件号IT-94-1-AR72, 1995年10月2日对辩方就管辖权问题提出中间上诉的请求所做的裁决，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭上诉分庭，《1994-1995年案例汇编》，第一卷，第140段。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| See, for example, Kordić, Judgment, 26 February 2001 (footnote 81 above), para. 33; | 例如见Kordić案，判决，2001年2月26日(上文脚注81)，第33段； |
| Tadić, Judgment, 15 July 1999 (footnote 152 above), para. 251 (“[T]he armed conflict requirement is satisfied by proof that there was an armed conflict; | Tadić案，判决，1999年7月15日(上文脚注152)，第251段。 (“证明存在武装冲突即满足了需存在武装冲突的要求； |
| that is all that the Statute requires, and in so doing, it requires more than does customary international law”). | 《规约》的要求仅此而已，而这样要求即已超过习惯国际法”)。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 3. | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第3条。 |
| See Semanza v. Prosecutor, Case No. ICTR-97-20-A, Judgment, 20 May 2005, Appeals Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, para. 269 (“[C]ontrary to Article 5 of the [Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia], Article 3 of the [Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda] does not require that the crimes be committed in the context of an armed conflict. | 见Semanza诉检察官案，案件号ICTR-97-20-A, 判决，2005年5月20日，卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭上诉分庭，第269段(“…与[《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》]第5条相反，[《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》]第3条没有关于犯罪须与武装冲突相关的规定。 |
| This is an important distinction”). | 这是一个重要的差别”)。 |
| See, for example, Case No. 002/19-09-2007-ECCC/SC, Appeal Judgment, 23 November 2016, Supreme Court Chamber, Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, para. 721 (finding that the definition of crimes against humanity under customary international law by 1975 did not require a nexus to an armed conflict). | 例如见第002/19-09-2007-ECCC/SC号案件，上诉判决，2016年11月23日，最高法院分庭，柬埔寨法院特别法庭，第721段(认定到1975年，习惯国际法中危害人类罪的定义并不要求存在与武装冲突的联系)。 |
| Convention against Torture, art. 2, para. 2 (“No exceptional circumstances whatsoever, whether a state of war or a threat of war, internal political instability or any other public emergency, may be invoked as a justification of torture”). | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第2条第2款(“任何特殊情况，不论为战争状态、战争威胁、国内政局动荡或任何其他社会紧急状态，均不得援引为施行酷刑的理由”)。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art.1, para. 2 (“No exceptional circumstances whatsoever, whether a state of war or a threat of war, internal political instability or any other public emergency, may be invoked as a justification for enforced disappearance”). | 《保护所人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第一条第二款(“任何情况，不论是处于战争状态或受到战争威胁、国内政治动乱，还是任何其他公共紧急状态，均不得用来作为强迫失踪的辩护理由”)。 |
| Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture (Cartagena, 9 December 1985), Organization of American States, Treaty Series, No. 67, art. 5 (“The existence of circumstances such as a state of war, threat of war, state of siege or of emergency, domestic disturbance or strife, suspension of constitutional guarantees, domestic political instability, or other public emergencies or disasters shall not be invoked or admitted as justification for the crime of torture”). | 《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》(1985年12月9日，卡塔赫纳)，美洲国家组织，《条约汇编》，第67号，第5条(“存在诸如战争状态、战争威胁、戒严状态或紧急状态、国内骚乱或动乱、中止宪法保障、国内政局不稳等情况，或者其他公共紧急状态或灾难，均不得援引或容许为酷刑犯罪的理由”)。 |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. I. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》，第一条。 |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation (Montreal, 23 September 1971), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 974, No. 14118, p. 177. | 《关于制止危害民用航空安全的非法行为的公约》(1971年9月23日，蒙特利尔)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第974卷，第14118号，第177页。 |
| Article 10, paragraph 1, provides: “Contracting States shall, in accordance with international and national law, endeavour to take all practicable measure[s] for the purpose of preventing the offences mentioned in Article 1”. | 第十条第一款规定：“缔约各国应根据国际法和本国法，努力采取一切可能的措施，以防止发生第一条所指的罪行。 ” |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents (New York, 14 December 1973), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1035, No. 15410, p. 167, art. 4 (“States Parties shall co-operate in the prevention of the crimes set forth in article 2, particularly by: (a) taking all practicable measures to prevent preparations in their respective territories for the commission of those crimes within or outside their territories”). | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》(1973年12月14日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1035卷，第15410号，第167页，第四条(“各缔约国应特别以下列方式进行合作，以防止第二条所列举的罪行：(a) 采取一切切实可行的措施，以防止在各该国领土内策划在其领土以内或以外实施这些罪行”)。 |
| International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid (New York, 30 November 1973), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1015, No. 14861, p. 243, art. IV: (“The States Parties to the present Convention undertake … (a) to adopt any legislative or other measures necessary to suppress as well as to prevent any encouragement of the crime of apartheid and similar segregationist policies or their manifestations and to punish persons guilty of that crime”). | 《禁止并惩治种族隔离罪行国际公约》(1973年11月30日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1015卷，第14861号，第243页，第四条(“本公约缔约国承诺…采用任何必要的立法或其他措施，来禁止并防止对于种族隔离罪行和类似的分隔主义政策或其表现的鼓励，并惩治触犯此种罪行的人”)。 |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages (New York, 17 December 1979), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1316, No. 21931, p. 205, art. 4 (“States Parties shall co-operate in the prevention of the offences set forth in article 1, particularly by: (a) Taking all practicable measures to prevent preparations in their respective territories for the commission of … offences … including measures to prohibit in their territories illegal activities of persons, groups and organizations that encourage, instigate, organize or engage in the perpetration of acts of taking of hostages”). | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》(1979年12月17日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1316卷，第21931号，第205页，第四条(“各缔约国应合作防止第一条所称罪行，特别是：(a) 采取一切实际可行的措施，以防止为在其领土内外进行犯罪行为而在其领土上所做的准备，包括禁止鼓励、煽动、策划或参与劫持人质的行为的个人、团体和组织在其领土内从事非法活动的措施”)。 |
| Convention against Torture, art. 2, para. 1 (“Each State Party shall take effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other measures to prevent acts of torture in any territory under its jurisdiction”). | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第二条第1款(“每一缔约国应采取有效的立法、行政、司法或其他措施，防止在其管辖的任何领土内出现酷刑的行为”)。 |
| Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, art. 1 (“The State Parties undertake to prevent and punish torture in accordance with the terms of this Convention”). | 《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》第1条(“缔约国承诺根据本公约的规定，防止和惩处酷刑”)。 |
| Article 6 provides: “The States Parties likewise shall take effective measures to prevent and punish other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment within their jurisdiction”. | 第6条规定：“缔约国同样应采取有效措施，以在其管辖范围内防止和惩处其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚”。 |
| Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons, art. 1 (“The States Parties to this Convention undertake … (c) To cooperate with one another in helping to prevent, punish, and eliminate the forced disappearance of persons; | 《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》，第1条(“本公约缔约国承诺…(c) 相互合作协助防止、惩处和消除人员被迫失踪问题； |
| (d) To take legislative, administrative, judicial, and any other measures necessary to comply with the commitments undertaken in this Convention”). | (d) 采取立法、行政、司法和其他任何必要措施，从而遵守对本公约所作承诺”)。 |
| Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel (New York, 9 December 1994), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2051, No. 35457, p. 363, art. 11 (“States Parties shall cooperate in the prevention of the crimes set out in article 9, particularly by: (a) Taking all practicable measures to prevent preparations in their respective territories for the commission of those crimes within or outside their territories; | 《联合国人员和有关人员安全公约》(纽约，1994年12月9日)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2051卷，第35457号，第363页，第11条(“缔约国应合作以防止第9条所列举的罪行，尤其应：(a) 采取一切实际可行的措施，以防止在其各自境内策划在其境内或境外犯下此种罪行； |
| and (b) Exchanging information in accordance with their national law and coordinating the taking of administrative and other measures as appropriate to prevent the commission of those crimes”). | (b) 按照国内法律的规定交换情报，酌情采取行政的或其他方面的措施，以防止发生此种罪行”)。 |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings (New York, 15 December 1997), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2149, No. 37517, p. 256, art. 15 (“States Parties shall cooperate in the prevention of the offences set forth in article 2”). | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》(1997年12月15日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2149卷，第37517号，第256页，第15条(“缔约国应在防止第2条所述的罪行方面进行合作”)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 9, para. 1 (“In addition to the measures set forth in article 8 of this Convention, each State Party shall, to the extent appropriate and consistent with its legal system, adopt legislative, administrative or other effective measures to promote integrity and to prevent, detect and punish the corruption of public officials”); | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第9条第1款(“除本公约第8条所列各项措施外，各缔约国均应在适当时并在符合其法律制度的情况下，采取立法、行政或其他有效措施，以促进公职人员廉洁奉公，并预防、调查和惩治腐败行为”)； |
| art. 9, para. 2 (“Each State Party shall take measures to ensure effective action by its authorities in the prevention, detection and punishment of the corruption of public officials, including providing such authorities with adequate independence to deter the exertion of inappropriate influence on their actions”); | 第9条第2款(“各缔约国均应采取措施，确保本国当局在预防、调查和惩治公职人员腐败行为方面采取有效行动，包括使该当局具备适当的独立性，以免其行动受到不适当的影响”)； |
| art. 29, para. 1 (“Each State Party shall, to the extent necessary, initiate, develop or improve specific training programmes for its law enforcement personnel, including prosecutors, investigating magistrates and customs personnel, and other personnel charged with the prevention, detection and control of the offences covered by this Convention”); | 第29条第1款(“各缔约国均应在必要时为其执法人员，包括检察官、进行调查的法官和海关人员及其他负责预防、侦查和控制本公约所涵盖的犯罪的人员开展、拟订或改进具体的培训方案”)； |
| art. 31, para. 1 (“States Parties shall endeavour to develop and evaluate national projects and to establish and promote best practices and policies aimed at the prevention of transnational organized crime”). | 第31条第1款(“缔约国应努力开发和评估各种旨在预防跨国有组织犯罪的国家项目，并制订和促进这方面的最佳做法和政策”)。 |
| Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 9, para. 1 (“States Parties shall establish comprehensive policies, programmes and other measures: (a) To prevent and combat trafficking in persons; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于预防、禁止和惩治贩运人口特别是妇女和儿童行为的补充议定书》，第9条第1款(“缔约国应制定综合政策、方案和其他措施，以便：(a) 预防和打击人口贩运； |
| and (b) To protect victims of trafficking in persons, especially women and children, from revictimization”). | 并(b) 保护人口贩运活动被害人特别是妇女和儿童免于再度受害”)。 |
| Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (New York, 15 November 2000), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2241, No. 39574, p. 480, art. 11, para. 1 (“Without prejudice to international commitments in relation to the free movement of people, States Parties shall strengthen, to the extent possible, such border controls as may be necessary to prevent and detect the smuggling of migrants”); | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于打击陆、海、空偷运移民的补充议定书》(2000年11月15日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2241卷，第39574号，第480页，第11条第1款(“在不影响关于人员自由流动的国际承诺的情况下，缔约国应尽量加强必要的边界管制，以预防和侦查偷运移民活动”)； |
| art. 11, para. 2 (“Each State Party shall adopt legislative or other appropriate measures to prevent, to the extent possible, means of transport operated by commercial carriers from being used in the commission of the offence established in accordance with article 6, paragraph 1 (a), of this Protocol”); | 第11条第2款 (“各缔约国均应采取立法或其他适当措施，以尽量防止商业承运人经营的运输工具被用于实施根据本议定书第6条第1款(a)项确立的犯罪”)； |
| art. 14, para. 1 (“States Parties shall provide or strengthen specialized training for immigration and other relevant officials in preventing the conduct set forth in article 6 of this Protocol”). | 第14条第1款(“缔约国应为其移民事务和其他有关官员提供或加强预防本议定书第6条所列行为的专门培训”)。 |
| Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (New York, 31 May 2001), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2326, No. 39574, p. 208, art. 9 (“A State Party that does not recognize a deactivated firearm as a firearm in accordance with its domestic law shall take the necessary measures, including the establishment of specific offences if appropriate, to prevent the illicit reactivation of deactivated firearms”); | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于打击非法制造和贩运枪支及其零部件和弹药的补充议定书》(2001年5月31日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2326卷，第39574号，第208页，第9条(“根据本国法律不承认已停用的枪支为枪支的缔约国应采取必要措施，包括酌情规定具体的犯罪，以便防止非法重新启用业已停用的枪支”)； |
| art. 11 (“In an effort to detect, prevent and eliminate the theft, loss or diversion of, as well as the illicit manufacturing of and trafficking in, firearms, their parts and components and ammunition, each State Party shall take appropriate measures: (a) To require the security of firearms, their parts and components and ammunition at the time of manufacture, import, export and transit through its territory; | 第11条 (“为了侦查、预防和杜绝枪支及其零部件和弹药的失窃、丢失或转移用途以及非法制造和贩运，各缔约国均应采取以下适当措施：(a) 要求确保枪支及其零部件和弹药在制造、进口、出口和通过本国领土时的安全； |
| and (b) To increase the effectiveness of import, export and transit controls, including, where appropriate, border controls, and of police and customs transborder cooperation”); | (b) 提高进口、出口和过境管制的有效性，在适当情况下还包括提高边境管制以及警方和海关跨境合作等方面的有效性”)； |
| art. 14 (“States Parties shall cooperate with each other and with relevant international organizations, as appropriate, so that States Parties may receive, upon request, the training and technical assistance necessary to enhance their ability to prevent, combat and eradicate the illicit manufacturing of and trafficking in firearms”). | 第14条(“缔约国应当相互合作并酌情与有关国际组织合作，使缔约国在提出请求后能获得必要的培训和技术援助，以增强其预防、打击和消除非法制造和贩运枪支的能力”)。 |
| Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (New York, 18 December 2002), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2375, No. 24841, p. 237, preamble (“Recalling that the effective prevention of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment requires education and a combination of various legislative, administrative, judicial and other measures”); | 《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约任择议定书》(2002年12月18日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2375卷，第24841号，第237页，序言部分(“忆及有效防止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚要求，进行教育并综合采取立法、行政、司法或其他措施”)； |
| art. 3 (“Each State party shall set up, designate or maintain at the domestic level one or several visiting bodies for the prevention of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment”). | 第3条(“每一缔约国应在国内一级设立、指定或保持一个或多个预防酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚的查访机构”)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 6, para. 1 (“Each State Party shall, in accordance with the fundamental principles of its legal system, ensure the existence of a body or bodies, as appropriate, that prevent corruption”); | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第六条第一款(“各缔约国均应当根据本国法律制度的基本原则，确保设有一个或酌情设有多个机构预防腐败”)； |
| art. 9, para. 1 (“Each State Party shall, in accordance with the fundamental principles of its legal system, take the necessary steps to establish appropriate systems of procurement, based on transparency, competition and objective criteria in decision-making, that are effective, inter alia, in preventing corruption”); | 第九条第一款(“各缔约国均应当根据本国法律制度的基本原则采取必要步骤，建立对预防腐败特别有效的以透明度、竞争和按客观标准决定为基础的适当的采购制度”)； |
| art. 12, para. 1 (“Each State Party shall take measures, in accordance with the fundamental principles of its domestic law, to prevent corruption involving the private sector, enhance accounting and auditing standards in the private sector and, where appropriate, provide effective, proportionate and dissuasive civil, administrative or criminal penalties for failure to comply with such measures”). | 第十二条第一款(“各缔约国均应当根据本国法律的基本原则采取措施，防止涉及私营部门的腐败，加强私营部门的会计和审计标准，并酌情对不遵守措施的行为规定有效、适度而且具有警戒性的民事、行政或者刑事处罚”)。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, preamble (“Determined to prevent enforced disappearances and to combat impunity for the crime of enforced disappearance”); | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，序言部分(“决心防止强迫失踪，制止犯有强迫失踪罪而不受惩罚的现象”)； |
| art. 23 (“1. Each State Party shall ensure that the training of law enforcement personnel, civil or military, medical personnel, public officials and other persons who may be involved in the custody or treatment of any person deprived of liberty includes the necessary education and information regarding the relevant provisions of this Convention, in order to: (a) Prevent the involvement of such officials in enforced disappearances; | 第二十三条(“一、各缔约国应确保，对执法人员、文职或军事人员、医务人员、国家官员和其他可能参与监押或处置任何被剥夺自由者的人的培训，应包括对本公约相关规定的必要教育和信息，以便：(一) 防止这类官员卷入强迫失踪案件； |
| (b) Emphasize the importance of prevention and investigations in relation to enforced disappearances; | (二) 强调防止和调查强迫失踪案件的重要性； |
| (c) Ensure that the urgent need to resolve cases of enforced disappearance is recognized. | (三) 确保认识到解决强迫失踪案件的迫切性。 |
| 2. Each State Party shall ensure that orders or instructions prescribing, authorizing or encouraging enforced disappearance are prohibited. | 二、各缔约国应确保禁止发布任何命令和指示，指令、授权或鼓励制造强迫失踪。 |
| Each State Party shall guarantee that a person who refuses to obey such an order will not be punished. | 各国应保证，拒绝遵守这类命令的人不得受到惩罚。 |
| 3. Each State Party shall take the necessary measures to ensure that the persons referred to in paragraph 1 of this article who have reason to believe that an enforced disappearance has occurred or is planned report the matter to their superiors and, where necessary, to the appropriate authorities or bodies vested with powers of review or remedy”). | 三、各缔约国应采取必要措施，确保当本条第一款所指的人有理由相信强迫失踪案件已经发生或正在计划之中时，应向上级报告，并在必要时报告拥有审查权或补救权的有关当局或机关”)。 |
| International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (New York, 7 March 1966), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 660, No. 9464, p. 195, art. 3 (“States Parties particularly condemn racial segregation and apartheid and undertake to prevent, prohibit and eradicate all practices of this nature in territories under their jurisdiction”). | 《消除一切形式种族歧视国际公约》(1966年3月7日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第660卷，第9464号，第195页，第三条(“缔约国特别谴责种族分隔及‘种族隔离’并承诺在其所辖领土内防止、禁止并根除具有此种性质的一切习例”)。 |
| Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (New York, 18 December 1979), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1249, No. 20378, p. 13, art. 2 (“States Parties condemn discrimination against women in all its forms, agree to pursue by all appropriate means and without delay a policy of eliminating discrimination against women”) and art. 3 (“States Parties shall take in all fields, in particular in the political, social, economic and cultural fields, all appropriate measures, including legislation, to ensure the full development and advancement of women, for the purpose of guaranteeing them the exercise and enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms on a basis of equality with men”). | 《消除对妇女一切形式歧视公约》(1979年12月18日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1249卷，第20378号，第13页，第二条(缔约各国谴责对妇女一切形式的歧视，协议立即用一切适当办法，推行政策，消除对妇女的歧视)和第三条(“缔约各国应承担在所有领域，特别是在政治、社会、经济、文化领域，采取一切适当措施，包括制定法律，保证妇女得到充分发展和进步，其目的是为确保她们在与男子平等的基础上，行使和享有人权和基本自由”)。 |
| Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence, art. 4, para. 2 (“Parties condemn all forms of discrimination against women and take, without delay, the necessary legislative and other measures to prevent it, in particular by: embodying in their national constitutions or other appropriate legislation the principle of equality between women and men and ensuring the practical realisation of this principle; | 《欧洲委员会防止和打击暴力侵害妇女行为和家庭暴力公约》，第4条第2款(“缔约国谴责对妇女一切形式的歧视，立即采取必要的立法和其他措施来防止歧视，尤其是：在国家宪法和其他适当立法中纳入男女平等原则，并确保该原则在实践中得以实现； |
| prohibiting discrimination against women, including through the use of sanctions, where appropriate; | 禁止歧视妇女，包括适时采用制裁措施等方式； |
| abolishing laws and practices which discriminate against women”). | 废除歧视妇女的法律和做法”)。 |
| International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (New York, 16 December 1966), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 999, No. 14668, p. 171, art. 2, para. 2 (“Where not already provided for by existing legislative or other measures, each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to take the necessary steps, in accordance with its constitutional processes and with the provisions of the present Covenant, to adopt such legislative or other measures as may be necessary to give effect to the rights recognized in the present Covenant”). | 《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》(1966年12月16日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第999卷，第14668号，第171页，第二条第2款(“凡未经现行立法或其他措施予以规定者，本公约每一缔约国承担按照其宪法程序和本公约的规定采取必要的步骤，以采纳为实施本公约所承认的权利所需的立法或其他措施”)。 |
| Convention on the Rights of the Child (New York, 20 November 1989), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1577, No. 27531, p. 3, art. 4 (“States Parties shall undertake all appropriate legislative, administrative, and other measures for the implementation of the rights recognized in the present Convention”). | 《儿童权利公约》(1989年11月20日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1577卷，第27531号，第3页，第4条(“缔约国应采取一切适当的立法、行政和其他措施以实现本公约所确认的权利”)。 |
| Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment (see footnote 13 above), p. 43, at p. 221, para. 430. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那诉塞尔维亚和黑山)，判决(见上文脚注13)，第221页，第430段。 |
| Convention against Torture, art. 2, para. 1. | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第2条第1款。 |
| See Committee against Torture, general comment No. 2 (2007). | 见禁止酷刑委员会，第2号一般性意见(2007年)。 |
| Report of the Human Rights Council, Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventieth Session, Supplement No. 53 (A/70/53), chap. II, resolution 28/34 on the prevention of genocide, adopted by the Human Rights Council on 27 March 2015. | 人权理事会的报告，《大会正式记录，第七十届会议，补编第53号》(A/70/53)，第二章，关于防止灭绝种族的第28/34号决议，人权理事会2015年3月27日通过。 |
| Ibid., para. 2. | 同上，第2段。 |
| Ibid., para. 3. | 同上，第3段。 |
| Ibid., para. 4. | 同上，第4段。 |
| Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Rome, 4 November 1950), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 213, No. 2889, p. 221. | 《保护人权与基本自由公约》(1950年11月4日，罗马)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第213卷，第2889号，第221页。 |
| Makaratzis v. Greece, Application No. 50385/99, Judgment of 20 December 2004, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2004-XI, para. 57; | Makaratzis诉希腊案，第50385/99号申诉，欧洲人权法院大审判庭2004年12月20日的判决，《2004年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》，第十一卷，第57段； |
| see Kiliç v. Turkey, Application No. 22492/93, Judgment of 28 March 2000, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2000-III, para. 62 (finding that article 2, paragraph 1, obliged a State party not only to refrain from the intentional and unlawful taking of life, but also to take appropriate steps within its domestic legal system to safeguard the lives of those within its jurisdiction); | 见Kiliç诉土耳其案，第22492/93号申诉，欧洲人权法院2000年3月28日的判决，《2000年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》第三卷，第62段(结论：第2条第1款使国家不仅有义务不得故意、非法剥夺生命，且有义务在其国内法律体系中采取适当步骤以保障其辖内人员的生命)； |
| Application No. 47848/08, Judgment of 17 July 2014, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2014, para. 130. | 法律资源中心代表Valentin Câmpeanu案，第47848/08号申诉，2014年7月17日的判决，大审判庭，欧洲人权法院，《2014年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》，第130段。 |
| Mahmut Kaya v. Turkey, Application No. 22535/93, Judgment of 28 March 2000, First Section, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2000-III, para. 86 (“Bearing in mind the difficulties in policing modern societies, the unpredictability of human conduct and the operational choices which must be made in terms of priorities and resources, the positive obligation [of article 2, paragraph 1,] must be interpreted in a way which does not impose an impossible or disproportionate burden on the authorities”.); | Mahmut Kaya诉土耳其案，第22535/93号申诉，欧洲人权法院第一庭2000年3月28日的判决，《2000年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》，第三卷，第86段(“考虑到现代社会中维持治安的难度、人的行为的不可预测性，在优先事项和资源方面必须做出实际操作上的选择，对[第2条第1款中]积极义务的解释办法须不得对当局施加难以达成或不成比例的负担”)； |
| see also Kerimova and others v. Russia, Application Nos. 17170/04, 20792/04, 22448/04, 23360/04, 5681/05, and 5684/05, Final Judgment of 15 September 2011, First Section, European Court of Human Rights, para. 246; | 另见Kerimova等人诉俄罗斯案，第17170/04、第20792/04、第22448/04、第23360/04、第5681/05和第5684/05号申诉，欧洲人权法院第一庭2011年9月15日的终审判决，第246段； |
| Osman v. the United Kingdom, Judgment of 28 October 1998, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, Reports 1998-VIII, para. 116. | Osman诉联合王国案，欧洲人权法院大审判庭1998年10月28日的判决，《1998年案例汇编》，第八卷，第116段。 |
| A v. United Kingdom, Judgment of 23 September 1998, European Court of Human Rights, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1998-VI, para. 22; | A诉联合王国案，1998年9月23日的判决，欧洲人权法院，《判决和决定汇编》，1998年第六辑，第22段； |
| O’Keeffe v. Ireland [Grand Chamber], Application No. 35810/09, Judgment of 28 January 2014European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2014, para. 144. | O’Keeffe诉爱尔兰案[大审判庭]，第35810/09号申诉，2014年1月28日的判决，欧洲人权法院，《2014年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》，第144段。 |
| American Convention on Human Rights: “Pact of San José, Costa Rica” (San José, 22 November 1969), Organization of American States, Treaty Series, vol. 1144, No. 17955, p. 123. | 《美洲人权公约：哥斯达黎加圣何塞公约》(1969年11月22日，圣何塞)，美洲国家组织，《条约汇编》，第1144卷，第17955号，第123页。 |
| Article 1, paragraph 1, reads: “The States Parties to this Convention undertake to respect the rights and freedoms recognized herein and to ensure to all persons subject to their jurisdiction the free and full exercise of those rights and freedoms, without any discrimination”. | 第1条第1款规定：“本公约的缔约国承诺尊重本公约认可的各项权利和自由，并确保受其管辖的所有人员得以不受歧视地自由、充分行使这些权利和自由”。 |
| It is noted that article 1 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights provides that the States parties “shall recognise the rights, duties and freedoms enshrined in [the] Charter and shall undertake to adopt legislative or other measures to give effect to them”. | 人们注意到，《非洲人权和民族权利宪章》第1条规定，缔约国“应承认宪章所载的权利、义务和自由，应采取立法或其他措施予以落实”。 |
| African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (“Banjul Charter”) (Nairobi, 27 June 1981), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1520, No. 26363, p. 217. | 《非洲人权和人民权利宪章》(《班珠尔宪章》)(内罗毕，1981年6月27日)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1520卷，第26363号，第217页。 |
| Velásquez-Rodríguez v. Honduras, Judgment of 29 July 1988 (Merits), Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 4, para. 175; | Velasquez Rodríguez诉洪都拉斯案，1988年7月29日判决(实质问题)，美洲人权法院C辑第4号，第175段； |
| see also Gómez-Paquiyauri Brothers v. Peru, Judgment of 8 July 2004 (Merits, Reparations and Costs), Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 110, para. 155; | 另见Gómez-Paquiyauri Brothers诉秘鲁案，2004年7月8日判决(实质问题、赔偿及费用)，美洲人权法院C辑第110号，第155段； |
| Juan Humberto Sánchez v. Honduras, Judgment of 7 June 2003 (Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs), Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 99, paras. 137 and 142. | Juan Humberto Sánchez诉洪都拉斯案，2003年6月7日判决(初步反对意见、实质问题、赔偿及费用)，美洲人权法院C辑第99号，第137和第142段。 |
| Tibi v. Ecuador, Judgment of 7 September 2004 (Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs), Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 114, para. 159; | Tibi诉厄瓜多尔案，2004年9月7日判决(初步反对意见、实质问题、赔偿及费用)，美洲人权法院C辑，第114号，第159段； |
| see also Gómez-Paquiyauri Brothers v. Peru (footnote 243 above), para. 155. | 另见Gómez-Paquiyauri Brothers诉秘鲁(上文脚注243)，第155段。 |
| For comparable measures with respect to prevention of specific types of human rights violations, see Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 6 (1988) on effective national machinery and publicity, paras. 1–2, Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-third Session, Supplement No. 38 (A/43/38), chap. V, para. 770; | 可与某些特定类别的侵犯人权行为的防止措施进行比较，见消除对妇女歧视委员会，关于有效的国家机制和宣传的第6号一般性建议(1988年)，第1-2段，《大会正式记录，第四十三届会议，补编第38号》(A/43/38)，第五章，第770段； |
| Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 15 (1990) on the avoidance of discrimination against women in national strategies for the prevention and control of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), ibid., Forty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 38 (A/45/38), chap. IV, para. 438; | 消除对妇女歧视委员会，关于在预防及控制获得性免疫缺陷综合征(艾滋病)国家战略中避免歧视妇女的第15号一般性建议(1990年)，同上，《大会正式记录，第四十五届会议，补编第38号》(A/45/38)，第四章，第438段； |
| Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 19 (1992) on violence against women, para. 9, ibid., Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 38 (A/47/38), chap. I; | 消除对妇女歧视委员会，关于对妇女的暴力行为的第19号一般性建议(1992年)，第9段，同上，《第四十七届会议，补编第38号》(A/47/38)，第一章； |
| Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 5 (2003) on general measures of implementation of the Convention, para. 9, ibid., Fifty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 41 (A/59/41), annex XI; | 儿童权利委员会，关于执行《公约》的一般措施的第5号一般性意见(2003年)，第9段，同上，《第五十九届会议，补编第41号》(A/59/41)，附件十一； |
| Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31 (2004) on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the Covenant, paras. 6–7, in ibid., Fifty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/59/40), vol. I, annex III; | 人权事务委员会，关于《公约》缔约国的一般法律义务性质的第31号一般性意见(2004年)，第6-7段，载于同上，《第五十九届会议，补编第40号》(A/59/40)，第一卷，附件三； |
| Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 6 (2005) on treatment of unaccompanied and separated children outside their country of origin, paras. 50–63, ibid., Sixty-first Session, Supplement No. 41 (A/61/41), annex II; | 儿童权利委员会，关于远离原籍国无人陪伴和无父母陪伴的儿童待遇的第6号一般性意见(2005年)，第50-63段，同上，《第六十一届会议，补编第41号》(A/61/41)，附件二； |
| Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, general recommendation 31 (2005) on the prevention of racial discrimination in the administration and functioning of the criminal justice system, para. 5, ibid., Sixtieth Session, Supplement No. 18 (A/60/18), chap. IX, para. 460; | 消除种族歧视委员会，关于在刑事司法制度的司法和运作中防止种族歧视的第31号一般性建议(2005年)，第5段，同上，《第六十届会议，补编第18号》(A/60/18)，第九章，第460段； |
| see also Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, General Assembly resolution 60/147 of 16 December 2005, annex, principle 3 (a) (“The obligation to respect, ensure respect for and implement international human rights law and international humanitarian law as provided for under the respective bodies of law, includes, inter alia, the duty to: (a) Take appropriate legislative and administrative and other appropriate measures to prevent violations”). | 另见《严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为受害人获得补救和赔偿的权利基本原则和导则》，联大2005年12月16日第60/147号决议附件，原则3(a)(“按相应法律体系的规定尊重、确保尊重和实施国际人权法和国际人道法的义务，除其他外，包括下列义务：(a) 采取适当的立法和行政措施及其他适当措施，防止违法行为发生”。 |
| Training or dissemination programmes may already exist in relation to international humanitarian law and the need to prevent the commission of war crimes. | ) 在国际人道法和防止犯下战争罪的必要性方面，可能已经存在培训或传播方案。 |
| Common article 1 to the 1949 Geneva Conventions obliges High Contracting Parties “to respect and ensure respect” for the rules of international humanitarian law, which may have encouraged pursuit of such programmes. | 1949年日内瓦四公约共同第一条规定，各缔约国有义务“尊重和确保尊重”国际人道法规则，这项规定或许鼓励了此类方案的执行。 |
| See ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016, paras. 145–146, 150, 154, 164 and 178 (on common article 1). | 见红十字委员会，2016年《〈日内瓦第一公约〉评注》，第145-146、150、154、164和178段(关于共同第一条)。 |
| Further, article 49 of Geneva Convention I (a provision common to the other Conventions) also imposes obligations to enact legislation to provide effective penal sanctions and to suppress acts contrary to the Convention. | 此外，《日内瓦第一公约》第四十九条(其他三项公约的共同条款)也规定了颁布立法、处以有效刑事制裁和制止违反《公约》行为的义务。 |
| See ibid., paras. 2842, 2855 and 2896 (on article 49). | 见同上，第2842、2855和2896段(关于第四十九条)。 |
| Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, para. (12) of the commentary to art. 1 of the draft articles on the prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, p. 151 (citing to Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 16, at p. 54, para. 118). | 《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，对《关于预防危险活动引起跨界损害的条款草案》第1条的评注第(12)段，第151页(引述《南非不顾安全理事会第276(1970)号决议继续留驻纳米比亚(西南非洲)对各国的法律后果》，《咨询意见》，《1971年国际法院判例汇编》，第16页起，见第54页，第118段)。 |
| See also Yearbook … 2006, vol. II (Part Two), p. 70, para. (25) of the commentary to principle 2 of the draft principles on the allocation of loss in the case of transboundary harm arising out of hazardous activities; | 另见《2006年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第70页，对《关于危险活动造成的跨界损害的损失分配的原则草案》第2条原则的评注第(25)段； |
| Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 226, at p. 242, para. 29 (referring to “the general obligation of States to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction and control respect the environment of other States or of areas beyond national control”). | 《使用或威胁使用核武器的合法性》，《咨询意见》，《1996年国际法院判例汇编》，第226页起，见第242页，第29段(提到“各国应履行一般义务以确保在其管辖和控制范围内的活动尊重其他国家或国家控制范围以外地区的环境”)。 |
| Principles of International Cooperation in the Detection, Arrest, Extradition and Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, General Assembly resolution 3074 (XXVIII) of 3 December 1973, para. 3. | 《关于侦察、逮捕、引渡和惩治战争罪犯和危害人类罪犯的国际合作原则》，联大1973年12月3日第3074(XXVIII)号决议，第3段。 |
| The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (Movement) consists of the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and 191 National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. | 国际红十字和红新月运动(运动)由红十字国际委员会、红十字会与红新月会国际联合会和191个国家红十字会与红新月会组成。 |
| In accordance with their respective mandates set out, inter alia, in the Statutes of the Movement, the components of the Movement have different roles in ensuring respect for international humanitarian law, including by preventing violations of it, which may also include crimes against humanity. | 依照《运动章程》等分别规定的任务，各组成部分在确保尊重国际人道法方面具有不同作用，包括防止违反国际人道法的行为，其中也可包括危害人类罪。 |
| The limits of the Movement’s engagement in the prevention of international crimes are found in the Fundamental Principles of the Movement, in particular that of neutrality. | 该运动在参与防止国际罪行方面所受的限制，体现在其基本原则特别是中立原则上。 |
| Statutes of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, adopted by the 25th International Conference of the Red Cross, Geneva, 1986 and amended in 1995 and 2006, preamble, available at www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/statutes-en-a5.pdf. | 1986年在日内瓦举行的第25届国际红十字大会通过，并于1995年和2006年修正的《国际红十字和红新月运动章程》，序言部分，可查阅www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/other/ statutes-en-a5.pdf。 |
| In accordance with this principle, the components of the Movement do not participate, contribute or associate themselves with the investigation and prosecution of such crimes as this may be perceived as supporting one side against another or as engaging in controversies of a political, racial, religious or ideological nature. | 依据这项原则，运动各组成部分不参与、不协助这类罪行的调查和起诉，也避免牵涉其中，因为这可能被视为支持一方反对另一方，或是参与政治、种族、宗教或意识形态性质的纷争。 |
| See generally www.icrc.org/en/who-we-are/movement. | 大致内容见www.icrc.org/en/who-we-are/movement。 |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 45. | 《日内瓦第四公约》，第四十五条。 |
| ICRC interprets common article 3 to the four Geneva Conventions as implicitly including a non-refoulement obligation. | 红十字委员会将日内瓦四公约的共同第三条解释为暗含不推回义务。 |
| ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016, paras. 708–716 on common article 3. | 红十字委员会，《〈日内瓦第一公约〉评注》，2016年，关于共同第三条的第708-716段。 |
| Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (Geneva, 28 July 1951), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, No. 2545, p. 137, art. 33, para. 1 (“No Contracting State shall expel or return (‘refouler’) a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be threatened on account of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion”). | 《关于难民地位的公约》(1951年7月28日，日内瓦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第189卷，第2545号，第137页，第三十三条第(一)款(“任何缔约国不得以任何方式将难民驱逐或送回(‘推回’)至其生命或自由因为他的种族、宗教、国籍、参加某一社会团体或具有某种政治见解而受威胁的领土边界”)。 |
| See, for example, Cartagena Declaration on Refugees, adopted by the Colloquium on the International Protection of Refugees in Central America, Mexico and Panama, Cartagena, Colombia, 22 November 1984, conclusion 5. | 例如见《关于难民的卡塔赫纳宣言》，中美洲、墨西哥和巴拿马关于难民国际保护问题的座谈会1984年11月22日在哥伦比亚卡塔赫纳通过，结论5。 |
| Organization of African Unity Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (Addis Ababa, 10 September 1969), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1001, No. 14691, p. 45, art. II, para. 3. | 《非洲统一组织关于非洲难民问题特定方面的公约》(1969年9月10日，亚的斯亚贝巴)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1001卷，第14691号，第45页，第二条第3款。 |
| See, for example, Declaration on Territorial Asylum, General Assembly resolution 2312 (XXII) of 14 December 1967 (A/6716), art. 3; | 例如见《领土庇护宣言》，联大1967年12月14日第2312(XXII)号决议(A/6716)，第3条； |
| Final of the 1966 Bangkok Principles on the Status and Treatment of Refugees, adopted by the Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization at its fortieth session, held in New Delhi on 24 June 2001, art. III; | 亚非法律协商组织1966年《关于难民地位和待遇的曼谷原则》最后案文，亚非法律协商组织2001年6月24日在新德里举行的第四十届会议通过，第三条； |
| Council of Europe, recommendation No. R(84)1 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the protection of persons satisfying the criteria in the Geneva Convention who are not formally recognised as refugees, adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 25 January 1984. | 欧洲委员会，部长委员会关于保护符合《日内瓦公约》标准、但未被正式承认为难民者的R(84)1号建议，部长委员会1984年1月25日通过。 |
| American Convention on Human Rights, art. 22, para. 8. | 《美洲人权公约》，第22条第8款。 |
| African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (“Banjul Charter”), art. 12, para. 3. | 《非洲人权和人民权利宪章》，第12条第3款。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/69/10), para. 44, art. 23, para. 1, of the draft articles on the expulsion of aliens (“No alien shall be expelled to a State where his or her life would be threatened on grounds such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, birth or other status, or any other ground impermissible under international law”). | 《大会正式记录，第六十九届会议，补编第10号》(A/69/10)，第44段，关于驱逐外国人的条款草案第23条第1款(“不得将任何外国人驱逐至其生命可能会因种族、肤色、性别、语言、宗教、政治或其他见解、民族、族裔或社会出身、财产、出生或其他身份等理由或因国际法不容许的任何其他理由而受到威胁的国家”)。 |
| See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 20 (1992) on the prohibition of torture, or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, para. 9, Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/47/40), annex VI, sect. A (“States parties must not expose individuals to the danger of torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment upon return to another country by way of their extradition, expulsion or refoulement”). | 见人权事务委员会，关于禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚问题的第20号一般性意见(1992年)，第9段，《大会正式记录，第四十七届会议，补编第40号》(A/47/40)，附件六A节(“缔约国不得通过引渡、驱逐或推回手段使个人回到另一国时有可能遭受酷刑或残忍、不人道或有辱人格待遇或处罚”)。 |
| See, for example, Chahal v. United Kingdom, Application No. 22414/93, Judgment of 15 November 1996, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 1996-V, para. 80. | 例如见Chahal诉联合王国案，第22414/93号申诉，欧洲人权法院大审判庭1996年11月15日的判决，《1996年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》第五卷，第80段。 |
| A similar provision is included in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, adopted in Nice on 7 December 2000, Official Journal of the European Communities, No. C 364, 18 December 2000, art. 19, para. 2 (“No one may be removed, expelled or extradited to a State where there is a serious risk that he or she would be subjected to the death penalty, torture or other inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment”). | 类似的规定载于2000年12月7日在尼斯通过的《欧洲联盟基本权利宪章》，《欧洲共同体公报》，C 364号，2000年12月18日，第19条第2款(“任何人不得被递解、驱逐或引渡至将使其极有可能遭受死刑、酷刑和其他不人道或有辱人格的待遇和处罚的国家”)。 |
| Committee against Torture, general comment No. 4 (2017) on the implementation of article 3 of the Convention in the context of article 22 (CAT/C/GC/4), para. 11. | 禁止酷刑委员会，关于参照《公约》第22条执行第3条的第4号一般性意见(2017年) (CAT/C/GC/4)，第11段。 |
| For relevant communications, see Committee against Torture, Dadar v. Canada, communication No. 258/2004, Views adopted on 23 November 2005, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-first Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/61/44), annex VIII, sect. A, p. 241, para. 8.4; | 相关来文，见禁止酷刑委员会，Dadar诉加拿大案，第258/2004号来文，2005年11月23日通过的意见，《大会正式记录，第六十一届会议，补编第44号》(A/61/44)，附件八A节，第241页，第8.4段； |
| N.S. v. Switzerland, communication No. 356/2008, Views adopted on 6 May 2010, ibid., Sixty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/65/44), annex XIII, sect. A, p. 335, para. 7.3; | N.S.诉瑞士案，第356/2008号来文，2010年5月6日通过的意见，同上，《第六十五届会议，补编第44号》(A/65/44)，附件十三A节，第335页，第7.3段； |
| Subakaran R. Thirugnanasampanthar v. Australia, communication No. 614/2014, Decision adopted on 9 August 2017 (CAT/C/61/D/614/2014), para. 8.3. | Subakaran R.Thirugnanasampanthar诉澳大利亚案，第614/2014号来文，2017年8月9日通过的决定(CAT/C/61/D/614/2014)，第8.3段。 |
| Committee against Torture, general comment No. 4, para. 13. | 禁止酷刑委员会，第4号一般性意见，第13段。 |
| Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31, para. 12. | 人权事务委员会，第31号一般性意见，第12段。 |
| See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 36 (2018) on article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, on the right to life (CCPR/C/GC/36) [this general comment has not yet been published so citations and paragraph numbers may be subject to change in the final version], para. 30. | 另见人权事务委员会，关于《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第六条(生命权)的第36号一般性意见(2018年) (CCPR/C/GC/36)[本一般性意见尚未发表，因此引述的内容和段号在最后文本中可能会有所变动]，第30段。 |
| See, for example, Human Rights Committee, Chitat Ng v. Canada, communication No. 469/1991, Views adopted on 5 November 1993, Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/49/40), vol. II, annex IX, sect. CC, para. 15.1 (a); | 例如见人权事务委员会，Chitat Ng诉加拿大案，第469/1991号来文，1993年11月5日通过的意见，《大会正式记录，第四十九届会议，补编第40号》(A/49/40)，第二卷，附件九CC节，第15.1 (a)段； |
| A.R.J. v. Australia, communication No. 692/1996, Views adopted on 28 July 1997, ibid., Fifty-second Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/52/40), vol. II, annex VI, sect. T, para. 6.14; | A.R.J.诉澳大利亚案，第692/1996号来文，1997年7月28日通过的意见，同上，《第五十二届会议，补编第40号》(A/52/40)，第二卷，附件六T节，第6.14段； |
| Hamida v. Canada, communication No. 1544/2007, Views adopted on 18 March 2010, ibid., Sixty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/65/40), vol. II, annex V, sect. V, para. 8.7. | Hamida诉加拿大案，第1544/2007号来文，2010年3月18日通过的意见，同上，《大会正式记录，第六十五届会议，补编第40号》(A/65/40)，第二卷，附件五V节，第8.7段。 |
| See, for example, Human Rights Committee, Maksudov and others v. Kyrgyzstan, communication Nos. 1461/2006, 1462/2006, 1476/2006 and 1477/2006, Views adopted on 16 July 2008, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-third Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/63/40), vol. II, annex V, sect. W, para. 12.4. | 例如见人权事务委员会，Maksudov等人诉吉尔吉斯斯坦案，第1461/2006号、第1462/2006号、第1476/2006号和第1477/2006号来文，2008年7月16日通过的意见，《大会正式记录，第六十三届会议，补编第40号》(A/63/40)，第二卷，附件五W节，第12.4段。 |
| See, for example, Soering v. United Kingdom, Application No. 14038/88, Judgment of 7 July 1989, European Court of Human Rights, Series A, vol. 161, para. 88; | 例如见Soering诉联合王国案，第14038/88号申诉，1989年7月7日的判决，欧洲人权法院，A辑，第161卷，第88段； |
| Chahal v. United Kingdom (footnote 259 above), para. 74. | Chahal诉联合王国案(上文脚注259)，第74段。 |
| See, for example, Saadi v. Italy, Application No. 37201/06, Judgment of 28 February 2008, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2008-II, para. 130. | 例如见Saadi诉意大利案，第37201/06号申诉，欧洲人权法院大审判庭2008年2月28日的判决，《2008年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》第二卷，第130段。 |
| Ibid., paras. 131 and 140. | 同上，第131和第140段。 |
| Ibid., para. 128. | 同上，第128段。 |
| Ibid., para. 133. | 同上，第133段。 |
| See, for example, El-Masri v. the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Application No. 39630/09, Judgment of 13 December 2012, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2012-VI, para. 214. | 例如见El-Masri诉前南斯拉夫的马其顿共和国案，第39630/09号申诉，2012年12月13日的判决，大审判庭，欧洲人权法院，《2012年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》第六卷，第214段。 |
| Maksudov v. Kyrgyzstan (see footnote 265 above), para. 12.4. | 例如见Maksudov诉吉尔吉斯斯坦案(上文脚注265)，第12.4段。 |
| Committee against Torture, general comment No. 4, para. 29. | 禁止酷刑委员会，第4号一般性意见，第29段。 |
| Ibid., para. 20 (“[T]he Committee considers that diplomatic assurances from a State party to the Convention to which a person is to be deported should not be used as a loophole to undermine the principle of non-refoulement as set out in Article 3 of the Convention, where there are substantial grounds for believing that he/she would be in danger of being subjected to torture in that State”). | 同上，第20段(“委员会认为，如有充分理由相信某人在将被递解至的本公约缔约国内有遭受酷刑的危险，则不得以该缔约国的外交保证为借口，损害《公约》第3条规定的不推回原则”)。 |
| See, for example, Saadi v. Italy, (footnote 267 above), paras. 147–148. | 例如见Saadi诉意大利案(上文脚注267)，第147-148段。 |
| See, for example, Chentiev and Ibragimov v. Slovakia, Application Nos. 21022/08 & 51946/08, Decision as to admissibility of 14 September 2010, Fourth Section, European Court of Human Rights. | 例如见Chentiev和Ibragimov诉斯洛伐克案，第21022/08 & 51946/08号申诉，2010年9月14日关于可否受理的决定，欧洲人权法院第四庭。 |
| See, for example, Soldatenko v. Ukraine, Application No. 2440/07, Judgment of 23 October 2008, Fifth Section, European Court of Human Rights, para. 73. | 例如见Soldatenko诉乌克兰案，第2440/07号申诉，2008年10月23日的判决，欧洲人权法院第五庭，第73段。 |
| Other factors that Court might consider include: whether the terms of assurances are disclosed to the Court; | 法院可能考虑的其他因素包括：保证的条件是否向法院披露； |
| who has given assurances and whether those assurances can bind the receiving State; | 保证由谁做出以及保证对接受国是否具有约束力； |
| if the assurances were issued by the central government of a State, whether local authorities can be expected to abide by such assurances; | 保证是否由一国中央政府作出； 地方当局是否会遵守这些保证； |
| whether the assurances concern treatment which is legal or illegal in the receiving State; | 保证是否涉及在接受国合法或非法的待遇； |
| the length and strength of bilateral relations between the sending and receiving States; | 遣送国与接受国之间双边关系的长度和强度； |
| whether the individual has been previously ill-treated in the receiving State; | 个人是否曾在接受国受过虐待； |
| and whether the reliability of the assurances has been examined by the domestic courts of the sending State. | 以及遣送国的国内法院是否已审查这些保证的可靠性。 |
| Othman (Abu Qatada) v. United Kingdom, Application No. 8139/09, Judgment of 17 January 2012, Fourth Section, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2012 (extracts), para. 189. | Othman (Abu Qatada)诉联合王国案，第8139/09号申诉，2012年1月17日的判决，欧洲人权法院第四庭，《2012年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》(节选)，第189段。 |
| Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, art. 33, para. 2. | 《关于难民地位的公约》，第三十三条第(二)款。 |
| See, for example, Maksudov v. Kyrgyzstan (footnote 265 above), para. 12.4; | 例如见Maksudov诉吉尔吉斯斯坦案(上文脚注265)，第12.4段； |
| Othman (Abu Qatada) v. United Kingdom (footnote 277 above), para. 185; | Othman (Abu Qatada)诉联合王国案(上文脚注277)，第185段； |
| Committee against Torture, Tapia Paez v. Sweden, communication No. 39/1996, Views adopted on 28 April 1997, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-second Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/52/44), annex V, sect. sect. B.4, para. 14.5; | 禁止酷刑委员会，Tapia Paez诉瑞典案，第39/1996号来文，1997年4月28日通过的意见，《大会正式记录，第五十二届会议，补编第44号》(A/52/44)，附件五，B 4节，第14.5段； |
| Abdussamatov et al. v. Kazakhstan, communication No. 444/2010, Views adopted on 1 June 2012, ibid., Sixty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/67/44), annex XIV, sect. A, p. 530, para. 13.7. | Abdussamatov等人诉哈萨克斯坦案，第444/2010号来文，2012年6月1日通过的意见，同上，《第六十七届会议，补编第44号》(A/67/44)，附件十四，A节，第530页，第13.7段。 |
| Judgment of 30 September 1946 (see footnote 92 above), p. 466. | 1946年9月30日判决(见上文脚注92)，第466页。 |
| Yearbook … 1950, vol. II, document A/1316, Part III, p. 374, para. 97 (principle 1). | 《1950年…年鉴》，第二卷，A/1316号文件，第三部分，第374页，第97段(原则1)。 |
| See Prosecutor v. Simone Gbagbo, Case No. ICC-02/11-01/12 OA, Judgment on the appeal of Côte d’Ivoire against the decision of Pre-Trial Chamber I of 11 December 2014 entitled “Decision on Côte d’Ivoire’s challenge to the admissibility of the case against Simone Gbagbo”, 27 May 2015, Appeals Chamber, International Criminal Court, paras. 63–72 (finding that a national prosecution for ordinary domestic crimes was not based on substantially the same conduct at issue for alleged crimes against humanity of murder, rape, other inhumane acts and persecution). | 见2015年5月27日国际刑事法院上诉庭在检察官诉Simone Gbagbo案，案件号ICC-02/11-01/12 OA，关于科特迪瓦对2014年12月11日第一预审分庭题为“关于科特迪瓦质疑Simone Gbagbo案件可受理性的裁定”提起上诉的判决，第63-72段(其中认定，国家起诉扰乱和平、组织武装团伙和破坏国家安全等国内普通罪行不是基于和本案行为大体相同的行为，即所指称的谋杀、强奸、其他不人道行为和迫害等危害人类罪。 |
| Convention against Torture. art. 4, para. 1. | 《禁止酷刑公约》第4条第1款。 |
| See Committee against Torture, general comment No. 2 (2007), para. 9. | 见禁止酷刑委员会第2号一般性意见(2007年)，第9段。 |
| See also Committee against Torture, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/58/44), chap. III, consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 19 of the Convention, Slovenia, para. 115 (a), and Belgium, para. 130. | 另见禁止酷刑委员会，《大会正式记录，第五十八届会议，补编第44号》(A/58/44)，第三章，审议缔约国在《公约》第19条下提交的报告，斯洛文尼亚，第115(a)段，比利时，第130段。 |
| See, for example: Convention against Torture, art. 4; | 例如见《禁止酷刑公约》，第4条； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (The Hague, 16 December 1970), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 860, No. 12325, p. 105, art. 2; | 《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》(1970年12月16日，海牙)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第860卷，第12325号，第105页，第2条； |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, art. 2, para. 2; | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》，第2条第2款； |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 2; | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第2条； |
| Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, art. 6; | 《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》，第6条； |
| Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, art. 9, para. 1; | 《联合国人员和有关人员安全公约》，第9条第1款； |
| Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons, art. III; | 《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》，第3条； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 4; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸的国际公约》，第4条； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (New York, 9 December 1999), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2178, No. 38349, p. 197, art. 4; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》(1999年12月9日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2178卷，第38349号，第197页，第4条； |
| Organization of African Unity (OAU) Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism (Algiers, 14 July 1999), ibid., vol. 2219, No. 39464, p. 179, art. 2 (a); | 《非洲统一组织(非统组织)防止和打击恐怖主义公约》(1999年7月14日，阿尔及尔)，同上，第2219卷，第39464号，第179页，第2条(a)项； |
| Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 5, para. 1; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于预防、禁止和惩治贩运人口特别是妇女和儿童行为的补充议定书》，第5条第1款； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 7, para. 1; | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第7条第1款； |
| Association of Southeast Asian Nations Convention on Counter Terrorism (Cebu, 13 January 2007), art. IX, para. 1, in International Instruments related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism, United Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.V.2 (New York, 2008), p. 336. | 《东南亚国家联盟反恐怖主义公约》(2007年1月13日，宿务)，第9条第1款，见《与预防和打击国际恐怖主义有关的国际文书》，联合国出版物，出售品编号E.08.V.2 (2008年，纽约)，第336页。 |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. V. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》，第五条。 |
| Geneva Convention I, art. 49; | 《日内瓦第一公约》，第四十九条； |
| Geneva Convention II, art. 50; | 《日内瓦第二公约》，第五十条； |
| Geneva Convention III, art. 129; | 《日内瓦第三公约》，第一百二十九条； |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 146. | 《日内瓦第四公约》，第一百四十六条。 |
| See ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016, para. 896 (on common article 3 regarding conflicts not of an international character) and paras. 2838–2846 (on article 49 regarding penal sanctions). | 见红十字委员会，2016年《〈日内瓦第一公约〉评注》，第896段(关于国际性冲突的共同第三条)和第2838-2846段(关于刑事制裁的第四十九条)。 |
| See also Additional Protocol I, arts. 85 and 86, para. 1. | 另见《第一附加议定书》，第八十五条和第八十六条第一款。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, art. 7, para. 1. | 《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第7条第1款。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 6, para. 1. | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第6条第1款。 |
| See Rome Statute, art. 25, paras. 2 and 3 (a). | 见《罗马规约》，第二十五条第(二)款和第(三)款第1项。 |
| Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, art. 6. | 《塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约》，第6条。 |
| United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor, Regulation No. 2000/15 on the establishment of panels with exclusive jurisdiction over serious criminal offences (UNTAET/REG/2000/15), sect. 14.3 (a) (2000) (hereinafter “East Timor Tribunal Charter”). | 联合国东帝汶过渡行政当局，《关于设立具有重大刑事罪专属管辖权的审判小组的第2000/15号条例》(UNTAET/REG/2000/15)，第14.3(a)节(2000年)(下称《东帝汶法庭宪章》)。 |
| Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law, art. 29. | 《柬埔寨特别法庭法》，第29条。 |
| See also Agreement between the United Nations and the Royal Government of Cambodia concerning the Prosecution under Cambodian Law of Crimes Committed during the Period of Democratic Kampuchea (Phnom Penh, 6 June 2003), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2329, No. 41723, p. 117. | 另见《联合国和柬埔寨王国政府关于按照柬埔寨法律起诉在民主柬埔寨时期实施的罪行的协定》(2003年6月6日，金边)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2329卷，第41723号，第117页。 |
| Statute of the Iraqi Special Tribunal, International Legal Materials, vol. 43 (2004), p. 231, art. 15 (2004) (hereinafter, “Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal Statute”). | 《伊拉克特别法庭规约》，《国际法律资料》，第43卷(2004年)，第231页，第15条(2004年)(下称“伊拉克最高刑事法庭”)。 |
| The Iraqi Interim Government enacted a new statute in 2005, built upon the earlier statute, which changed the tribunal’s name to “Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal”. | 伊拉克临时政府2005年在原规约的基础上颁布了新的规约，将法庭更名为“伊拉克最高刑事法庭”。 |
| See Law of the Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal, Law No. 10, Official Gazette of the Republic of Iraq, vol. 47, No. 4006 (18 October 2005). | 见《伊拉克特别法庭法》，第10号，《伊拉克共和国政府公报》，第47卷，第4006号(2005年10月18日)。 |
| Statute of the Extraordinary African Chambers within the Courts of Senegal Created to Prosecute International Crimes Committed in Chad between 7 June 1982 and 1 December 1990, International Law Materials, vol. 52 (2013), p. 1028, arts. 4 (b), 6 and 10.2 (hereinafter “Extraordinary African Chambers Statute”). | 《在塞内加尔法院系统内设立的起诉1982年6月7日至1990年12月1日间在乍得共和国领土内所犯国际罪行的非洲特别法庭规约》，《国际法律资料》，第52卷(2013年)，第1028页，第4条(b)项、第6条和第10.2条)(下称《非洲特别法庭规约》)。 |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, arts. III (a) and IV. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》，第三条(a)项和第四条。 |
| Geneva Convention I, art. 49; | 《日内瓦第一公约》，第四十九条； |
| Geneva Convention II, art. 50; | 《日内瓦第二公约》，第五十条； |
| Geneva Convention III, art. 129; | 《日内瓦第三公约》，第一百二十九条； |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 146. | 《日内瓦第四公约》，第一百四十六条。 |
| See also Additional Protocol I, arts. 11 and 85. | 另见《第一附加议定书》，第十一和第八十五条。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 25, para. 3 (f). | 《罗马规约》，第二十五条第(三)款第6项。 |
| Prosecutor v. Abdallah Banda Abakaer Nourain and Saleh Mohammed Jerbo Jamus, Case No. ICC-02/05-03/09, Corrigendum of the “Decision on the confirmation of charges”, 7 March 2011, Pre-Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Court, para. 96. | 检察官诉Abdallah Banda Abakaer Nourain and Saleh Mohammed Jerbo Jamus案，案件号ICC-02/05-03/09, 关于“确认指控的决定”的更正，2011年3月7日，国际刑事法院第一预审分庭，第96段。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, art. 7, para. 1. | 《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第7条第1款。 |
| Various decisions of the Tribunal have analysed such criminal responsibility. | 该法庭的各项裁决分析了此种刑事责任。 |
| See, for example, Tadić, Judgment, 15 July 1999 (footnote 152 above) (finding that “the notion of common design as a form of accomplice liability is firmly established in customary international law”). | 例如见Tadić案，1999年7月15日判决，(上文脚注152)(认定“共同策划概念作为共犯罪责的形式之一已为习惯国际法牢固确立”)。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 6, para. 1. | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第6条第1款。 |
| See, for example, Prosecutor v. Anto Furundžija, Case No. IT-95-17/1-T, Judgment, 10 December 1998, Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Judicial Reports 1998, para. 246 (finding that “[i]f [the defendant] is aware that one of a number of crimes will probably be committed, and one of those crimes is in fact committed, he has intended to facilitate the commission of that crime, and is guilty as an aider and abettor”). | 例如见检察官诉Anto Furundžija案，案件号IT-95-17/1-T, 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭第二审判分庭1998年12月10日的判决，《1998年司法报告》，第246段(认定“如果[被告]知道很可能将实施一些罪行之一，而且实际上确实实施了其中一个罪行，那么他意图协助实施这一罪行，并犯有协助和煽动罪”)。 |
| Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, art. 6, para. 1. | 《塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约》，第6条第1款。 |
| East Timor Tribunal Charter, sect. 14. | 《东帝汶法庭宪章》，第14节。 |
| Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law, art. 29. | 《柬埔寨法院特别法庭法》，第29条。 |
| Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal Statute, art. 15. | 《伊拉克最高刑事法庭规约》，第15条。 |
| Extraordinary African Chambers Statute, art. 10.2. | 《非洲特别法庭规约》，第10.2条。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 25, para. 3 (a)–(d). | 《罗马规约》，第二十五条第(三)款第1-4项。 |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. III (b)–(c). | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》，第三条(b)-(c)项。 |
| Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, art. 2. | 《战争罪及危害人类罪不适用法定时效公约》，第二条。 |
| See the Commission’s 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 18, para. 50, at art. 2, para. 3 (e) (an individual is responsible if that person “[d]irectly participates in planning or conspiring to commit such a crime which in fact occurs”); | 见委员会1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》，《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第18页，第50段，见第2条第3款(e)项 (“个人应…负责，如果该个人直接参与计划或共谋实施实际发生的该罪行”)； |
| ibid., art. 2, para. 3 (f) (an individual is responsible if that person “[d]irectly and publicly incites another individual to commit such a crime which in fact occurs”). | 同上，第2条第3款(f)项 (“个人应…负责，如果该个人直接和公开地煽动另一人实施实际发生的该罪行”)。 |
| See Rome Statute, art. 25, para. 3 (e) (in conjunction with article 6). | 见《罗马规约》第二十五条第(三)款第5项(结合第六条)。 |
| Similarly, the constituent instruments for the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (Statute, art. 4), the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (Statute, art. 2), and the Panels with Exclusive Jurisdiction over Serious Criminal Offences for East Timor (East Timor Tribunal Charter, sect. 14 (e)) provided for the crime of direct and public incitement to commit genocide, but only inducement or instigation of crimes against humanity. | 同样，下列机构组织章程――前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭 (《规约》，第4条)、卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭(《规约》，第2条)和东帝汶重大刑事罪专属管辖权审判小组(《东帝汶法庭宪章》，第14(e)节)――规定直接公然煽动实施灭绝种族罪为犯罪，但在危害人类罪方面仅提及诱使或教唆。 |
| See Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, draft statute and draft final act, A/CONF.183/2/Add.1, p. 50. | 见设立国际刑事法院筹备委员会的报告，规约草案和最后文件草稿，A/CONF.183/2/Add.1, 第50页。 |
| See also W.K. Timmermann, “Incitement in international criminal law”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 88 (December 2006), p. 843 (“During the Diplomatic Conference in Rome the drafters rejected the suggestion that the incitement provision be extended to apply also to crimes against humanity, war crimes and aggression”). | 另见W.K. Timmermann, “Incitement in international criminal law”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 88 (December 2006), p. 843 (“罗马外交会议期间，起草人未接受扩展煽动条款使之也适用于危害人类罪、战争罪和侵略罪这一建议”)。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 6, para. 1 (a). | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第6条第1款(a)项。 |
| See, for example, United States of America v. Wilhelm von Leeb, et al. (“The High Command Case”), in Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals, vol. 11 (Washington D.C., United States Government Printing Office, 1950), pp. 543–544. | 例如见美利坚合众国诉Wilhelm von Leeb等人案(“高级指挥官案”)，纽伦堡军事法庭的战犯审判，第11卷(华盛顿哥伦比亚特区，美国政府出版局，1950年)，第543-544页。 |
| See ibid.; | 同上； |
| International Criminal Law: International Enforcement, M.C. Bassiouni, ed., vol. III, 3rd ed. (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2008), p. 461; | 另见International Criminal Law:International Enforcement, M.C. Bassiouni, ed., vol. III, 3rd ed. (Leiden, 3tinus Nijhoff, 2008, p. 461)； |
| K.J. Heller, The Nurenberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 262–263. | and K.J. Heller, The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011)，pp. 262-263。 |
| See Prosecutor v. Alfred Musema, Case No. ICTR-96-13-A, Judgment and sentence, 27 January 2000, Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, para. 132. | 见检察官诉Alfred Musema案，案件号ICTR-96-13-A, 判决和判刑，2000年1月27日，卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭第一审判分庭，第132段。 |
| Protocol I, art. 86, para. 2. | 《第一附加议定书》第八十六条第二款。 |
| See ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016, para. 2855 (on article 49) (“Commanders and other superiors can be held criminally responsible for grave breaches and other serious violations of humanitarian law committed pursuant to their orders. | 见红十字委员会，2016年《〈日内瓦第一公约〉评注》，第2855段(关于第四十九条)((“可以追究指挥官和其他上级人员对按照其命令犯下的严重破坏人道法和其他严重违反人道法行为所负刑事责任。 |
| They can also be held individually responsible for failing to take proper measures to prevent their subordinates from committing such violations, or, if already committed, for failing to punish the persons responsible. | 若其未能采取适当措施防止下属实施此类违法行为，或如果违法行为已经实施，未能惩处责任人，也可以追究其个人责任。 |
| It is essential for national law to provide for the effective sanctioning of commanders or superiors, if the system of repression is to be effective during armed conflict”). | 若要打击违法行为的制度在武装冲突期间取得效果，国家法律就必须对指挥官或上级人员规定有效制裁”)。 |
| Such a standard also exists in other treaties addressing crimes. | 其他处理犯罪的条约也载有这种标准。 |
| See, for example, International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 6, para. 1 (b). | 例如见《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第6条第1款(b)项。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, art. 7, para. 3. | 《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第7条第3款。 |
| See, for example, Prosecutor v. Zlatko Aleksovski, Case No. IT-95-14/1-T, Judgment, 25 June 1999, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Judicial Supplement No. 6, June/July 1999, paras. 66–81 and 90-118; | 例如见检察官诉Zlatko Aleksovski案，案件号IT-95-14/1-T, 判决，1999年6月25日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，《司法补编第6号》，1999年6月/7月，第66-81段和90-118段； |
| Prosecutor v. Zejnil Delalić et al., Case No. IT-96-21-T, Judgment, 16 November 1998, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, paras. 330–400 and 605–775. | 检察官诉Zejnil Delalić等人案，案件号IT-96-21-T, 判决，1998年11月16日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，第330-400段和第605-775段。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 6, para. 3. | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第6条第3款。 |
| See, for example, Prosecutor v. Jean Kambanda, Case No. ICTR-97-23-S, Judgment and sentence, 4 September 1998, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, para. 40. | 例如见检察官诉Jean Kambanda案，案件号ICTR-97-23-S, 判决和判刑，1998年9月4日，卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，第40段。 |
| Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, art. 6, para. 3. | 《塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约》，第6条第3款。 |
| Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Security Council resolution 1757 (2007) of 30 May 2007 (annex and attachment included), art. 3, para. 2. | 《黎巴嫩问题特别法庭规约》，安全理事会2007年5月30日第1757(2007)号决议，(包括附件和附录)，第3条第2款。 |
| East Timor Tribunal Charter, sect. 16. | 《东帝汶法庭宪章》，第16节。 |
| Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law, art. 29. | 《柬埔寨特别法庭法》，第29条。 |
| Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal Statute, art. 15 (d). | 《伊拉克最高刑事法庭规约》，第15条(d)项。 |
| Extraordinary African Chambers Statute, art. 10, para. 4. | 《非洲特别法庭规约》，第10条第4款。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 28 (a). | 《罗马规约》，第二十八条第(一)款。 |
| See, for example, Kordić, Judgment, 26 February 2001 (footnote 81 above), para. 369. | 例如见Kordić案，判决，2001年2月26日 (上文脚注81)，第369段。 |
| An Appeals Chamber of the International Criminal Court applied this standard in 2018 when reversing Trial Chamber III’s 2016 conviction of Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo of crimes against humanity and war crimes. | 国际刑事法院上诉分庭2018年撤销第三审判分庭于2016年对Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo危害人类罪和战争罪的定罪时适用了这一标准。 |
| The Trial Chamber had found that Mr. Bemba was a person effectively acting as a military commander who knew that the Mouvement de Libération du Congo (MLC) forces under his effective authority and control were committing or about to commit the crimes charged. | 审判分庭认定，Bemba先生实际上是以军事指挥官身份行事的人，他当时知道在他有效领导和控制之下的刚果解放运动武装(刚果解运)正在或将要实施所控告的罪行。 |
| Bemba, Judgment, 21 March 2016 (see footnote 44 above), paras. 697 and 700. | Bemba案，2016年3月21日的判决(见上文脚注44)，第697和第700段。 |
| Yet the Appeals Chamber concluded that the Trial Chamber had made serious errors in its finding that Mr. Bemba had failed to take all necessary and reasonable measures to prevent or repress the commission of crimes of the MLC forces during military operations in 2002 and 2003 in the Central African Republic. | 然而，上诉分庭得出结论：审判分庭犯了严重错误，认定Bemba先生未采取一切必要和合理的措施防止或制止刚果解运军队2002和2003年在中非共和国的军事行动中实施犯罪。 |
| Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, Case No. ICC-01/05-01/08, Judgment on the appeal of Mr. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo against Trial Chamber III’s “Judgment pursuant to Article 74 of the Statute”, 8 June 2018, Appeals Chamber, International Criminal Court, paras. 170–173 and 189–194. | 检察官诉Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo案, 案件号ICC-01/05-01/08, 关于Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo先生就第三审判分庭“根据《规约》第七十四条作出的判决”提起上诉的判决，2018年6月8日，国际刑事法院上诉分庭，第170-173段和第189-194段。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 28 (b). | 《罗马规约》，第二十八条第(二)款。 |
| See Commission on Human Rights report on the sixty-first session, Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, 2005, Supplement No. 3 (E/2005/23-E/CN.4/2005/135), resolution 2005/81 on impunity of 21 April 2005, para. 6 (urging “all States to ensure that all military commanders and other superiors are aware of the circumstances in which they may be criminally responsible under international law for … crimes against humanity … including, under certain circumstances, for these crimes when committed by subordinates under their effective authority and control”). | 见人权委员会第六十一届会议报告，《经济及社会理事会正式记录，2005年，补编第3号》(E/2005/23-E/CN.4/2005/135)，2005年4月21日关于有罪不罚问题的第2005/81号决议，第6段(敦促“各国确保各级军事指挥员和其他长官意识到根据国际法他们要对…危害人类罪…负有刑事责任的情况，包括在某些情况下，他们要对在其有效指挥和控制下的下属所犯罪行负有刑事责任”)。 |
| J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law, vol. 1: Rules, Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 558–563 (Rule 153). | J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law, vol. 1: Rules, Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 558–563 (Rule 153). |
| See Commission on Human Rights, resolution 2005/81 on impunity, para. 6 (urging all States “to ensure that all relevant personnel are informed of the limitations that international law places on the defence of superior orders”). | 见人权委员会关于有罪不罚问题的第2005/81号决议，第6段(敦促所有各国“确保所有有关人员都得知国际法对以上级命令为理由进行的辩护作出的限制”)。 |
| Judgment of 30 September (see footnote 92 above), p. 466. | 9月30日的判决(见上文脚注92)，第466页。 |
| Tokyo Charter, art. 6. | 《东京宪章》，第六条。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 33 (the defence is not available if the order was manifestly unlawful and, “[f]or purposes of this article, orders to commit genocide or crimes against humanity are manifestly unlawful”). | 《罗马规约》，第三十三条 (如果命令明显不合法，而且“为了本条的目的，实施灭绝种族罪或危害人类罪的命令是明显不法的”，则不能作为辩护理由)。 |
| On availability of the defence with respect to war crimes, see ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016, para. 2856 (on article 49) (“[I]t is widely accepted that obeying a superior order does not relieve a subordinate of criminal responsibility if the subordinate knew that the act ordered was unlawful or should have known because of the manifestly unlawful nature of the act. | 关于针对战争罪可用的辩护理由，见红十字委员会，2016年《〈日内瓦第一公约〉评注》，第2856段(关于第四十九条)(“普遍认为，若下属知道被命令的行为是不合法的，或由于该行为明显的不合法性质而理应知道，则服从上级命令不能免除下属的刑事责任。 |
| A corollary of this rule is that every combatant has a duty to disobey a manifestly unlawful order. | 这条规则引出的推论是，每个战斗人员都有义务不服从明显不合法的命令。 |
| The fact that a war crime was committed as a result of superior orders has nevertheless been taken into account as a factor mitigating the punishment”). | 然而，因上级命令而犯下战争罪的事实已被视为一项减轻处罚的因素”)。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, art. 7, para. 4. | 《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第7条第4款。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 6, para. 4. | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第6条第4款。 |
| Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, art. 6, para. 4. | 《塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约》，第6条第4款。 |
| Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, art. 3, para. 3. | 《黎巴嫩问题特别法庭规约》，第3条第3款。 |
| East Timor Tribunal Charter, sect. 21. | 《东帝汶法庭宪章》，第21节。 |
| Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law, art. 29. | 《柬埔寨特别法庭法》，第29条。 |
| Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal Statute, art. 15 (e). | 《伊拉克最高刑事法庭规约》，第15条(e)项。 |
| Extraordinary African Chambers Statute, art. 10, para. 5. | 《非洲特别法庭规约》，第10条第5款。 |
| See, for example, Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, art. 7, para. 4; | 例如见《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第7条第4款； |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 6, para. 4; | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第6条第4款； |
| Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, art. 6, para. 4; | 《塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约》，第6条第4款； |
| East Timor Tribunal Charter, sect. 21. | 《东帝汶法庭宪章》，第21节。 |
| See in particular Prosecutor v. Darko Mrða, Case No. IT-02-59-S, Sentencing Judgment, 31 March 2004, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, paras. 65 and 67. | 特别见检察官诉Darko Mrða案，案件号IT-02-59-S, 量刑判决，2004年3月31日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭，第65和67段。 |
| Convention against Torture, art. 2, para. 3 (“An order from a superior officer or a public authority may not be invoked as a justification of torture”). | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第2条第3款(“上级官员或政府当局的命令不得援引为施行酷刑的理由”)。 |
| Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, art. 4 (“The fact of having acted under orders of a superior shall not provide exemption from the corresponding criminal liability”). | 《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》，第4条(“按照上级命令行事这一事实不能豁免相应的刑事责任”)。 |
| Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons, art. VIII (“The defense of due obedience to superior orders or instructions that stipulate, authorize, or encourage forced disappearance shall not be admitted. | 《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》，第8条(“不应受理以正当服从规定、授权或鼓励强迫失踪的上级命令或指示作为辩护理由。 |
| All persons who receive such orders have the right and duty not to obey them”). | 所有接受此类命令的人均有权利和义务不服从命令”)。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 6, para. 2 (“No order or instruction from any public authority, civilian, military or other, may be invoked to justify an offence of enforced disappearance”). | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第6条第2款(“不得援引任何公共机构包括民政、军事或其他机构的任何命令或指示作为被强迫失踪的理由”)。 |
| This provision “received broad approval” at the drafting stage. | 这条规定在起草阶段“得到了广泛赞同”。 |
| See Commission on Human Rights, report of the intersessional open-ended working group to elaborate a draft legally binding normative instrument for the protection of all persons from enforced disappearance (E/CN.4/2004/59), para. 72. | 见人权委员会，起草一个关于保护所有人不遭受强迫失踪的具有法律拘束力的规范性文书委员会闭会期间不限成员名额工作组的报告(E/CN.4/2004/59)，第72段。 |
| See also the Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, General Assembly resolution 47/133 of 18 December 1992, art. 6. | 另见《保护所有人不遭受强迫失踪宣言》，联大1992年12月18日，第47/133号决议，第6条。 |
| Report of the Committee against Torture, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-first Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/61/44), chap. III, consideration of reports by States parties under article 19 of the Convention, Guatemala, para. 32 (13). | 禁止酷刑委员会的报告，《大会正式记录，第六十一届会议，补编第44号》(A/61/44)，第三章，审议缔约国根据《公约》第19条提交的报告，危地马拉，第32(13)段。 |
| See, for example, report of the Committee against Torture, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/59/44), chap. III, consideration of reports by States parties under article 19 of the Convention, Chile, para. 56 (i). | 例如见禁止酷刑委员会的报告，《大会正式记录，第五十九届会议，补编第44号》(A/59/44)，第三章，审议缔约国根据《公约》第19条提交的报告，智利，第56(i)段。 |
| See also, ibid., Sixtieth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/60/44), chap. III, consideration of reports by States parties under article 19 of the Convention, Argentina, para. 31 (a) (praising Argentina for declaring its due obedience act “absolutely null and void”). | 另见，同上，《第六十届会议，补编第44号》(A/60/44)，第三章，审议缔约国根据《公约》第19条提交的报告，阿根廷，第31(a)段(赞扬阿根廷宣布其正当服从法案“绝对无效”)。 |
| Nürnberg Charter, art. 7. | 《纽伦堡宪章》，第7条。 |
| Principles of International Law recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal, and commentaries thereto, Yearbook … | 经《纽伦堡法庭宪章》和《法庭判决书》确认的国际法原则及其评注，《1950年…年鉴》，第二卷，文件A/1316, 第三部分，第375页，原则三。 |
| 1950, vol. II, document A/1316 Part III, p. 375, principle III. Although principle III is based on article 7 of the Nürnberg Charter, the Commission omitted the phrase “or mitigating punishment”, because it viewed mitigation as an issue “for the competent Court to decide” (ibid., para. 104). | 虽然原则三以《纽伦堡宪章》第7条为依据，但委员会省略了“或减轻刑罚”的短语，因为委员会认为减刑问题应由“主管法院决定”(同上，第104段)。 |
| Tokyo Charter, art. 6. | 《东京宪章》，第6条。 |
| Yearbook … 1954, vol. II, p. 152, para. 54, art. 3. | 《1954年…年鉴》，第二卷，第152页，第54段，第3条。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), chap. II, sect. D, p. 26, art. 7. | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第二章D节，第26页，第7条。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 27, para. 1. | 《罗马规约》，第二十七条第(一)款。 |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. IV. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》，第四条。 |
| International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, art. III. | 《禁止并惩治种族隔离罪行国际公约》，第三条。 |
| See, for example, Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p.3, at p. 25, para. 60 (“Immunity from criminal jurisdiction and individual criminal responsibility are quite separate concepts. | 例如见2000年4月11日逮捕令案(刚果民主共和国诉比利时)，判决，《2002年国际法院案例汇编》，第3页起)，见第25页，第60段(“刑事管辖豁免和个人的刑事责任是完全不同的概念。 |
| While jurisdictional immunity is procedural in nature, criminal responsibility is a question of substantive law”). | 管辖豁免是程序性的，而刑事责任是一个实体法问题”。 |
| Control Council Law No. 10 on Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes, Crimes Against Peace and Against Humanity, art. II, para. 5. | 管制委员会关于惩治战争罪、危害和平罪和危害人类罪罪犯的第10号法令，第2条第5款。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 29. | 《罗马规约》，第二十九条。 |
| United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Rome, 15 June–17 July 1998, Official Records, vol. II, 2nd meeting (A/CONF.183/13), p. 138, paras. 45–74. | 《联合国设立国际刑事法院全权代表外交会议，1998年6月15日至7月17日，正式记录，第二卷，第2次会议》(A/CONF.183/13)，第138页，第45-74段。 |
| Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law, art. 5; | 《柬埔寨特别法庭法》，第5条； |
| Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal Statute, art. 17 (d); | 《伊拉克最高刑事法庭规约》第17条(d)项； |
| East Timor Tribunal Charter, sect. 17.1. | 《东帝汶法庭宪章》，第17.1节。 |
| See also report of the Third Committee (A/57/806), para. 10 (Khmer Rouge trials) and General Assembly resolution 57/228 B of 13 May 2003. | 另见第三委员会的报告(A/57/806)，第10段(审判红色高棉)和联大2003年5月13日第57/228 B号决议。 |
| Further, it should be noted that the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia were provided jurisdiction over crimes against humanity committed decades prior to its establishment, between 1975 and 1979, when the Khmer Rouge held power. | 此外，应该指出，柬埔寨法院特别法庭获得对在其成立前数十年(即1975年至1979年红色高棉执政时期)犯下的危害人类罪的管辖权。 |
| General Assembly resolution 2338 (XXII) of 18 December 1967, entitled “Question of the punishment of war criminals and of persons who have committed crimes against humanity”, preamble. | 联大1967年12月18日题为“惩治战争罪犯及危害人类罪犯问题”的第2338(XXII)号决议，序言部分。 |
| See also General Assembly resolution 2712 (XXV) of 15 December 1970; General Assembly resolution 2840 (XXVI) of 18 December 1971. | 另见联大1970年12月15日第2712(XXV)号决议和1971年12月18日第2840(XXVI)号决议。 |
| Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, art. IV. | 《战争罪及危害人类罪不适用法定时效公约》，第四条。 |
| European Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitation to Crimes against Humanity and War Crimes, art. 1. | 《危害人类罪和战争罪不适用法定时效欧洲公约》，第1条。 |
| See, for example, report of the Committee against Torture, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-second Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/62/44), chap. III, consideration of reports by States parties under article 19 of the Convention, Italy, para. 40 (19). | 例如见禁止酷刑委员会的报告，《大会正式记录，第六十二届会议，补编第44号》(A/62/44)，第三章，审议缔约国根据《公约》第19条提交的报告，意大利，第40(19)段。 |
| International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, p. 171. | 《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》，第171页。 |
| See, for example, report of the Human Rights Committee, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-third Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/63/40), vol. I, chap. IV, consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 40 of the Covenant and of country situations in the absence of a report resulting in public concluding observations, Panama (sect. A, para. 79), para. (7). | 例如见人权事务委员会的报告，《大会正式记录，第六十三届会议，补编第40号》(A/63/40)，第一卷，第四章，审议缔约国根据《公约》第40条提交的报告和由于未提交报告而公开发表结论性意见的国别情况，巴拿马，(A节，第79段)，第(7)段。 |
| United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (Vienna, 20 December 1988), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1582, No. 27627, p. 95, art. 3, para. 8 (“Each Party shall, where appropriate, establish under its domestic law a long statute of limitations period in which to commence proceedings for any offence established in accordance with paragraph 1 of this article, and a longer period where the alleged offender has evaded the administration of justice”). | 《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》(1988年12月20日，维也纳)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1582卷，第27627号，第95页，第3条第8款(“各缔约国应酌情在其国内法中对于按本条第1款确定的任何犯罪，规定一个长的追诉时效期限，当被指称的罪犯已逃避司法处置时，期限应更长”)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 11, para. 5 (“Each State Party shall, where appropriate, establish under its domestic law a long statute of limitations period in which to commence proceedings for any offence covered by this Convention and a longer period where the alleged offender has evaded the administration of justice”). | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第11条第5款 (“各缔约国均应在适当情况下在其本国法律中对于本公约所涵盖的任何犯罪规定一个较长的追诉时效期限，并在被指控犯罪的人逃避司法处置时规定更长的期限”)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 29 (“Each State Party shall, where appropriate, establish under its domestic law a long statute of limitations period in which to commence proceedings for any offence established in accordance with this Convention and establish a longer statute of limitations period or provide for the suspension of the statute of limitations where the alleged offender has evaded the administration of justice”). | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第二十九条(“各缔约国均应当根据本国法律酌情规定一个较长的时效，以便在此期限内对根据本公约确立的任何犯罪启动诉讼程序，并对被指控犯罪的人员已经逃避司法处置的情形确定更长的时效或者规定不受时效限制。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 8, para. 1 (a). | ”)。 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第8条第1款(a)项。 |
| In contrast, article VII of the Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons provides that criminal prosecution and punishment of all forced disappearances shall not be subject to statutes of limitations. | 相形之下，《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》第七条规定，所有被迫失踪案件的刑事起诉和惩治不受时效限制。 |
| See Report of the intersessional open-ended working group to elaborate a draft legally binding normative instrument for the protection of all persons from enforced disappearance (E/CN.4/2004/59), paras. 43–46. | 见起草一个关于保护所有人不遭受强迫失踪的具有法律拘束力的规范性文书不限成员名额工作组的报告(E/CN.4/2004/59)，第43-46段。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), chap. II, sect. D, art. 3. | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第二章D节，第3条。 |
| Ibid., para. (3) of the commentary to art. 3. | 同上，对第3条的评注第(3)段。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, art. 24, para. 1. | 《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第24条第1款。 |
| Ibid., art. 24, para. 2. | 同上，第24条第2款。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 23, para. 1. | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第23条第1款。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 77. | 《罗马规约》，第七十七条。 |
| Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, art. 19. | 《塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约》，第19条。 |
| Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, art. 24. | 《黎巴嫩问题特别法庭规约》，第24条。 |
| East Timor Tribunal Charter, sect. 10. | 《东帝汶法庭宪章》，第10节。 |
| Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal Statute, art. 24. | 《伊拉克最高刑事法庭规约》，第24条。 |
| Extraordinary African Chambers Statute, art. 24. | 《非洲特别法庭规约》，第24条。 |
| See the report of the intersessional open-ended working group to elaborate a draft legally binding normative instrument for the protection of all persons from enforced disappearance (E/CN.4/2004/59), para. 58 (indicating that “[s]everal delegations welcomed the room for manoeuvre granted to States” in this regard); | 见起草一个关于保护所有人不遭受强迫失踪的具有法律拘束力的规范性文书委员会闭会期间不限成员名额工作组的报告(E/CN.4/2004/59)，第58段(表示“若干代表团欢迎在这方面赋予缔约国灵活的余地”)； |
| Commission on Human Rights resolution 2005/81 on impunity, para. 15 (calling upon “all States … to ensure that penalties are appropriate and proportionate to the gravity of the crime committed”). | 人权委员会关于有罪不罚问题的第2005/81号决议，第15段(呼吁“各国确保…量刑适当，适合所犯罪行的严重程度”)。 |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. V. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》，第五条。 |
| Geneva Convention I, art. 49; Geneva Convention II, art. 50; Geneva Convention III, art. 129; | 《日内瓦第一公约》第四十九条、《日内瓦第二公约》第五十条、《日内瓦第三公约》第一百二十九条、《日内瓦第四公约》第一百四十六条； |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 146. See ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016, paras. 2838–2846 (on article 49). | 见红十字委员会，2016年《〈日内瓦第一公约〉评注》，第2838-2846段(关于第四十九条)。 |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, art. 2, para. 2 (“[e]ach State Party shall make these crimes punishable by appropriate penalties … | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》，第二条第2款(“每一缔约国应按照这类罪行…处以适当的惩罚”)。 |
| ”). Yearbook … 1972, vol. II, document A/8710/Rev.1, chap. III, sect. B (draft articles on the prevention and punishment of crimes against diplomatic agents and other internationally protected persons), para. (12) of the commentary to draft article 2, para. 2. | 《1972年…年鉴》，第二卷，A/8710/Rev.1号文件，第三章B节(《关于防止和惩治对外交代表和其他应受国际保护人员犯罪的条款草案》)，对第2条草案第2款的评注第(12)段。 |
| Convention against Torture, art. 4. | 《禁止酷刑公约》第4条。 |
| See also International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 2; | 另见《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第2条； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (Rome, 10 March 1988), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1678, No. 29004, p. 201, art. 5; | 《制止危及海上航行安全非法行为公约》(1988年3月10日，罗马)，联合国，《条约汇编》第1678卷，第29004号，第201页，第5条； |
| Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, art. 9, para. 2; | 《联合国人员和有关人员安全公约》，第九条第2款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 4 (b); | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸的国际公约》，第四条(b)项； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 4 (b); | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第四条(b)项； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 11, para. 1; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第11条第1款； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 30, paras. 1, 5 and 7; | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第三十条第一、第五和第七款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (New York, 13 April 2005), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2445, No. 44004, p. 89, arts. 5 (b) and 6; | 《制止核恐怖主义行为国际公约》(2005年4月13日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2445卷，第44004号，第89页，第五条第(二)款和第六条； |
| OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, art. 2 (a). | 《非统组织防止和打击恐怖主义公约》，第二条(a)项。 |
| See, for example, International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 7, para. 1; | 例如见《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第七条第1款； |
| Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, art. 6; | 《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》，第6条； |
| Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons, art. III. | 《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》，第3条。 |
| See, for example, New TV S.A.L. Karma Mohamed Tashin Al Khayat, Case No. STL-14-05/PT/AP/AR126.1, Decision of 2 October 2014 on interlocutory appeal concerning personal jurisdiction in contempt proceedings, Appeals Panel, Special Tribunal for Lebanon, para. 58 (“[T]he practice concerning criminal liability of corporations and the penalties associated therewith varies in national systems”). | 例如见New TV S.A.L. Karma Mohamed Tashin Al Khayat案，案件号STL-14-05/PT/AP/ AR126.1, 黎巴嫩问题特别法庭上诉分庭2014年10月2日就关于藐视法庭诉讼中的属人管辖权的中间上诉作出的裁决，第58段(“不同国家体系关于企业刑事责任和相关处罚的做法各异”)。 |
| See, for example, Ecuador Código Orgánico Integral Penal, Registro Oficial, Suplemento, Año 1, N° 180, 10 February 2014, art. 90 (providing, in a section addressing crimes against humanity, that: “When a legal person is responsible for any of the crimes of this Section, it will be penalized by its dissolution”). | 例如见Ecuador Código Orgánico Integral Penal, Registro Oficial, Suplemento, Año 1 N° 180, 2014年2月10日，第90条(关于危害人类罪的一节规定：“对于对本节所述任何罪行负有责任的法人，将处以解散该法人的惩罚”)。 |
| See, for example, United States v. Krauch and others (The I.G. Farben Case), in Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals, vols. VII–VIII (Washington D.C., Nürnberg Military Tribunals, 1952). | 例如见美国诉Krauch及其他人(I.G. Farben案)，载于纽伦堡军事法庭对战犯的审判，第七至八卷(华盛顿特区，纽伦堡军事法庭，1952年)。 |
| See United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, Rome, 15 June-17 July 1998, Official Records, vol. III (A/CONF.183/13), art. 23, para. 6, footnote 71. | 见《联合国设立国际刑事法院全权代表外交会议正式记录，1998年6月15日至7月17日，罗马，第三卷》(A/CONF.183/13)，第23条第6款，脚注71。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), chap. II, sect. D, p. 23, art. 3. | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第二章D节，第23页，第3条。 |
| See Protocol on Amendments to the Protocol on the Statute of the African Court of Justice and Human Rights, 27 June 2014, art. 46C. | 见修正《非洲司法和人权法院章程》的议定书，2014年6月27日，第46C条。 |
| Al Khayat, Decision of 2 October 2014 (see footnote 396 above), para. 74. | Al Khayat案，2014年10月2日的裁决(见上文脚注396)，第74段。 |
| The Tribunal ultimately found that the legal person, Al Jadeed TV, was not guilty. | 法庭最终判定法人Al Jadeed电视台无罪。 |
| See Al Jadeed [Co. ] S.A.L./New T.V.S.A.L. (N.T.V.) Karma Mohamed Tahsin Al Khayat, Case No. STL-14-05/T/CJ, Contempt Judge, Decision of 18 September 2015, Special Tribunal for Lebanon, para. 55; | 见Al Jadeed [Co.] S.A.L./New T.V.S.A.L.(N.T.V.) Karma Mohamed Tahsin Al Khayat案，案件号STL-14-05/T/CJ, 黎巴嫩问题特别法庭藐视法庭案法官2015年9月18日的裁决，第55段； |
| Al Jadeed [Co. ] S.A.L./New T.V.S.A.L. (N.T.V.) Karma Mohamed Tahsin Al Khayat, Case No. STL-14-05/A/AP, Appeals Panel, Decision of 8 March 2016. | Al Jadeed [Co.] S.A.L./New T.V.S.A.L.(N.T.V.) Karma Mohamed Tahsin Al Khayat案，案件号STL-14-05/A/AP, 上诉分庭，2016年3月8日的裁决。 |
| See International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, art. I, para. 2 (“The States Parties to the present Convention declare criminal those organizations, institutions and individuals committing the crime of apartheid”). | 见《禁止并惩治种族隔离罪行国际公约》第一条第2款(“本公约缔约国宣布：凡是犯种族隔离罪行的组织、机构或个人即为犯罪”)。 |
| Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal (Basel, 22 March 1989), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1673, No. 28911, p. 57, art. 2, para. 14 (“For the purposes of this Convention: … ‘Person’ means any natural or legal person”) and art. 4, para. 3 (“The Parties consider that illegal traffic in hazardous wastes or other wastes is criminal”). | 《控制危险废物越境转移及其处置巴塞尔公约》(1989年3月22日，巴塞尔)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1673卷，第28911号，第57页，第2条第14款(“为本公约的目的：…“人”是指任何自然人或法人”)和第4条第3款(“各缔约国认为危险废物或其他废物的非法运输为犯罪行为”)。 |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 5. | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第5条。 |
| For the proposals submitted during the negotiations that led to art. 5, see “Measures to eliminate international terrorism: report of the working group” (A/C.6/54/L.2) (26 October 1999). | 谈判期间提出的促成第5条的提案见《消除国际恐怖主义的措施：工作组的报告》(A/C.6/54/L.2)(1999年10月26日)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 10. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第10条。 |
| Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (New York, 25 May 2000), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2171, No. 27531, p. 227, art. 3, para. 4. | 《儿童权利公约关于买卖儿童、儿童卖淫和儿童色情制品问题的任择议定书》(2000年5月25日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2171卷，第27531号，第227页，第3条第4款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 26. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第二十六条。 |
| For background, see United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Travaux préparatoires of the Negotiations for the Elaboration of the United Nations Convention against Corruption (United Nations publication, Sales No. E. 10.V.13), pp. 233–235 and Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, 2nd revised ed. (2012), pp. 107–113. | 背景见联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室，《谈判拟订〈联合国反腐败公约〉的准备工作文件》(联合国出版物，出售品编号E.10.V.13)，第233-235页，《执行〈联合国反腐败公约〉的立法指南》(修订版第2版，2012年)，第107-113页。 |
| For the analogous convention adopted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, see Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions (Paris, 21 November 1997), art. 2 (“Each Party shall take such measures as may be necessary, in accordance with its legal principles, to establish the liability of legal persons for the bribery of a foreign public official”). | 经济合作与发展组织通过的类似公约见《禁止在国际商业交易中贿赂外国公职人员公约》(1997年11月21日，巴黎)，第二条(“每一缔约方应依照其法律准则采取必要措施以确定法人因行贿外国公职人员而承担的责任”)。 |
| See, for example, Council of Europe, Criminal Law Convention on Corruption (Strasbourg, 27 January 1999), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2216, No. 39391, p. 225, art. 18, supplemented by the Additional Protocol (Strasbourg, 15 May 2003) (relating to bribery of arbitrators and jurors), ibid., vol. 2466, No. 39391, p. 168. | 例如见欧洲委员会《反腐败刑法公约》(1999年1月27日，斯特拉斯堡)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2216卷，第39391号，第225页，第18条，以及(关于贿赂仲裁员和陪审员的)补充议定书(2003年5月15日，斯特拉斯堡)，同上，第2466卷，第39391号，第168页。 |
| See, for example, Inter-American Convention against Corruption (Caracas, 29 March 1996, International Legal Materials, vol. 35, No. 3 (May 1996), p. 727, art. VIII; | 例如见《美洲国家反腐败公约》(加拉加斯，1996年3月29日，《国际法律资料》第35卷，第3号(1996年5月)，第727页，第八条； |
| Southern African Development Community Protocol against Corruption (Blantyre, Malawi, 14 August 2001), art. 4, para. 2. | 《南部非洲发展共同体反腐败议定书》(2001年8月14日，马拉维布兰太尔)，第4条第2款。 |
| See also African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption (Maputo, 11 July 2003), art. 11 (“State Parties undertake to: 1) Adopt legislative and other measures to prevent and combat acts of corruption and related offences committed in and by agents of the private sector”). | 另见《非洲联盟预防和打击腐败公约》(2003年7月11日，马普托)，第11条(“各缔约国承诺：1) 采取立法措施和其他措施，防止和打击在私营部门实施和由私营部门代理人实施的腐败行为和相关犯罪”)。 |
| See, for example, the Council of Europe Criminal Law Convention on Corruption makes explicit such exclusion (see, for example, art. 1 (d), “For the purposes of this Convention: … ‘legal person’ shall mean any entity having such status under the applicable national law, except for States or other public bodies in the exercise of State authority and for public international organisations”). | 例如见欧洲委员会《反腐败刑法公约》明文作出了这种排除(例如见第1条(d)项，“为本公约的目的，…“法人”应指根据适用的国内法具有此种地位的任何实体，但不包括国家或行使国家权力的其他公共机构以及公共国际组织”)。 |
| For a brief overview of divergences in various common law and civil law jurisdictions on liability of legal persons, see Al Jadeed, Contempt Judge, Decision of 18 September 2015 (footnote 402 above), paras. 63–67. | 关于不同普通法和民法对法人责任管辖权差异的概述，见Al Jadeed案，藐视法庭案法官2015年9月18日的裁决(上文脚注402)，第63-67段。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 10, para. 2 (“Subject to the legal principles of the State Party, the liability of legal persons may be criminal, civil or administrative”. ). | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第10条第2款(“在不违反缔约国法律原则的情况下，法人责任可包括刑事、民事或行政责任”)。 |
| See also the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 5, para. 1 (“Each State Party, in accordance with its domestic legal principles, shall take the necessary measures to enable a legal entity located in its territory or organized under its laws to be held liable when a person responsible for the management or control of that legal entity has, in that capacity, committed an offence set forth in article 2. | 另见《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》第5条第1款(“每一缔约国应根据其本国法律原则采取必要措施，以致当一个负责管理或控制设在其领土内或根据其法律设立的法律实体的人在以该身份犯下了本公约第2条所述罪行时，得以追究该法律实体的责任。 |
| Such liability may be criminal, civil or administrative”). | 这些责任可以是刑事、民事或行政责任”)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 26, para. 2 (“Subject to the legal principles of the State Party, the liability of legal persons may be criminal, civil or administrative”). | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第二十六条第二款(“在不违反缔约国法律原则的情况下，法人责任可以包括刑事责任、民事责任或者行政责任”)。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), chap. II, sect. D, art. 8. | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第二章D节，第8条。 |
| Ibid., para. (5) of the commentary to art. 8. | 同上，第8条的评注第(5)段。 |
| Commission on Human Rights, report of the intersessional open-ended working group to elaborate a draft legally binding normative instrument for the protection of all persons from enforced disappearance (E/CN.4/2003/71), para. 65. | 人权委员会，起草一个关于保护所有人不遭受强迫失踪的具有法律拘束力的规范性文书委员会闭会期间不限成员名额工作组的报告(E/CN.4/2003/71)，第65段。 |
| See Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (footnote 23 above), p. 451, para. 75. | 见与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(上文脚注23)，第451页，第75段。 |
| See, for example, Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, art. 4; | 例如见《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》，第4条； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, art. 5, para. 1 (a)–(b); | 《制止危害民用航空安全非法行为公约》，第5条第1款(a)-(b)项； |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, art. 3; | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》，第3条； |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 5; | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第5条； |
| Convention against Torture, art. 5; | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第5条； |
| United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 4; | 《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第4条； |
| Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, art. 10; | 《联合国人员和有关人员安全公约》，第10条； |
| Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons, art. IV; | 《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》，第四条； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 6; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸国际公约》，第6条； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 7; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第7条； |
| OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, art. 6, para. 1; | 《非统组织防止和打击恐怖主义公约》，第6条第1款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 15; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第15条； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 42; | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十二条； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 9, paras. 1–2; | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第9条第1-2款； |
| Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, art. 12; | 《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》，第12条； |
| Association of Southeast Asian Nations Convention on Counter Terrorism, art. VII, paras. 1–3. | 《东盟打击恐怖主义公约》，第七条第1-3款。 |
| Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (see footnote 361 above), Joint Separate Opinion of Judges Higgins, Kooijmans and Buergenthal, para. 51. | 2000年4月11日逮捕令案(见上文脚注361)，希金斯、科艾曼斯和比尔根塔尔法官的联合个别意见，第51段。 |
| See Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons (New York, 28 September 1954), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 360, No. 5158, p. 117, art. 1 (“[T]he term ‘stateless person’ means a person who is not considered as a national by any State under the operation of its law”). | 见《关于无国籍人地位的公约》(1954年9月28日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第360卷，第5158号，第117页，第一条(“‘无国籍人’一词是指任何国家根据它的法律不认为它的国民的人”)。 |
| At the request of the General Assembly of the United Nations, the Secretary-General has produced a series of reports compiling information on national laws and procedures concerning “The scope and application of the principle of universal jurisdiction,” which includes a section on “Conditions, restrictions or limitations to the exercise of jurisdiction”. | 应联合国大会的要求，秘书长编写了一系列报告，汇编了关于“普遍管辖权原则的范围和适用”的国内法律和程序的资料，其中包括“行使管辖权的条件、制约或限制”一节。 |
| See A/73/123 (2018), sect. II.B. For examples of national laws and procedures in this regard, see Spain, Organic Act No. 1/2014, art. 23, para. 5 (b) (2) (whereby the offence will not be prosecuted in Spain if there are proceedings to investigate and prosecute the offence initiated in the State in which the offence was committed or in the State of nationality of the accused person, unless the Supreme Court determines that such State is unwilling or unable genuinely to carry out the investigation); | 见A/73/123 (2018年)，第二.B节。 这方面的国内法律和程序实例，见西班牙第1/2014号组织法第23条第5款(b)项(2)(根据该法，如果在犯罪发生国或被告国籍国启动了调查和起诉犯罪的程序，则不会在西班牙起诉，除非最高法院确定犯罪发生国或被告国籍国不愿意或没有能力真正开展调查)； |
| United Kingdom, Government, “Note on the Investigation and Prosecution of Crimes of Universal Jurisdiction” (2018) (providing that initiation of United Kingdom proceedings be subject to the express consent of a high-level official, that the necessary evidentiary threshold required for initiating preliminary measures in such cases not be lower than the threshold generally necessary in each particular criminal jurisdiction, and other procedural safeguards). | 联合王国政府，“关于调查和起诉普遍管辖罪行的说明”(2018年)(规定联合王国启动诉讼必须得到高级官员的明确同意，且此类案件中启动初步措施所要求的必要证据门槛不得低于每一具体刑事司法体系的一般必要门槛及其他程序保障)。 |
| See Ad hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, revised draft United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (A/AC.254/4/Rev.4), p. 20, footnote 102. | 见拟订一项打击跨国有组织犯罪国际公约特设委员会，《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》修订草案(A/AC.254/4/Rev.4)，第20页，脚注102。 |
| See also Council of Europe, Explanatory Report to the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption, European Treaty Series, No. 173, para. 83 (“Jurisdiction is traditionally based on territoriality or nationality. | 另见欧洲委员会，《反腐败刑法公约》解释性报告，《欧洲条约汇编》，第173号，第83段(“管辖权历来依据属地或国籍。 |
| In the field of corruption these principles may, however, not always suffice to exercise jurisdiction, for example over cases occurring outside the territory of a Party, not involving its nationals, but still affecting its interests (e.g. national security). | 然而，在反腐败领域，这些原则有时可能不足以用于行使管辖权，例如在发生于缔约方领土之外，不涉及其国民但仍然影响其利益(如国家安全)的案件中。 |
| Paragraph 4 of this article allows the Parties to establish, in conformity with their national law, other types of jurisdiction as well”). | 本条第4款允许缔约方依照其国内法，确定其他类型的管辖权”)。 |
| Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (see footnote 361 above), Joint Separate Opinion of Judges Higgins, Kooijmans and Buergenthal, para. 51. | 2000年4月11日逮捕令案(见上文脚注361)，希金斯、科艾曼斯和比尔根塔尔法官的联合个别意见，第51段。 |
| Ibid., Separate Opinion of Judge Guillaume, para. 9 (emphasis added). | 同上，纪尧姆法官的个别意见，第9段(强调是后加的)。 |
| See commentary to draft article 13 below, at paras. (29)–(30) and paras. (33)–(34). | 见下文第13条草案的评注，第(29)-(30)段和第(33)-(34)段。 |
| See, for example, Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, art. 8; | 例如见《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》，第8条； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 12, para. 2; | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第12条第2款； |
| see also Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence, art. 55, para. 1. | 另见《欧洲委员会防止和打击暴力侵害妇女行为和家庭暴力公约》，第55条第1款。 |
| See Committee against Torture, Encarnación Blanco Abad v. Spain, communication No. 59/Views adopted on 14 May 1998, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-third Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/53/44), annex X, sect. A.3, para. 8.2; | 见禁止酷刑委员会，Encarnación Blanco Abad诉西班牙，第59/1996号来文，1998年5月14日通过的意见，《大会正式记录，第五十三届会议，补编第44号》(A/53/44)，附件十，A.3节，第8.2段； |
| Danilo Dimitrijevic v. Serbia and Montenegro, communication No. 172/2000, Views adopted on 16 November 2005, ibid., Sixty-first Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/61/44), annex VIII, sect. A, para. 7.3. | Danilo Dimitrijevic诉塞尔维亚和黑山，第172/2000号来文，2005年11月16日通过的意见，同上，《第六十一届会议，补编第44号》(A/61/44)，附件八，A节，第7.3段。 |
| See Dhaou Belgacem Thabti v. Tunisia, communication No. 187/2001, Views adopted on 14 November 2003, ibid., Fifty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/59/44), annex VII, sect. A, para. 10.4. | 见Dhaou Belgacem Thabti诉突尼斯，第187/2001号来文，2003年11月14日通过的意见，同上，《第五十九届会议，补编第44号》(A/59/44)，附件七，A节，第10.4段。 |
| Qani Halimi-Nedzibi v. Austria, communication No. 8/1991, Views adopted on 18 November 1993, ibid., Forty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/49/44), annex V. See also Bairamov v. Kazakhstan, communication No. 497/2012, 14 May 2014, paras. 8.7–8.8, ibid., Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/69/44), annex XIV, para. 13.5. | Qani Halimi-Nedzibi诉奥地利，第8/1991号来文，1993年11月18日通过的意见，同上，《第四十九届会议，补编第44号》(A/49/44)，附件五。 另见Bairamov诉哈萨克斯坦，第497/2012号来文，2014年5月14日，第8.7-8.8段，同上，《第六十九届会议，补编第44号》(A/69/44)，附件十四，第13.5段。 |
| Encarnación Blanco Abad v. Spain (see footnote 428 above), para. 8.2. | Encarnación Blanco Abad诉西班牙(见上文脚注428)，第8.2段。 |
| See, for example, Barabanshchikov v. Russia, Application No. 36220/02, Judgment, 8 January 2009, First Section, European Court of Human Rights, para. 54 (“thorough” means “that the authorities must always make a serious attempt to find out what happened and should not rely on hasty or ill-founded conclusions to close their investigation or as the basis of their decisions. | 例如见Barabanshchikov诉俄罗斯，第36220/02号申诉，欧洲人权法院第一庭2009年1月8日的判决，第54段(“彻底”是指“当局必须始终努力查明发生了什么，不应依赖草率或毫无根据的结论来结束调查或作为其决定的依据。 |
| They must take all reasonable steps available to them to secure the evidence concerning the incident, including, inter alia, eyewitness testimony, forensic evidence, and so on. | 当局必须采取一切可利用的合理步骤，获取与事件有关的证据，除其他外，包括目击者证词、法医证据等。 |
| Any deficiency in the investigation which undermines its ability to establish the cause of injuries or the identity of the persons responsible will risk falling foul of this standard”). | 调查中任何使之无法确定伤害原因或责任人身份的缺陷，都有可能导致达不到这一标准”)。 |
| Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, General Assembly resolution 47/133 of 18 December 1992, art. 13, para. 1. | 《保护所有人不遭受强迫失踪宣言》，联大1992年12月18日第47/133号决议，第13条第1款。 |
| See, for example, Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 36 (2018), paras. 28 and 58; and Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31, para. 15; | 例如见人权事务委员会，第36号一般性意见(2018年)，第28和第58段和人权事务委员会，第31号一般性意见，第15段； |
| Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 6 (1982) on the right to life, Official Records of the General Assembly, Thirty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/37/40), annex V, para. 4; | 人权事务委员会，关于生命权的第6号一般性意见(1982年)，《大会正式记录，第三十七届会议，补编第40号》(A/37/40)，附件五，第4段； |
| Bousroual v. Algeria, communication No. 992/2001, Views adopted on 30 March 2006, ibid., Sixty-first Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/61/40), vol. II, annex V, sect. I, paras. 9.11 and 11; annex V I, paras. 9.11 and 11, (CCPR/C/86/D/992/2001); | Bousroual诉阿尔及利亚，第992/2001号来文，2006年3月30日通过的意见，同上，《第六十一届会议，补编第40号》(A/61/40)，第二卷，附件五，I节，第9.11和第11段，附件六，第9.11和第11段(CCPR/C/86/D/992/2001)； |
| Herrera Rubio v. Colombia, communication No. 161/1983, 2 November 1987, ibid., Forty-third Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/43/40), vol. II, annex VII, sect. B, para. 10.3. | Herrera Rubio诉哥伦比亚，第161/1983号来文，1987年11月2日，同上，《第四十三届会议，补编第40号》(A/43/40)，第二卷，附件七，B节，第10.3段。 |
| See, for example, Kurt v. Turkey, Judgment of 25 May 1998, European Court of Human Rights, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1998-III, para. 140. | 例如见Kurt诉土耳其，欧洲人权法院1998年5月25日的判决，《1998年判决和决定汇编》，第三卷，第140段。 |
| Report of the Committee against Torture, Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/49/44), chap. IV, consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 19 of the Convention, Ecuador, paras. 97–105, at para. 105. | 禁止酷刑委员会的报告，《大会正式记录，第四十九届会议，补编第44号》(A/49/44)，第四章，审议缔约国根据《公约》第19条提出的报告，厄瓜多尔，第97-105段，见第105段。 |
| See Economic and Social Council resolution 2006/23 of 27 July 2006 on strengthening basic principles of judicial conduct, annex (Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct), value 2. | 见经济及社会理事会2006年7月27日关于加强司法行为基本原则的第2006/23号决议，附件(《班加罗尔司法行为原则》)，价值2。 |
| Report of the Committee against Torture, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/56/44), chap. IV, consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 19 of the Convention, Guatemala, paras. 67–76, at para. 76 (d). | 禁止酷刑委员会的报告，《大会正式记录，第五十六届会议，补编第44号》(A/56/44)，第四章，审议缔约国根据《公约》第19条提出的报告，危地马拉，第67-76段，见第76段(d)分段。 |
| Khaled Ben M’Barek v. Tunisia, communication No. 60/1996, 10 November 1999, ibid., Fifty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/55/44), annex VIII, sect. A, paras. 11.9–11.10. | Khaled Ben M’Barek诉突尼斯，第60/1996号来文，1999年11月10日，同上，《第五十五届会议，补编第44号》(A/55/44)，附件八，A节，第11.9-11.10段。 |
| See Geneva Convention I, art. 49, para. 2; | 见《日内瓦第一公约》，第四十九条第二款； |
| ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016, paras 2859–2860 (on article 49). | 红十字国际委员会，《日内瓦第一公约评注》，2016年，第2859-2860段(关于第四十九条)。 |
| See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31, para. 15. | 见人权事务委员会第31号一般性评论，第15段。 |
| See also Nazriev v. Tajikistan, communication No. 1044/2002, Views adopted on 17 March 2006, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-first Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/61/40), vol. II, annex V, sect. P, para. 8.2; | 另见Nazriev诉塔吉克斯坦，第1044/2002号来文，2006年3月17日通过的意见，《大会正式记录，第六十一届会议，补编第40号》(A/61/40)，第二卷，附件五，P节，第8.2段； |
| Kouidis v. Greece, communication No. 1070/2002, Views adopted on 28 March 2006, ibid., sect. T, para. 9; | Kouidis诉希腊，第1070/2002号来文，2006年3月28日通过的意见，同上，T节，第9段； |
| Agabekov v. Uzbekistan, communication No. 1071/2002, views adopted on 16 March 2007, ibid., Sixty-second Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/62/40), vol. II, annex VII, sect. I, para. 7.2; | Agabekov诉乌兹别克斯坦，第1071/2002号来文，2007年3月16日通过的意见，同上，《第六十二届会议，补编第40号》(A/62/40)，第二卷，附件七，I节，第7.2段； |
| Karimov v. Tajikistan and Nursatov v. Tajikistan, communication Nos. 1108/2002 and 1121/2002, Views adopted on 26 March 2007, ibid., sect. H, para. 7.2. | Karimov诉塔吉克斯坦和Nursatov诉塔吉克斯坦，第1108/2002号和第1121/2002号来文，2007年3月26日通过的意见，同上，H节，第7.2段。 |
| See, for example, Ergi v. Turkey, Judgment of 28 July 1998, European Court of Human Rights, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1998-IV, paras. 82 and 85–86; | 例如见Ergi诉土耳其，欧洲人权法院1998年7月28日的判决，《1998年判决和决定汇编》，第四卷，第82段和第85-86段； |
| Bati and Others v. Turkey, Application Nos. 33097/96 and 57834/00, Final Judgment of 3 September 2004, First Section, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2004-IV, para. 133; | Bati等诉土耳其，第33097/96和第57834/00号申诉，欧洲人权法院第一庭2004年9月3日的判决，《2004年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》，第四卷，第133段； |
| Paniagua Morales et al. v. Guatemala, judgment of 8 March 1998, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 37; | Paniagua Morales等诉危地马拉，美洲人权法院1998年3月8日的判决，C辑，第37号； |
| Extrajudicial Executions and Forced Disappearances of Persons v. Peru, Report No. 101/01, 11 October 2001, Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, OEA/Ser./L/V/II.114 doc. 5 rev., p. 563. | “法外处决和强迫失踪－秘鲁”，第101/01号报告，2001年10月11日，美洲人权委员会，OEA/Ser./L/V/II.114 doc.5 rev., 第563页。 |
| Such “circumstances” refer not just to factual circumstances relating to the prior conduct of the alleged offender, but also the legal circumstances (to include any procedural safeguards) concerning the exercise of jurisdiction over an alleged offender. | 此处的“情况”不仅指与被指控罪犯先前行为有关的事实情况，还指与对被指控罪犯行使管辖权有关的法律情况(包括任何程序保障)。 |
| See United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for Non-custodial Measures (the Tokyo Rules), General Assembly resolution 45/110 of 14 December 1990, annex; | 《联合国非拘禁措施最低限度标准规则》(《东京规则》)，联大1990年12月14日第45/110号决议，附件； |
| United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the Bangkok Rules), General Assembly resolution 65/229 of 21 December 2010, annex. | 《联合国女性囚犯待遇和女性罪犯非拘禁措施规则》(《曼谷规则》)，联大2010年12月21日第65/229号决议，附件。 |
| General Assembly resolution 2583 (XXIV) of 15 December 1969 on the question of the punishment of war criminals and of persons who have committed crimes against humanity, para. 1. | 联大1969年12月15日关于战争罪犯及危害人类罪犯之惩治问题的第2583(XXIV)号决议，第1段。 |
| General Assembly resolution 2840 (XXVI) of 18 December 1971 on the question of the punishment of war criminals and of persons who have committed crimes against humanity, para. 4. | 联大1971年12月18日关于战争罪犯及危害人类罪犯的惩治问题的第2840(XXVI)号决议，第4段。 |
| Security Council resolution 1894 (2009) of 11 November 2009, para. 10. | 安全理事会2009年11月11日第1894(2009)号决议，第10段。 |
| See, for example, Geneva Convention I, art. 49, para. 2; | 例如见《日内瓦第一公约》，第四十九条第二款； |
| ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016, para. 2860 (on article 49); | 红十字国际委员会，《日内瓦第一公约评注》，2016年，第2860段(关于第四十九条)； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, art. 6; | 《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》，第6条； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, art. 6; | 《制止危害民用航空安全非法行为公约》，第6条； |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 6; | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第6条； |
| Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, art. 6; | 《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》，第6条； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 7; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸国际公约》，第7条； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 9; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第9条； |
| OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, art. 7; | 《非统组织防止和打击恐怖主义公约》，第7条； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 10; | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第10条； |
| Association of Southeast Asian Nations Convention on Counter Terrorism, art. VIII. | 《东盟打击恐怖主义公约》，第八条。 |
| Convention against Torture, art. 6. | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第6条。 |
| Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (see footnote 23 above), p. 450, para. 72. | 与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(见上文脚注23)，第450页，第72段。 |
| Ibid., p. 453, para. 83. | 同上，第453页，第83段。 |
| Ibid., p. 454, para. 86. | 同上，第454页，第86段。 |
| Ibid., p. 451, para. 74. | 同上，第451页，第74段。 |
| Ibid., p. 454, para. 88. | 同上，第454页，第88段。 |
| See Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/69/10), chap. VI. | 见《大会正式记录，第六十九届会议，补编第10号》(A/69/10)，第六章。 |
| Survey of multilateral conventions which may be of relevance for the work of the International Law Commission on the topic “The obligation to extradite or prosecute (aut dedere aut judicare)”, study by the Secretariat (A/CN.4/630). | 《对国际法委员会就“引渡或起诉的义务”专题开展的工作可能有关的多边公约的调查》，秘书处的研究报告(A/CN.4/630)。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), chap. II, sect. D, art. 9. | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第二章D节(第9条)。 |
| See also Commission on Human Rights resolution 2005/81 on impunity, para. 2 (recognizing “that States must prosecute or extradite perpetrators, including accomplices, of international crimes such as … crimes against humanity … in accordance with their international obligations in order to bring them to justice, and urg[ing] all States to take effective measures to implement these obligations”). | 另见人权委员会关于有罪不罚问题的第2005/81号决议，第2段(确认“各国必须按照国际法规定的义务起诉或引渡…危害人类罪等国际罪行的肇事者及其同谋，以将其绳之以法，并敦促各国采取有效措施履行这些义务”)。 |
| See Organization of American States (OAS), Convention to Prevent and Punish the Acts of Terrorism Taking the Form of Crimes against Persons and Related Extortion that are of International Significance (Washington, D.C., 2 February 1971), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1438, No. 24371, p. 195, art. 5; | 见美洲国家组织(美洲组织)，《防止和惩治以侵害个人罪行和相关勒索罪行形式进行的具有国际影响的恐怖主义行为公约》(1971年2月2日，华盛顿特区)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1438卷，第24371号，第195页，第5条； |
| Organization of African Unity Convention for the Elimination of Mercenarism in Africa (Libreville, 3 July 1977), ibid., vol. 1490, No. 25573, p. 89, arts. 8 and 9, paras. 2–3; | 《非洲统一组织消除非洲雇佣军制度公约》(1977年7月3日，利伯维尔)，同上，第1490卷，第25573号，第89页，第8条和第9条第2-3款； |
| European Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism (Strasbourg, 27 January 1977), ibid., vol. 1137, No. 17828, p. 93, art. 7; | 《欧洲制止恐怖主义公约》(1977年1月27日，斯特拉斯堡)，同上，第1137卷，第17828号，第93页，第7条； |
| Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, art. 14; | 《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》，第14条； |
| South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism (Kathmandu, 4 November 1987), in International Instruments related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism, United Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.V.2 (New York, 2008), p. 174, art. IV; | 《南亚区域合作联盟(南盟)制止恐怖主义活动区域公约》(1987年11月4日，加德满都)，载于《关于预防和制止国际恐怖主义的国际文书》，联合国出版物，出售品编号：E.08.V.2 (2008年，纽约)，174页，第四条； |
| Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons, art. VI; | 《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》，第六条； |
| Inter-American Convention on International Traffic in Minors (Mexico, 18 March 1994), OAS, Treaty Series, No. 79, art. 9; | 《美洲国际贩卖未成年人问题公约》(1994年3月18日，墨西哥城)，美洲组织，《条约汇编》，第79号，第9条； |
| Inter-American Convention against Corruption, art. XIII, para. 6; | 《美洲国家反腐败公约》，第十三条第6款； |
| Inter-American Convention against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Ammunition, Explosives, and Other Related Materials (Washington, D.C., 14 November 1997), art. XIX, para. 6; | 《美洲国家禁止非法制造和贩运火器、弹药、爆炸物及其他有关材料公约》(1997年11月14日，华盛顿特区)，第十九条第6款； |
| League of Arab States, Arab Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism (Cairo, 22 April 1998), in International Instruments related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism, United Nations publication, Sales No. E.08.V.2 (New York, 2008), p. 178, art. 5; | 阿拉伯国家联盟，《阿拉伯制止恐怖主义公约》(1998年4月22日，开罗)《关于预防和制止国际恐怖主义的国际文书》，联合国出版物，出售品编号：E.08.V.2 (2008年，纽约)，第178页，第5条； |
| Council of Europe, Criminal Law Convention on Corruption, art. 27, para. 5; | 欧洲委员会，《反腐败刑法公约》，第27条第5款； |
| Convention of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference on Combating International Terrorism (Ouagadougou, 1 July 1999), annex to resolution 59/26-P, art. 6; | 《伊斯兰会议组织关于打击国际恐怖主义的公约》(1999年7月1日，瓦加杜古)，第59/26-P号决议附件，第6条； |
| Council of Europe, Convention on Cybercrime (Budapest, 23 November 2001), European Treaty Series, No. 185, art. 24, para. 6; | 欧洲委员会，《网络犯罪公约》(2001年11月23日，布达佩斯)，《欧洲条约汇编》，第185号，第24条第6款； |
| African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption, art. 15, para. 6; | 《非洲联盟预防和打击腐败公约》，第15条第6款； |
| Council of Europe, Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism (Warsaw, 16 May 2005), Council of Europe Treaty Series, No. 196, art. 18, para. 1; | 欧洲委员会，防止恐怖主义公约(2005年5月16日，华沙)，《欧洲委员会条约汇编》，第196号，第18条第1款； |
| Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (Warsaw, 16 May 2005), Council of Europe Treaty Series, No. 197, art. 31, para. 3; | 《欧洲委员会打击人口贩运公约》(2005年5月16日，华沙)，《欧洲委员会条约汇编》，第197号，第31条第3款； |
| Association of Southeast Asian Nations Convention on Counter Terrorism, art. XIII, para. 1. | 《东南亚国家联盟反恐怖主义公约》，第十三条第1款。 |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, art. 7. | 《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》，第7条。 |
| Under the 1949 Geneva Conventions, the obligations to search, investigate and prosecute are listed before the possibility of extradition. | 在1949年日内瓦四公约中，搜寻、调查和起诉的义务列在可能的引渡之前。 |
| These obligations exist independently of any extradition request. | 这些义务独立于任何引渡请求而存在。 |
| ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016, para. 2859 (on article 49). | 红十字国际委员会，《日内瓦第一公约评注》，2016年，第2859段(关于第四十九条)。 |
| Survey of multilateral conventions which may be of relevance for the work of the International Law Commission on the topic “The obligation to extradite or prosecute (aut dedere aut judicare)”, study by the Secretariat (A/CN.4/630), pp. 74–75. | 《对国际法委员会就“引渡或起诉的义务”专题开展的工作可能有关的多边公约的调查》，秘书处的研究报告(A/CN.4/630)，第74-75页。 |
| Statement of Chairperson Gilbert Guillaume (delegate from France), International Civil Aviation Organization, Legal Committee, Seventeenth Session, Montreal, 9 February–11 March 1970, Minutes and Documents relating to the Subject of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (Montreal, 1970), 30th meeting (3 March 1970) (Doc. 8877-LC/161), para. 15. | 主席Gilbert Guillaume(法国代表)的发言，国际民航组织，法律委员会第十七届会议，1970年2月9日至3月11日，蒙特利尔，《关于非法劫持航空器问题的会议记录和文件》(1970年，蒙特利尔)，第30次会议(1970年3月3日)(8877-LC/161号文件)，第15段。 |
| Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (see footnote 23 above), pp. 454–461, paras. 90–91, 94–95, 114–115 and 120. | 与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(见上文脚注23)，第454-461页，第90-91段、第94-95段、第114-115段和第120段。 |
| Ibid. p. 460, para. 112. | 同上，第460页，第112段。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| Ibid., para. 113. | 同上，第113段。 |
| See commentary to draft article 13 below, paras. (31)–(32). | 见下文第13条草案评注，第(31)-(32)段。 |
| See report of the International Law Commission on the work of its sixty-sixth session (2014), Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/69/10), chap. VI, sect. C (final report on the topic of aut dedere aut judicare), pp. 155–156, paras. (34)–(35). | 见国际法委员会第六十六届会议工作报告(2014年)，《大会正式记录，第六十九届会议，补编第10号》(A/69/10)，第六章C节(或引渡或起诉专题的最后报告)，第155-156页，第(34)-(35)段。 |
| See International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 11, para. 1. | 见《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十一条第一款。 |
| See, for example, European Union, Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on the European arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 190, 18 July 2002, p. 1. | 例如见欧洲联盟，理事会2002年6月13日关于欧洲逮捕令和成员国之间移交程序的框架决定，《欧洲共同体公报》，L 190号，2002年7月18日，第1页。 |
| Article 1 of the framework decision provides: “The European arrest warrant is a judicial decision issued by a Member State with a view to the arrest and surrender by another Member State of a requested person, for the purposes of conducting a criminal prosecution or executing a custodial sentence or detention order” (emphasis added). | 该框架决定第1条规定：“欧洲逮捕令是成员国签发的司法判决，其目的是使另一成员国逮捕和移交所要求的人，以便进行刑事起诉或执行监禁判决或拘留令”(强调是后加的)。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 53, paras. 1–2. | 《罗马规约》第五十三条第(一)至第(二)款。 |
| Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Rule of Law Tools for Post-Conflict States: Amnesties (2009), HR/PUB/09/1, p. 5. | 联合国人权事务高级专员办事处，《冲突后国家的法治工具：大赦》(2009年)，HR/PUB/09/1, 第5页。 |
| See Prosecutor v. Furundžija, Judgment, 10 December 1998 (footnote 302 above), para. 155. | 见检察官诉Furundžija案，1998年12月10日的判决(上文脚注302)，第155段。 |
| Statute of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, art. 10 (“An amnesty granted to any person falling within the jurisdiction of the Special Court in respect of the crimes referred to in articles 2 to 4 of the present Statute shall not be a bar to prosecution”). | 《塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约》，第10条(“向属于特别法庭管辖权内的任何人授予关于本规约第2条至第4条所提及犯罪的大赦不应构成起诉限制”)。 |
| Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law, art. 40 (“The Royal Government of Cambodia shall not request an amnesty or pardon for any persons who may be investigated for or convicted of crimes referred to in Articles 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 of this law. | 《柬埔寨法院特别法庭法》，第40条(“柬埔寨王国政府不应要求对被调查的人或犯有本法第3条、第4条、第5条、第6条、第7条和第8条所提及罪行的人颁布大赦或赦免。 |
| The scope of any amnesty or pardon that may have been granted prior to the enactment of this Law is a matter to be decided by the Extraordinary Chambers”). | 在颁布本法前可以授予的任何大赦或赦免范围是由特别法庭决定的事项”)。 |
| See Prosecutor v. Morris Kallon and Brima Bazzy Kamara, Case No. SCSL-2004-15-AR72(E) and SCSL-2004-16-AR72(E), Decision on Challenge to Jurisdiction: Lomé Accord Amnesty, 13 March 2004, paras. 66–74 and 82–84. | 见检察官诉Morris Kallon和Brima Bazzy Kamara案，案件编号：SCSL-2004-15-AR72(E)和SCSL-2004-16-AR72(E)，关于质疑管辖权的裁决：洛美协定大赦，2004年3月13日，第66-74段和第82-84段。 |
| See Decision on Ieng Sary’s Rule 89 Preliminary Objections (Ne Bis In Idem and Amnesty and Pardon), Case No. 002/19-09-2007/ECCC/TC, Judgment of 3 November 2011, Trial Chamber, Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, paras. 40–53. | 关于英萨利规则第89条初步反对意见的裁定(一罪不二审和大赦与赦免)，案件编号：002/19-09-2007/ECCC/TC, 柬埔寨法院特别法庭审判分庭2011年11月3日的判决，第40-53段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, Case No. ICC-01/11-01/11, Decision on the ‘Admissibility Challenge by Dr. Saif Al-Islam Gadafi pursuant to Articles 17(1)(c), 19 and 20(3) of the Rome Statute’, 5 April 2019, Pre-Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Court, para. 77. | 检察官诉Saif al-Islam Gaddafi案，案件编号：ICC-01/11-01/11，关于“Saif Al-Islam Gadafi博士根据《罗马规约》第十七条第(一)款第3项、第十九条和第二十条第(三)款对可受理性提出的质疑”的决定，2019年4月5日，国际刑事法院第一预审分庭，第77段。 |
| Report of the inter-sessional open-ended working group to elaborate a draft legally binding normative instrument for the protection of all persons from enforced disappearance (E/CN.4/2004/59), paras. 73–80. | 起草一个关于保护所有人不遭受强迫失踪的具有法律拘束力的规范性文书委员会闭会期间不限成员名额工作组的报告(E/CN.4/2004/59)，第73-80段。 |
| See, for example, Barrios Altos v. Peru, Judgment of 14 March 2001, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 75, paras. 41–44; | 例如见Barrios Altos诉秘鲁，美洲人权法院2001年3月14日的判决，C辑，第75号，第41-44段； |
| Almonacid-Arellano et al. v. Chile, Judgment, 26 September 2006 (see footnote 24 above), para. 114; | Almonacid Arellano等人诉智利，2006年9月26日的判决(见上文脚注24)，第114段； |
| Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum v. Zimbabwe, communication No. 245/02, Decision of 15 May 2006, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, paras. 211–212. | 津巴布韦人权非政府组织论坛诉津巴布韦，第245/02号来文，2006年5月15日的裁决，非洲人权和民族权委员会，第211-212段。 |
| The European Court of Human Rights has taken a more cautious approach, recognizing a “growing tendency in international law” to regard amnesties for grave breaches of fundamental human rights as unacceptable, as they are incompatible with the unanimously recognized obligation of States to prosecute and punish such crimes, but also indicating: “Even if it were to be accepted that amnesties are possible where there are some particular circumstances, such as a reconciliation process and/or a form of compensation to the victims, the amnesty granted to the applicant in the instant case would still not be acceptable since there is nothing to indicate that there were any such circumstances. | 欧洲人权法院采取了更谨慎的态度，认识到“国际法中越来越倾向于”认为，对严重违反基本人权行为予以大赦是不可接受的，因为这不符合国家起诉和惩罚此类犯罪的公认义务，但也指出：“即使接受在某些特殊情况下可以有大赦，例如作为和解进程和/或对受害者的一种赔偿，但本案中给予申请人的大赦仍然是不可接受的，因为没有迹象表明存在任何特殊情况。 |
| ” See Marguš v. Croatia, Application No. 4455/10, Judgment of 27 May 2014, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2014 (extracts), para. 139. | ”见Marguš诉克罗地亚，第4455/10号申诉，欧洲人权法院大审判庭2014年5月27日的判决，《2014年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》(节选)，第139段。 |
| See, for example, Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 20, para. 15; | 例如见人权事务委员会第20号一般性意见，第15段； |
| Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31, para. 18; | 人权事务委员会，第31号一般性意见，第18段； |
| Human Rights Committee, Hugo Rodríguez v. Uruguay, communication No. 322/1988, Views adopted on 19 July 1994, Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/49/40), vol. II, annex IX, sect. B, para. 12.4. | 人权事务委员会，Hugo Rodríguez诉乌拉圭，第322/1988号来文，1994年7月19日通过的意见，《大会正式记录，第四十九届会议，补编第40号》(A/49/40)，第二卷，附件九，B节，第12.4段。 |
| The Committee against Torture has held that amnesties against torture are incompatible with the obligations of States parties under the Convention against Torture. | 禁止酷刑委员会认为，对酷刑的大赦不符合缔约国根据《禁止酷刑公约》承担的义务。 |
| See, for example, Committee against Torture, general comment No. 3 (2012) on the implementation of article 14, para. 41. | 例如见禁止酷刑委员会关于执行第14条的第3号一般性意见(2012年)，第41段。 |
| The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has also recommended that States parties ensure that substantive aspects of transitional justice mechanisms guarantee women’s access to justice by, inter alia, rejecting amnesties for gender-based violence. | 消除对妇女歧视委员会也建议缔约国确保过渡时期司法机制在实质性方面通过拒绝对基于性别的暴力实行大赦等方法，保证妇女诉诸司法的机会。 |
| Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 30 (2013) on women in conflict prevention, conflict and post-conflict situations, ibid., Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 38 (A/69/38), chap. VII, para. 44, and CEDAW/C/GC/30, para. 81 (b). | 消除对妇女歧视委员会关于妇女在防止冲突、冲突期间及冲突后局势中的作用的第30号一般性建议(2013年)，同上，《第六十九届补编第38号》(A/69/38)，第七章第44段和CEDAW/C/GC/30第81(b)段。 |
| See, for example, Report of the Secretary-General on the rule of law and transitional justice in conflict and post-conflict societies of 23 August 2004 (S/2004/616), paras. 10, 32 and 64 (c). | 例如见秘书长2004年8月23日关于冲突中和冲突后社会的法治和过渡司法的报告(S/2004/ 616)，第10、第32和第64(c)段。 |
| This practice was first manifested when the Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the United Nations attached a disclaimer to the 1999 Peace Agreement between the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone stating that “the amnesty provision contained in article IX of the Agreement (‘absolute and free pardon’) shall not apply to international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and other serious violations of international humanitarian law”. | 这种做法首次见于联合国秘书长特别代表对1999年《塞拉利昂政府和塞拉利昂革命联合阵线和平协议》后所附的免责声明，其中指出，“本协议第九条载有的大赦条款(‘绝对和自由的赦免’)不应适用于国际种族灭绝罪、危害人类罪、战争罪和其他严重违反国际人道法的行为”。 |
| Report of the Secretary-General on the Establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone (S/2000/915), para. 23. | 秘书长关于设立塞拉利昂特别法庭的报告(S/2000/915)，第23段。 |
| For additional views, see Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Rule of Law Tools for Post-Conflict States: Amnesties (2009), HR/PUB/09/1, p. 11 (“Under various sources of international law and under United Nations policy, amnesties are impermissible if they: (a) Prevent prosecution of individuals who may be criminally responsible for war crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity or gross violations of human rights, including gender-specific violations; | 更多的意见，见联合国人权事务高级专员办事处，《冲突后国家的法治工具：大赦》(2009年)，HR/PUB/09/1, 第11页(“根据国际法的各种渊源及联合国的政策，具有下列特点的大赦是不允许的：(a) 免于起诉可能犯有战争罪、种族灭绝、危害人类罪及其他严重侵犯人权罪行的个人； |
| (b) Interfere with victims’ right to an effective remedy, including reparation; | (b) 妨碍受害者获得有效补救，包括获得赔偿的权利； |
| or (c) Restrict victims’ and societies’ right to know the truth about violations of human rights and humanitarian law. | 或(c) 限制受害者或社会了解侵犯人权和违反人道法真相的权利。 |
| Moreover, amnesties that seek to restore human rights must be designed with a view to ensuring that they do not restrict the rights restored or in some respects perpetuate the original violations”.); | 此外，力求恢复人权的大赦必须确保不限制已恢复的人权，或不会在某些方面使原有的侵权行为持续下去”)； |
| Report of the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (A/56/156), para. 33. | 《酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚问题特别报告员的报告》(A/56/156)，第33段。 |
| See, for example, Argentina, Ley 27.156, 31 July 2015, art. 1; | 例如见阿根廷2015年7月31日第27.156号法律； |
| Burkina Faso, Loi 052/2009 portant détermination des compétences et de la procédure de mise en œuvre du Statut de Rome relatif à la Cour pénale internationale par les juridictions burkinabé, art. 14; | 布基纳法索第052/2009号法律第14条，该法律涉及权限的确定及布基纳法索各司法体系实施《国际刑事法院罗马规约》的程序； |
| Burundi, Loi n°1/05 du 22 avril 2009, Code pénal du Burundi, art. 171; | 布隆迪2009年4月22日第1/05号法律(《布隆迪刑法》)第171条； |
| Central African Republic, Loi No. 08-020 portant amnistie générale à l’endroit des personnalités, des militaires, des éléments et responsables civils des groupes rebelles, 13 October 2008, art. 2; | 中非共和国2008年10月13日第08-020号法律第2条，该法律涉及对名人、军人、叛乱团体文职成员和负责人予以大赦事宜； |
| Colombia, Acuerdo de Paz, 24 November 2016, art. 40; | 哥伦比亚2016年11月24日《和平协议》第40条； |
| Comoros, Loi 011-022 du 13 décembre 2011, portant de Mise en œuvre du Statut de Rome, art. 14; | 科摩罗2011年12月13日第011-022号法律第14条，该法律涉及该国实施《罗马规约》问题； |
| Democratic Republic of Congo, Loi n°014/006 du 11 février 2014 portant amnistie pour faits insurrectionnels, faits de guerre et infractions politiques, art. 4; | 刚果民主共和国2014年2月11日第014/006号法律第4条，该法律涉及对起义行为、战争行为、政治罪行予以赦免的问题； |
| Panama, Código Penal de Panamá, art. 115, para. 3; | 巴拿马国《巴拿马刑法典》第115条第3款； |
| Uruguay, Ley 18.026, 4 October 2006, art. 8. | 乌拉圭2006年10月4日第18.026号法律第8条。 |
| See, for example, Ould Dah v. France, Application No. 13113/03, Decision on admissibility of 17 March 2009, Fifth Section, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2009, para. 49. | 例如见Ould Dah诉法国，第13113/03号申诉，2009年3月17日关于可否受理的裁决，欧洲人权法院第五庭，《2009年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》，第49段。 |
| Compare, for example, Rome Statute, art. 55 (rights of persons during an investigation) with arts. 66–67 (presumption of innocence and rights of the accused). | 例如，比较《罗马规约》第五十五条(调查期间的个人权利)与第六十六至第六十七条(无罪推定和被告人的权利)。 |
| See, for example, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, art. 9; | 例如见《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》，第九条； |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 8, para. 2; | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第八条第2款； |
| Convention against Torture, art. 7, para. 3; | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第7条第3款； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, art. 10, para. 2; | 《制止危及海上航行安全非法行为公约》，第十条第2款； |
| Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 40, para. 2 (b); | 《儿童权利公约》，第40条第2款(b)项； |
| International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries (New York, 4 December 1989), ibid., vol. 2163, No. 37789, p. 75, art. 11; | 《反对招募、使用、资助和训练雇佣军国际公约》(1989年12月4日，纽约)，同上，第2163卷，第37789号，第75页，第11条； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 14; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第14条； |
| Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (The Hague, 26 March 1999), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2253, No. 3511, art. 17, para. 2; | 《1954年关于发生武装冲突时保护文化财产的海牙公约第二议定书》(1999年3月26日，海牙)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2253卷，第3511号，第17条第2款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 17; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第17条； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 16, para. 13; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第16条第13款； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 44, para. 14; | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十四条第十四款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, art. 12; | 《制止核恐怖主义行为国际公约》，第十二条； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 11, para. 3; | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十一条第三款； |
| Association of Southeast Asian Nations Convention on Counter Terrorism, art. 8, para. 1. | 《东盟反恐公约》，第八条第1款。 |
| Yearbook … 1972, vol. II, document A/8710/Rev.1, chap. III, sect. B (Draft articles on the prevention and punishment of crimes against diplomatic agents and other internationally protected persons), p. 320, commentary to art. 8. | 《1972年…年鉴》，第二卷，A/8710/Rev.1号文件，第三章B节(《关于防止和惩治对外交代表和其他应受国际保护人员犯罪的条款草案》)，第320页，第8条的评注。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 32 (2007) on the right to equality before courts and tribunals and to a fair trial, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-second session, Supplement No. 40 (A/62/40), vol. I, annex VI, para. 2. | 人权事务委员会关于在法庭和裁判所前一律平等和获得公正审判的权利的第32号一般性意见(2007年)，载于《大会正式记录，第六十二届会议，补编第40号》(A/62/40)，第一卷，附件六，第2段。 |
| Universal Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948, arts. 10–11. | 《世界人权宣言》，联大1948年12月10日第217 A (III)号决议，第十至第十一条。 |
| See, for example, American Convention on Human Rights, art. 8; | 例如见《美洲人权公约》，第八条； |
| African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 7; | 《非洲人权和民族权宪章》，第七条； |
| Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, art. 6. | 《保护人权与基本自由公约》，第六条。 |
| See, for example, American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man (Bogota, 2 May 1948), adopted by the Ninth International Conference of American States; | 例如见第九届美洲国家国际会议通过的《美洲关于人的权利和义务宣言》(1948年5月2日，波哥大)； |
| Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Resolution No. 49/19-P, annex; | 《开罗伊斯兰人权宣言》，伊斯兰合作组织第49/19-P号决议，附件； |
| Charter of the Fundamental Rights of the European Union, adopted in Nice on 7 December 2000, Official Journal of the European Communities, No. C 364, 18 December 2000, p. 1; | 2000年12月7日在尼斯通过的《欧洲联盟基本权利宪章》，《欧洲共同体公报》，C 364号，2000年12月18日，第1页； |
| United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the Nelson Mandela Rules), General Assembly resolution 70/175 of 17 December 2015, annex, rule 62; | 《联合国囚犯待遇最低限度标准规则》(《纳尔逊·曼德拉规则》)，联大2015年12月17日第70/175号决议，附件，规则62； |
| the Bangkok Rules (footnote 443 above), rule 2, para. 1; | 《曼谷规则》(上文脚注443)，规则2，第1段； |
| United Nations Principles and Guidelines on Access to Legal Aid in Criminal Justice Systems, General Assembly resolution 67/187 of 28 March 2013, annex, principles 3 and 6. | 《联合国关于在刑事司法系统中获得法律援助机会的原则和准则》，联大2013年3月28日第67/187号决议，附件，原则3和6。 |
| See, for example, Geneva Convention I, art. 49, para. 4; | 例如见《日内瓦第一公约》，第四十九条第四款； |
| Geneva Conventions, common art. 3; | 日内瓦四公约，共同的第三条； |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 75; | 《第一附加议定书》，第七十五条； |
| Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Geneva, 8 June 1977), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1125, No. 17513, p. 609 (hereinafter “Additional Protocol II”), art. 6; | 《1949年8月12日日内瓦四公约关于保护非国际性武装冲突受难者的附加议定书》(1977年6月8日，日内瓦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1125卷，第17513号，第609页(下称《第二附加议定书》)，第六条； |
| ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016, paras. 685–686 (on common article 3) and paras. 2901–2902 (on article 49). | 红十字国际委员会，《日内瓦第一公约评注》，2016年，第685-686段(关于共同的第三条)和第2901-2902段(关于第四十九条)。 |
| These include inter alia: the obligation to inform the accused of the nature and cause of the offence alleged; | 除其他外，包括：有义务告知被告所指控罪行的性质和原因； |
| the requirement that an accused must have the necessary rights and means of defence; | 要求被告必须拥有必要的权利和辩护手段； |
| the right to be presumed innocent; | 被推定无罪的权利； |
| the right to be tried in one’s own presence; | 亲自受审的权利； |
| the right not to be compelled to testify against oneself or to confess guilt; | 不被强迫证明自己有罪或认罪的权利； |
| the right to be present and examine witnesses; | 出庭和讯问证人的权利； |
| the right not to be prosecuted or punished more than once by the same Party to the same act or on the same charge (non bis in idem). | 同一当事方不因同一行为或同一指控被起诉或惩罚一次以上的权利(一罪不二审)。 |
| See Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law, vol. 1: Rules (footnote 333 above), pp. 352–371 (Rule 100). | 见Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck，《习惯国际人道法》，第1卷，《规则》(见上文脚注333)，第352-371页(规则100)。 |
| Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Vienna, 24 April 1963), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 596, No. 8638, p. 261, art. 36, para. 1. | 《维也纳领事关系公约》(1963年4月24日，维也纳)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第596卷，第8638号，第261页，第三十六条第一款。 |
| LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 466, at p. 492, para. 74 (“Article 36, paragraph 1, establishes an interrelated régime designed to facilitate the implementation of the system of consular protection”), and, at p. 494, para. 77 (“Based on the text of these provisions, the Court concludes that Article 36, paragraph 1, creates individual rights”). | LaGrand案(德国诉美利坚合众国)，判决，《2001年国际法院案例汇编》，第466页起，见第492页，第74段，(“第三十六条第一款规定了一项旨在促进执行领事保护制度的互相关联的制度”)，并见第494页，第77段(“基于这些规定的案文，法院认为，第三十六条第一款确立了个人权利”)。 |
| See, for example, Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, art. 6; | 例如见《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》，第六条； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, art. 6, para. 3; | 《制止危害民用航空安全非法行为公约》，第六条第三款； |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, art. 6, para. 2; | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》，第六条第2款； |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 6, para. 3; | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第六条第3款； |
| Convention against Torture, art. 6, para. 3; | 《禁止酷刑公约》第6条第3款； |
| Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, art. 17, para. 2; | 《联合国人员和有关人员安全公约》，第十七条第二款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 7, para. 3; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第7条第3款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 9, para. 3; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第9条第3款； |
| OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, art. 7, para. 3; | 《非统组织防止和打击恐怖主义公约》，第七条第3款； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 10, para. 3; | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十条第三款； |
| Association of Southeast Asian Nations Convention on Counter Terrorism, art. VIII, para. 4. | 《东盟反恐公约》，第八条第4款。 |
| Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, art. 36, para. 2. | 《维也纳领事关系公约》，第三十六条第二款。 |
| See, for example, International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 6, para. 4; | 例如见《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第六条第4款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 7, para. 4; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第7条第4款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 9, para. 4; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》第9条第4款； |
| OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, art. 7, para. 4; | 《非统组织防止和打击恐怖主义公约》第七条第4款； |
| Association of Southeast Asian Nations Convention on Counter Terrorism, art. VIII, para. 5. | 《东盟反恐公约》，第八条第5款。 |
| Yearbook … 1961, vol. II, document A/4843, draft articles on consular relations and commentary, commentary to art. 36, paras. (5) and (7). | 《1961年…年鉴》，第二卷，A/4843号文件，关于领事关系的条款草案和评注，第36条的评注第(5)和(7)段。 |
| LaGrand (see footnote 495 above), p. 497, para. 89. | LaGrand案(见上文脚注495)，第497页，第89段。 |
| See, for example, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide; | 例如见《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft; | 《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》； |
| International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid; | 《禁止并惩治种族隔离罪行国际公约》； |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents; | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》； |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages. | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》。 |
| See, for example, International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings; | 例如见《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》； |
| Organization of African Unity (OAU) Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism; | 《非洲统一组织(非统组织)防止和打击恐怖主义公约》； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism; | 《制止核恐怖主义行为国际公约》； |
| Association of Southeast Asian Nations Convention on Counter Terrorism. | 《东南亚国家联盟反恐怖主义公约》。 |
| See, for example, United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, arts. 24–25; | 例如见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第24至第25条； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, arts. 32–33. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第三十二至第三十三条。 |
| See, for example, Convention against Torture, arts. 13–14; | 例如见《禁止酷刑公约》，第13至第14条； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, arts. 12 and 24. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十二和第二十四条。 |
| See, for example, Rome Statute, art. 68; | 例如见《罗马规约》，第六十八条； |
| Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Criminal Court, in Official Records of the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, First Session, New York, 3–10 September 2002 (ICC-ASP/1/3 and Corr.1), chap. 4, section III.1, rules 86–88 (hereinafter “Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Criminal Court”). | 《国际刑事法院程序和证据规则》，载于《国际刑事法院罗马规约缔约国大会正式记录，第一届会议，2002年9月3日至10日，纽约》(ICC-ASP/1/3和Corr.1)，第四章，第三.1节，规则86-88(下称“《国际刑事法院程序和证据规则》”)。 |
| For other tribunals, see Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, art. 22; | 关于其他法庭，见《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第22条； |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 21; | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第21条； |
| Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law, art. 33; | 《柬埔寨特别法庭法》，第33条； |
| Statute of the Special Court of Sierra Leone, art. 16, para. 4; | 《塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约》，第16条第4款； |
| Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, art. 12, para. 4. | 《黎巴嫩问题特别法庭规约》，第12条第4款。 |
| Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power, General Assembly resolution 40/34 of 29 November 1985, annex; | 《为罪行和滥用权力行为受害者取得公理的基本原则宣言》，联大1985年11月29日第40/34号决议，附件； |
| Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, General Assembly resolution 60/147 of 16 December 2005, annex. | 《严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为受害人获得补救和赔偿的权利基本原则和导则》，联大2005年12月16日第60/147号决议，附件。 |
| See, for example, the General Victims’ Law of Mexico (Ley General de Víctimas, Diario Oficial de la Federación el 9 de enero de 2013), which has detailed provisions on the rights of victims, but does not contain restrictions on who may claim to be a victim. | 例如见墨西哥《一般受害人法》(Ley General de Víctimas, Diario Oficial de la Federación el 9 de enero de 2013)，其中载有关于受害人权利的详细规定，但对哪些人可以声称是受害人未作限制。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 24, para. 1. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第二十四条第一款。 |
| Convention on Cluster Munitions (Dublin, 1 August 2010), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2688, No. 47713, p. 39, art. 2, para. 1. | 《集束弹药公约》(2010年8月1日，都柏林)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2688卷，第47713号，第39页，第二条第一款。 |
| Committee against Torture, general comment No. 3, para. 3. | 禁止酷刑委员会，第3号一般性意见，第3段。 |
| Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, art. 34. | 《保护人权与基本自由公约》，第34条。 |
| See, for example, Vallianatos and Others v. Greece, Application Nos. 29381/09 and 32684/09, Judgment of 7 November 2013, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2013 (extracts), para. 47. | 例如见Vallianatos等人诉希腊，第29381/09号和第32684/09号申诉，欧洲人权法院大审判庭2013年11月7日的判决，《2013年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》(节选)，第47段。 |
| The European Court of Human Rights has stressed that whether a family member is a victim depends on the existence of special factors that give the suffering of the applicant a dimension and character distinct from the emotional distress which may be regarded as inevitably caused to relatives of a victim of a serious human rights violation. | 欧洲人权法院强调，家庭成员是否是受害人，取决于是否有一些特殊因素使申诉人所受痛苦的程度和特点有别于必然给严重侵犯人权行为受害人的亲属所造成的感情痛苦。 |
| Relevant elements include the closeness of the familial bond and the way the authorities responded to the relative’s enquiries. | 相关要素包括家庭联系的紧密程度和当局回答亲属询问的方式。 |
| See, for example, Çakici v. Turkey, Application No. 23657/94, Judgment of 8 July 1999, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 1999-IV, para. 98; | 例如见Çakici诉土耳其，第23657/94号申诉，欧洲人权法院大审判庭1999年7月8日的判决，《1999年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》第四卷，第98段； |
| Elberte v. Latvia, Application No. 61243/08, Judgment of 13 January 2015, Fourth Section, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2015, para. 137. | Elberte诉拉脱维亚，第61243/08号申诉，欧洲人权法院第四庭2015年1月13日的判决，《2015年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》，第137段。 |
| American Convention on Human Rights, art. 1. | 《美洲人权公约》，第1条。 |
| See, for example, Street Children (Villagrán-Morales et al.) v. Guatemala, Judgment of 19 November 1999 (Merits), Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 63, paras. 174–177 and 238; | 例如见街头儿童(Villagrán-Morales等人)诉危地马拉，美洲人权法院1999年11月19日的判决(实质问题)，C辑，第63号，第174-177段和第238段； |
| Bámaca-Velásquez v. Guatemala, Judgment of 25 November 2000 (Merits), Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 70, paras. 159–166. | Bámaca-Velásquez诉危地马拉，美洲人权法院2000年11月25日的判决(实质问题)，C辑，第70号，第159-166段。 |
| See, for example, Yakye Axa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay, Judgment of 17 June 2005 (Merits, Reparations and Costs), Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 125, para. 176. | 例如见Yakye Axa土著社区诉巴拉圭，美洲人权法院2005年6月17日的判决(实质问题、赔偿和费用)，C辑，第125号，第176段。 |
| African Commission on Human Rights, general comment No. 4 (2017) on the right to redress for victims of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment or treatment (art. 5), para. 16. | 非洲人权委员会，关于酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的处罚或待遇的受害者获得补救的权利(第5条)的第4号一般性意见(2017年)，第16段。 |
| Ibid., para. 17. | 同上，第17段。 |
| Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Criminal Court, rule 85 (a). | 《国际刑事法院程序和证据规则》，规则85(a)。 |
| The Court has found that rule 85 (a) “establishes four criteria that have to be met in order to obtain the status of victim: the victim must be a natural person; | 该法院认为，规则85(a)“规定了获得受害人身份必须满足的四个标准：受害人必须是自然人； |
| he or she must have suffered harm; | 必须受到了伤害； |
| the crime from which the harm ensued must fall within the jurisdiction of the Court; | 造成伤害的犯罪行为必须属于本法院的管辖范围； |
| and there must be a causal link between the crime and the harm suffered”. | 犯罪行为与所受伤害之间必须有因果关系。 |
| Situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Case No. ICC-01/04, public redacted version of decision on the applications for participation in the proceedings of VPRS1, VPRS2, VPRS3, VPRS4, VPRS5 and VPRS6, 17 January 2006, Pre-Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Court, para. 79. | ”刚果民主共和国状况案，ICC-01/04号案件，关于申请参加VPRS1号、VPRS2号、VPRS3号、VPRS4号、VPRS5号和VPRS6号诉讼程序的裁定的公开节录版，2006年1月17日，国际刑事法院第一预审分庭，第79段。 |
| Further, the harm suffered by a victim for the purposes of rule 85 (a) must be “personal” harm, though it does not necessarily have to be “direct” harm. | 此外，为了规则85(a)的目的，受害人受到的伤害必须是“个人”伤害，但不一定是“直接”伤害。 |
| See Situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo in the case of the Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/06 OA 9 OA 10, Judgment on the appeals of the Prosecutor and the Defence against Trial Chamber I’s Decision on Victims’ Participation of 18 January 2008, 11 July 2008, Appeals Chamber, International Criminal Court, paras. 32–39. | 见刚果民主共和国状况案中的检察官诉Thomas Lubanga Dyilo案，ICC-01/04-01/06 OA 9 OA 10号案件，就检察官和被告对第一审判分庭2008年1月18日关于受害人参加诉讼的裁定提出的上诉所作的判决，2008年7月11日，国际刑事法院上诉分庭，第32-39段。 |
| See Situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo in the case of the Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/06, redacted version of decision on indirect victims, 8 April 2009, Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Court, paras. 44–52. | 见刚果民主共和国状况案中的检察官诉Thomas Lubanga Dyilo案，ICC-01/04-01/06号案件，国际刑事法院第一审判分庭2009年4月8日关于间接受害人的裁定节录版，第44-52段。 |
| In the context of crimes against humanity involving cultural heritage, an International Criminal Court Trial Chamber identified persons “affected” by the crime as “not only the direct victims of the crimes, namely the faithful and inhabitants of Timbuktu, but also people throughout Mali and the international community”. | 在涉及文化遗产的危害人类罪方面，国际刑事法院一审判分庭认定，受罪行“影响”的人“不仅包括罪行的直接受害者，即廷巴克图的信徒和居民，而且包括马里全国人民和国际社会”。 |
| Prosecutor v. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Madhi, Case No. ICC-01/12-01/15, Reparations Order, 17 August 2017, Trial Chamber VIII, International Criminal Court, para. 51. | 检察官诉Ahmad Al Faqi Al Madhi案，ICC-01/12-01/15号案件，赔偿令，2017年8月17日，国际刑事法院第八审判分庭，第51段。 |
| The Chamber, however, limited its assessment for the purpose of reparations “only to the harm suffered by or within the community of Timbuktu, i.e. organisations or persons ordinarily residing in Timbuktu at the time of the commission of the crimes or otherwise so closely related to the city that they can be considered to be part of this community at the time of the attack”. | 不过，该分庭出于赔偿目的，将评估限于“廷巴克图社区或其内部遭受的伤害，即犯罪发生时通常居住在廷巴克图的组织或个人，或与该城市关系密切、在攻击发生时可被视为该社区一部分的组织或个人”。 |
| Ibid., para. 56. | 同上，第56段。 |
| Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Criminal Court, rule 85 (b) (“Victims may include organizations or institutions that have sustained direct harm to any of their property which is dedicated to religion, education, art or science or charitable purposes, and to their historic monuments, hospitals and other places and objects for humanitarian purposes”). | 《国际刑事法院程序和证据规则》，规则85(b)(“被害人可以包括其专用于宗教、教育、艺术、科学或慈善事业目的的财产，其历史纪念物、医院和其他用于人道主义目的的地方和物体受到直接损害的组织或机构”)。 |
| Paragraph 8 of the 2005 Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law of the General Assembly provides: “For purposes of the present document, victims are persons who individually or collectively suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that constitute gross violations of international human rights law, or serious violations of international humanitarian law. | 联大2005年《严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为受害人获得补救和赔偿的权利基本原则和导则》第8段规定：“为本文件的目的，受害人是指由于构成严重违反国际人权法或严重违反国际人道法行为的作为或不作为而遭受损害，包括身心伤害、精神痛苦、经济损失或基本权利受到严重损害的个人或集体。 |
| Where appropriate, and in accordance with domestic law, the term ‘victim’ also includes the immediate family or dependants of the direct victim and persons who have suffered harm in intervening to assist victims in distress or to prevent victimization. | 适当时，根据国内法，‘受害人’还包括直接受害人的直系亲属或受扶养人以及介入干预以帮助处于困境的受害人或阻止加害他人行为而遭受损害的人。 |
| ” For a similar definition, see Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power, paras. 1–2. | ”类似的定义，见《为罪行和滥用权力行为受害者取得公理的基本原则宣言》，第1-2段。 |
| Convention against Torture, art. 13. | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第13条。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 12. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十二条。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 24, para. 1. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第24条第1款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 32, para. 1. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第三十二条第一款。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 12, para. 1. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十二条第一款。 |
| See, for example, Rome Statute, art. 68, para. 1; | 例如见《罗马规约》，第六十八条第(一)款； |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, art. 22; | 《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》第22条； |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 21; | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第21条； |
| Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law, art. 33; | 《柬埔寨特别法庭法》，第33条； |
| Statute of the Special Court of Sierra Leone, art. 16; | 《塞拉利昂问题特别法庭规约》，第16条； |
| Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, art. 12. | 《黎巴嫩问题特别法庭规约》，第12条。 |
| See, for example, Rome Statute, art. 68, para. 1. | 例如见《罗马规约》，第六十八条第(一)款。 |
| See, for example, Rome Statute, art. 68, para. 2; | 例如见《罗马规约》，第六十八条第(二)款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 24, para. 2 (b); | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第24条第2款(b)项； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 32, para. 2 (b). | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第三十二条第二款第(二)项。 |
| See, for example, Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, art. 8, para. 1 (e); | 例如见《儿童权利公约关于买卖儿童、儿童卖淫和儿童色情制品问题的任择议定书》，第8条第1款(e)项； |
| Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law, art. 33. | 《柬埔寨特别法庭法》，第33条。 |
| See, for example, Rome Statute, art. 68, para. 2; | 例如见《罗马规约》，第六十八条第(二)款； |
| Extraordinary Chambers of Cambodia Law, art. 33. | 《柬埔寨特别法庭法》，第33条。 |
| See, for example, Rome Statute, art. 68, para. 5. | 例如见《罗马规约》，第六十八条第(五)款。 |
| See, for example, United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 24, para. 2 (a); | 例如见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第24条第2款(a)项； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 32, para. 2 (a). | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第三十二条第二款第(一)项。 |
| See, for example, United Nations Model Strategies and Practical Measures on the Elimination of Violence against Children in the Field of Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, General Assembly resolution 69/194 of 18 December 2014, annex, measures VI, VIII, XII; | 例如见《联合国消除预防犯罪和刑事司法领域内暴力侵害儿童行为的示范战略和实际措施》，联大2014年12月18日第69/194号决议，附件，措施六、八、十二； |
| United Nations Principles and Guidelines on Access to Legal Aid in Criminal Justice Systems (footnote 491 above), principles 4–5 and guidelines 7 and 10; | 《联合国关于在刑事司法系统中获得法律援助机会的原则和准则草案》(上文脚注491)、原则4-5以及准则7和10； |
| Guidelines on Justice in Matters involving Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime, Economic and Social Council resolution 2005/20 of 22 July 2005, annex. | 《关于在涉及罪行的儿童被害人和证人的事项上坚持公理的准则》，经济及社会理事会2005年7月22日第2005/20号决议，附件。 |
| Other relevant international treaties provide a similar protection, including the Rome Statute, art. 68, para. 1; | 其他提供类似保护的国际条约包括：《罗马规约》，第六十八条第(一)款； |
| Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, art. 8, para. 6; | 《儿童权利公约关于买卖儿童、儿童卖淫和儿童色情制品问题的任择议定书》，第8条第6款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 24, para. 2; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第24条第2款； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 32, para. 2. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第三十二条第二款。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 68, para. 3. | 《罗马规约》，第六十八条第(三)款。 |
| Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, art. 8, para. 1. | 《儿童权利公约关于买卖儿童、儿童卖淫和儿童色情制品问题的任择议定书》，第8条第1款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 25, para. 3. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第25条第3款。 |
| Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 6, para. 2. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于预防、禁止和惩治贩运人口特别是妇女和儿童行为的补充议定书》，第6条第2款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 32, para. 5. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第三十二条第五款。 |
| Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, principles 12 to 23. | 《严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为受害人获得补救和赔偿的权利基本原则和导则》，原则12至23。 |
| See, for example, International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 8, para. 4; | 例如见《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第8条第4款； |
| Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, art. 9, para. 4; United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 14, para. 2, and art. 25, para. 2; | 《儿童权利公约关于买卖儿童、儿童卖淫和儿童色情制品问题的任择议定书》，第9条第4款，《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第14条第2款和第25条第2款； |
| Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 6, para. 6; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于预防、禁止和惩治贩运人口特别是妇女和儿童行为的补充议定书》，第6条第6款； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 35. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第三十五条。 |
| Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 8. | 《世界人权宣言》，第八条。 |
| International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 2, para. 3. | 《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》，第二条第三款。 |
| See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31, paras. 16–17. | 另见人权事务委员会，第31号一般性意见，第16-17段。 |
| See, for example, Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, art. 13; | 例如见《保护人权与基本自由公约》，第13条； |
| American Convention on Human Rights, arts. 25 and 63. | 《美洲人权公约》，第25和第63条。 |
| See also Organization of African Unity, Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Establishment of an African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Ouagadougou, 10 June 1998), Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Collection of International Instruments and Legal Texts Concerning Refugees and Others of Concern to UNHCR, vol. 3, Regional Instruments, Africa, Middle East, Asia, Americas, Geneva, UNHCR, 2007, p. 1040, at p. 1045, art. 27. | 另见非洲统一组织，《非洲人权和民族权宪章关于设立非洲人权和民族权法院的议定书》(1998年6月10日，卡加杜古)，联合国难民事务高级专员公署(难民署)，《关于难民和难民署关注的其他人的国际文书和法律案文汇编，第3卷，区域文书：非洲、中东、亚洲、美洲》，难民署，2007年，日内瓦，第1040页起，见第1045页，第27条。 |
| Convention against Torture, art. 14, para. 1. | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第14条第1款。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 24, para. 4. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第二十四条第四款。 |
| Committee against Torture, general comment No. 3, para. 2; | 禁止酷刑委员会，第3号一般性意见，第2段； |
| Urra Guridi v. Spain, communication No. 212/2002, decision adopted on 24 May 2005, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixtieth Session, Supplement No. 44 (A/60/44), annex VIII, sect. A, p. 147, para. 6.8. | Urra Guridi诉西班牙，第212/2002号来文，2005年5月24日通过的决定，《大会正式记录，第六十届会议，补编第44号》(A/60/44)，附件八，A节，第147页，第6.8段。 |
| Committee against Torture, general comment No. 3, para. 5. | 禁止酷刑委员会，第3号一般性意见，第5段。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, arts. 24, paras. 4–5. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第二十四条第四至第五款。 |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, art. 24, para. 3; | 《前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭规约》第24条第3款； |
| Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 23, para. 3. | 《卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭规约》，第23条第3款。 |
| See, for example, the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, principle 13. | 例如见《严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为受害人获得补救和赔偿的权利基本原则和导则》，原则13。 |
| Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Criminal Court, rule 97, para. 1. | 《国际刑事法院程序和证据规则》，规则97, 第1段。 |
| Internal Rules of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Court of Cambodia (Rev. 9) as revised on 16 January 2015, rules 23 and 23 quinquies. | 2015年1月16日修订的《柬埔寨法院特别法庭内部规则》(第9次修订版)，规则23和23之五。 |
| See, for example, Lyashkevich v. Belarus, Communication No 887/1999, Views adopted on 3 April 2003, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/58/40), vol. II, annex V, appendix P, para. 9.2. | 例如见Lyashkevich诉白俄罗斯，第887/1999号来文，2003年4月3日通过的意见，《大会正式记录，第五十八届会议，补编第40号》(A/58/40)，第二卷，附件五，附录P，第9.2段。 |
| Ibid., para. 11. | 同上，第11段。 |
| See, for example, Kurt v. Turkey (footnote 435 above), paras. 130–134 and 140; | 例如见Kurt诉土耳其(上文脚注435)，第130-134段和第140段; |
| Taş v. Turkey, Application No. 24396/94, Judgment, 14 November 2000, European Court of Human Rights, paras. 79–80 and 91; | Taş诉土耳其，第24396/94号申诉，欧洲人权法院2000年11月14日的判决，第79-80段和第91段； |
| Cyprus v. Turkey, Application No. 25781/94, Judgment, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2001-IV, paras. 156–158. | 塞浦路斯诉土耳其，第25781/94号申诉，欧洲人权法院大审判庭的判决，《2001年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》，第四卷，第156-158段。 |
| Amnesty International v. Sudan, communications No. 48/90, 50/91, 52/91, 89/93, decision of 15 November 1999, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, para. 54. | 大赦国际诉苏丹，第48/90号、第50/91号、第52/91号、第89/93号来文，非洲人权和人民权利委员会1999年11月15日的决定，第54段。 |
| See also African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Fair Trial and Legal Assistance in Africa, African Union document DOC/OS(XXX)247, principle C, para. (b) (providing that “the right to an effective remedy includes: … 3. access to the factual information concerning the violations.”). | 另见非洲人权和民族权委员会，《非洲公平审判和法律援助权的原则和指导方针》，非洲联盟文件DOC/OS(XXX)247，原则C, (b)段(规定“获得有效补救的权利包括：…3. 获取有关侵权行为的事实信息。 ”)。 |
| Inter-American Commission, Case of Ignacio Ellacría et al. v. El Salvador, Case No. 10.488, Report No. 136/99 of 22 December 1999, paras. 221–228. | 美洲人权委员会，Ignacio Ellacría等人诉萨尔瓦多案，第10.488号案件，1999年12月22日第136/99号报告，第221-228段。 |
| See, for example, European Convention on Extradition (Paris, 13 December 1957), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 359, No. 5146, p. 273; | 例如见《欧洲引渡公约》(1957年12月13日，巴黎)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第359卷，第5146号，第273页； |
| Inter-American Convention on Extradition (Caracas, 25 February 1981), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1752, No. 30597, p. 177. | 《美洲国家间引渡公约》(1981年2月25日，加拉加斯)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1752卷，第30597号，第177页。 |
| See also Council framework decision of 13 June 2002 on the European arrest warrant and the surrender procedures between Member States (Luxembourg, 2002), Official Journal of the European Communities, No. L 190, vol. 45 (18 July 2002), p. 1. | 另见理事会2002年6月13日关于欧洲逮捕令和成员国之间移交程序的框架决定(2002年，卢森堡)，《欧洲共同体公报》，L 190号，第45卷(2002年7月18日)，第1页。 |
| The 1990 United Nations Model Treaty on Extradition is one effort to help States in developing bilateral extradition agreements capable of addressing a wide range of crimes. | 1990年《联合国引渡示范条约》是为协助各国制定能够涵盖多种罪犯的双边引渡协定而做出的一项努力。 |
| See General Assembly resolution 45/116 of 14 December 1990, annex (subsequently amended by General Assembly resolution 52/88 of 12 December 1997). | 见联大1990年12月14日第45/116号决议，附件(后经联大1997年12月12日第52/88号决议修正)。 |
| General Assembly resolution 3074 (XXVIII) of 3 December 1973. | 联大1973年12月3日第3074(XXVIII)号决议。 |
| International cooperation in the detection, arrest, extradition and punishment of persons guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, resolution 2001/22 of 16 August 2001, para. 3, in report of the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights on its fifty-third session (E/CN.4/2002/2-E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/40). | “关于侦察、逮捕、引渡和惩治战争罪罪犯和危害人类罪罪犯的国际合作”，2001年8月16日第2001/22号决议，第3段，促进和保护人权小组委员会第五十三届会议报告(E/CN.4/2002/2- E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/40)。 |
| The Sub-Commission largely replicated in its resolution the principles of the General Assembly, but with some modifications. | 小组委员会在其决议中基本上复述了联大提出的各项原则，但也做了一些修改。 |
| Ibid., para. 2. | 同上，第2段。 |
| See, for example, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption; | 例如见联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室，《联合国反腐败公约实施立法指南》； |
| Technical Guide to the United Nations Convention against Corruption (New York, United Nations, 2009); | 《联合国反腐败公约技术指南》(联合国，2009年，纽约)； |
| and Travaux préparatoires of the Negotiations for the Elaboration of the United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 以及《关于拟订联合国反腐败公约的谈判准备工作文件》。 |
| The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime has developed similar resources for the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, which contains many of the same provisions as the United Nations Convention against Corruption in its article on extradition. | 联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室为《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》也编写了类似资料，其中多项规定与《联合国反腐败公约》关于引渡的条款相同。 |
| See, for example, Legislative Guides for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols Thereto (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.05.V.2). | 例如见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约及其议定书实施立法指南》，联合国出版物(出售品编号：E.05.V.2)。 |
| See also Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto (A/55/383/Add.1). | 另见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约及其议定书谈判正式记录(准备工作文件)的解释性说明》(A/55/383/Add.1)。 |
| See article 7 of the draft articles on the prevention and punishment of crimes against diplomatic agents and other internationally protected persons, Yearbook … 1972, vol. II, pp. 319–320; | 关于《关于防止和惩治对外交代表和其他应受国际保护人员犯罪的条款草案》第7条，《1972年…年鉴》，第二卷，第319-320页； |
| and article 10 of the draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Yearbook… 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 32. | 以及《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第10条，《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第32页。 |
| Similar provisions appear in: Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, art. 8, para. 1; | 以下文书中有类似的规定：《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》，第8条第1款； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, art. 8, para. 1; | 《关于制止危害民用航空安全的非法行为的公约》，第8条第1款； |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, art. 8, para. 1; | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》，第八条第1款； |
| Convention against Torture, art. 8, para. 1; | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第8条第1款； |
| Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, art. 15, para. 1; | 《联合国人员和有关人员安全公约》，第15条第1款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 9, para. 1; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第9条第1款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 16, para. 3; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第16条第3款； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 13, paras. 2–3. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十三条第二至第三款。 |
| The Commission’s 1996 draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind provides, in art. 10, para. 1, that, “[t]o the extent that [genocide, crimes against humanity, crimes against the United Nations and associated personnel and war crimes] are not extraditable offences in any extradition treaty existing between States Parties, they shall be deemed to be included as such therein. | 委员会1996年《危害人类和平及安全治罪法草案》第10条第1款规定：“如果各缔约国之间的任何现行引渡条约未将[灭绝种族罪行、危害人类罪行、危害联合国人员和有关人员罪行以及战争罪行]列为可引渡的罪行，应将这些罪行视为包括在这些条约中的可引渡的罪行。 |
| States Parties undertake to include those crimes as extraditable offences in every extradition treaty to be concluded between them”. | 各缔约国承诺在将来彼此间所签定的每一项引渡条约中都将这些罪行列为可引渡的罪行”。 |
| Yearbook… 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 32. | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第32页。 |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. VII. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》，第七条。 |
| Additional Protocol to the European Convention on Extradition (Strasbourg, 15 October 1975), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1161, No. 5146, p. 450, art. 1. | 《欧洲引渡公约附加议定书》(1975年10月15日，斯特拉斯堡)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1161卷，第5146号，第450页，第1条。 |
| See, for example, In the Matter of the Extradition of Mousa Mohammed Abu Marzook, United States District Court, S. D. New York, 924 F. Supp. 565 (1996), p. 577 (“[I]f the act complained of is of such heinous nature that it is a crime against humanity, it is necessarily outside the political offense exception”). | 例如见Mousa Mohammed Abu Marzook引渡案，美国纽约州南部地区地方法院，924 F. Supp. 565 (1996)，第577页(“假如被控行为性质极其恶劣，构成危害人类罪，必然不适用政治犯罪免于引渡原则”)。 |
| United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Revised Manuals on the Model Treaty on Extradition and on the Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, Part One: Revised Manual on the Model Treaty on Extradition, para. 45. | 联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室，《关于引渡示范条约和刑事事项互助示范条约的订正手册，第一部分：关于引渡示范条约的订正手册》，第45段。 |
| Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, resolution 2001/22 on international cooperation in the detection, arrest, extradition and punishment of persons guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, para. 3. | 促进和保护人权小组委员会关于侦察、逮捕、引渡和惩治战争罪罪犯和危害人类罪罪犯的国际合作的第2001/22号决议，第3段。 |
| See, for example, the Extradition Treaty between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of South Africa (Washington, 16 September 1999), United Nations, Treaty Series, [vol. not published yet], No. 50792, art. 4, para. 2 (“For the purposes of this Treaty, the following offences shall not be considered political offences: … (b) an offence for which both the Requesting and Requested States have the obligation pursuant to a multilateral international agreement to extradite the person sought or to submit the case to their respective competent authorities for decision as to prosecution; | 例如见《美利坚合众国政府与南非政府引渡条约》(1999年9月16日，华盛顿)，联合国，《条约汇编》，[所在卷尚未出版]，第50792号，第4条第2款(“为本条约目的，不得将如下犯罪视为政治犯罪：…(b) 请求国和被请求国根据多边国际协定均有义务引渡某人或将案件提交本国主管机关以便提出起诉的犯罪； |
| the Treaty on Extradition between Australia and the Republic of Korea (Seoul, 5 September 1990), ibid., vol. 1642, No. 28218, art. 4, para. 1 (a) (“Reference to a political offence shall not include … (ii) an offence in respect of which the Contracting Parties have the obligation to establish jurisdiction or extradite by reason of a multilateral international agreement to which they are both parties; | 《澳大利亚与大韩民国引渡条约》(1990年9月5日，首尔)，同上，第1642卷，第28218号，第4条第1款(a)项(“政治犯罪不应包括…(二) 缔约国根据其加入的多边国际协定有义务确定管辖权或进行引渡的犯罪； |
| and (iii) an offence against the law relating to genocide”); | 以及(三) 违反灭绝种族问题相关法律的犯罪”)； |
| Treaty of Extradition between the Government of the United Mexican States and the Government of Canada (Mexico City, 16 March 1990), ibid., vol. 1589, No. 27824, art. IV, subpara. (a) (“For the purpose of this paragraph, political offence shall not include an offence for which each Party has the obligation, pursuant to a multilateral international agreement, to extradite the person sought or to submit the case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution”). | 《墨西哥合众国政府与加拿大政府引渡条约》(1990年3月16日，墨西哥城)，同上，第1589卷，第27824号，第四条(a)项(“为本款目的，政治犯罪不应包括缔约国根据多边国际协定有义务引渡某人或将案件提交本国主管机关以便提出起诉的犯罪”)。 |
| See, for example, International Convention against the Taking of Hostages; | 例如见《反对劫持人质国际公约》； |
| Convention against Torture. | 《禁止酷刑公约》。 |
| See, for example, International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 11; | 例如见《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第11条； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 14; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第14条； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 44, para. 4. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十四条第四款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 44, para. 5. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十四条第五款。 |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, art. 8, para. 2; | 《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》，第8条第2款； |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, art. 8, para. 2; | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》，第八条第2款； |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 10, para. 2; | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第十条第2款； |
| Convention against Torture, art. 8, para. 2; | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第8条第2款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 9, para. 2; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第9条第2款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 11, para. 2; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第11条第2款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 16, para. 4; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第16条第4款； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 13, para. 4. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十三条第四款。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 32, art. 10, para. 2 (“If a State Party which makes extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty receives a request for extradition from another State Party with which it has no extradition treaty, it may at its option consider the present Code as the legal basis for extradition in respect of those crimes. | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第32页，第10条第2款(“以订有引渡条约为引渡条件的缔约国，如接到未与其订有引渡条约的另一缔约国的引渡请求，可自行决定视本治罪法为就这些罪行进行引渡的法律根据。 |
| Extradition shall be subject to the conditions provided in the law of the requested State”). | 引渡应依照被请求国法律规定的条件办理”)。 |
| See Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Analytical report of the Secretariat on the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime: updated information based on additional responses received from States for the first reporting cycle (CTOC/COP/2005/2/Rev.1), para. 69. | 见联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约缔约方会议，《秘书处的分析报告，联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约的执行情况：以第一报告周期内收到的各国补充答复为依据的增订资料》(CTOC/ COP/2005/2/Rev.1)，第69段。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 44, para. 7 (“States Parties that do not make extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty shall recognize offences to which this article applies as extraditable offences between themselves”). | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十四条第七款(“不以订有条约为引渡条件的缔约国应当承认本条所适用的犯罪为它们之间可以相互引渡的犯罪”)。 |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, art. 8, para. 3; | 《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》，第8条第3款； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, art. 8, para. 3; | 《关于制止危害民用航空安全的非法行为的公约》，第8条第3款； |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 10, para. 3; | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第十条第3款； |
| Convention against Torture, art. 8, para. 3; | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第8条第3款； |
| United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 6, para. 4; | 《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第6条第4款； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 13, para. 5. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十三条第五款。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 32, art. 10, para. 3 (“States Parties which do not make extradition conditional on the existence of a treaty shall recognize those crimes as extraditable offences between themselves subject to the conditions provided in the law of the requested State”). | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第32页，第10条第3款(“不以订有引渡条约为引渡条件的缔约国，应承认这些罪行是彼此之间可引渡的罪行，但应依照被请求国法律规定的条件办理”)。 |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, art. 8, para. 2; | 《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》，第8条第2款； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, art. 8, para. 2; | 《关于制止危害民用航空安全的非法行为的公约》，第8条第2款； |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, art. 8, para. 2; | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》，第八条第2款； |
| Convention against Torture, art. 8, para. 2; | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第8条第2款； |
| Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, art. 15, para. 2; | 《联合国人员和有关人员安全公约》，第15条第2款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 9, para. 2; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第9条第2款； |
| International Convention for Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 11, para. 2; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第11条第2款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 16, para. 7; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第16条第7款； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 13, para. 6. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十三条第六款。 |
| See, for example, Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, art. 13; | 例如见《美洲防止和惩处酷刑公约》，第13条； |
| Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons, art. V; | 《美洲被迫失踪人士公约》，第五条； |
| Council of Europe Criminal Law Convention on Corruption, art. 27, para. 4. | 《欧洲委员会反腐败刑法公约》，第27条第4款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 44, para. 8 (“Extradition shall be subject to the conditions provided for by the domestic law of the requested State Party or by applicable extradition treaties, including, inter alia, conditions in relation to the minimum penalty requirement for extradition and the grounds upon which the requested State Party may refuse extradition”). | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十四条第八款(“引渡应当符合被请求缔约国本国法律或者适用的引渡条约所规定的条件，其中包括关于引渡的最低限度刑罚要求和被请求缔约国可以据以拒绝引渡的理由等条件”)。 |
| See, for example, the United Kingdom Extradition Act, sect. 17. | 例如见《联合王国引渡法》，第17条。 |
| See, for example, Report on the meeting of the Working Group on International Cooperation held in Vienna on 16 October 2018 (CTOC/COP/WG.3/2018/6); | 例如见2018年10月16日在维也纳举行的国际合作工作组会议报告(CTOC/COP/WG.3/ 2018/6)； |
| Challenges faced in expediting the extradition process, including addressing health and safety and other human rights issues, as well as litigation strategies utilized by defendants to delay the resolution of an extradition request (CTOC/COP/WG.3/2018/5). | 在加快引渡进程方面面临的挑战，包括处理健康与安全及其他人权问题，以及被告为阻延解决引渡请求而采取的诉讼策略(CTOC/COP/WG.3/2018/5)。 |
| See Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 33, para. (3) of the commentary to draft article 10 (“Under some treaties and national laws, the custodial State may only grant requests for extradition coming from the State in which the crime occurred”). | 见《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第33页，第10条草案评注第(3)段(“根据一些条约和国内法，羁押国只能批准罪行发生的所在国提出的引渡请求”)。 |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 11, para. 4. | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第11条第4款。 |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, art. 8, para. 4; | 《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》，第8条第4款； |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, art. 8, para. 4; | 《关于制止危害民用航空安全的非法行为的公约》，第8条第4款； |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, art. 8, para. 4; | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》，第八条第4款； |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 10, para. 4; | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第十条第4款； |
| Convention against Torture, art. 8, para. 4; | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第8条第4款； |
| Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, art. 15, para. 4; | 《联合国人员和有关人员安全公约》，第15条第4款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 9, para. 4. | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第9条第4款。 |
| Some recent treaties, however, have not contained such a provision. | 但最近的一些条约未载有此类规定。 |
| See, for example, United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime; | 例如见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption; | 《联合国反腐败公约》； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》。 |
| Yearbook … 1996, vol. II (Part Two), p. 32, art. 10, para. 4 (“Each of those crimes shall be treated, for the purpose of extradition between States Parties, as if it had been committed not only in the place in which it occurred but also in the territory of any other State Party”). | 《1996年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第32页，第10条第4款(“对各缔约国彼此之间进行引渡来说，其中每一项罪行应视为不但发生于实际犯罪地点，而且发生于任何其他缔约国境内”)。 |
| Ibid., p. 33 (para. (3) of the commentary to draft article 10). | 同上，第33页(第10条草案的评注第(3)段)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 16, para. 12. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第16条第12款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 44, para. 13. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十四条第十三款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 16, para. 11. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第16条第11款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 44, para. 12. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十四条第十二款。 |
| See, for example, European Convention on Extradition, art. 3, para. 2; | 例如见《欧洲引渡公约》，第3条第2款； |
| Inter-American Convention on Extradition, art. 4, para. 5. | 《美洲国家间引渡公约》，第4条第5款。 |
| See, for example, Extradition Agreement between the Government of the Republic of India and the Government of the French Republic (Paris, 24 January 2003), art. 3, para. 3; | 例如见《印度共和国政府与法兰西共和国政府引渡协定》(2003年1月24日，巴黎)，第3条第3款； |
| Extradition Treaty between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Republic of South Africa, art. 4, para. 3; | 《美利坚合众国政府与南非共和国政府引渡条约》，第4条第3款； |
| Treaty on Extradition between Australia and the Republic of Korea (Seoul, 5 September 1990), art. 4, para. 1 (b); | 《澳大利亚与大韩民国引渡条约》(1990年9月5日，首尔)，第4条第1款(b)项； |
| Treaty of Extradition between the Government of the United Mexican States and the Government of Canada, art. IV (b). | 《墨西哥合众国政府与加拿大政府引渡条约》第四条(b)项。 |
| The United Nations Model Treaty on Extradition at article 3 (b) contains such a provision. | 《联合国引渡示范条约》第3条(b)项包含这种规定。 |
| The Revised Manual on the Model Treaty on Extradition, states at paragraph 47, that: “Subparagraph (b) … is a non-controversial paragraph, one that has been used (sometimes in a modified form) in extradition treaties throughout the world”. | 《关于引渡示范条约的订正手册》第47段指出：“(b)项…不会引发争议，世界各地的引渡条约普遍采用这一款(有时会有改动)”。 |
| See, for example, the Extradition Law of the People’s Republic of China: Order of the President of the People’s Republic of China, No. 42, adopted at the 19th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Ninth National People’s Congress on 28 December 2000, art. 8, para. 4 (“The request for extradition made by a foreign State to the People’s Republic of China shall be rejected if … the person sought is one against whom penal proceedings instituted or punishment may be executed for reasons of that person’s race, religion, nationality, sex, political opinion or personal status, or that person may, for any of those reasons, be subjected to unfair treatment in judicial proceedings”“); | 例如见《中华人民共和国引渡法：中华人民共和国第42号主席令》，2000年12月28日第九届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第19次会议通过，第八条第四款(“外国向中华人民共和国提出的引渡请求，有下列情形之一的，应当拒绝引渡：…被请求引渡人可能因其种族、宗教、国籍、性别、政治见解或者身份等方面的原因而被提起刑事诉讼或者执行刑罚，或者被请求引渡人在司法程序中可能由于上述原因受到不公正待遇”)； |
| and the United Kingdom Extradition Act, sect. 13 (“A person’s extradition … is barred by reason of extraneous considerations if (and only if) it appears that (a) the Part 1 warrant issued in respect of him (though purporting to be issued on account of the extradition offence) is in fact issued for the purpose of prosecuting or punishing him on account of his race, religion, nationality, gender, sexual orientation or political opinions, or (b) if extradited he might be prejudiced at his trial or punished, detained or restricted in his personal liberty by reason of his race, religion, nationality, gender, sexual orientation or political opinions”). | 以及《联合王国引渡法》，第13条(“出于以下外部因素，将禁止…引渡某人：(a) 针对某人出具第一类逮捕证(尽管据称是因引渡罪行而出具)的实际目的是因其种族、宗教、国籍、性别、性取向或政治见解而对其进行起诉或惩罚，或(b) 假如被引渡，某人会因其种族、宗教、国籍、性别、性取向或政治见解，在接受审判时受到损害或受到惩罚、拘留或被限制人身自由”)。 |
| See, for example, International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 9; | 例如见《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第九条； |
| United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 6, para. 6; | 《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第6条第6款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 12; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第12条； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 15; International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 13, para. 7. | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第15条，《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十三条第七款。 |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 13, para. 7. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十三条第七款。 |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. VI (emphasis added). | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》，第六条(强调是后加的)。 |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 88, para. 2. | 《第一附加议定书》，第八十八条第二款。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 17, para. 1 (“[T]he Court shall determine that a case is inadmissible where: (a) The case is being investigated or prosecuted by a State which has jurisdiction over it, unless the State is unwilling or unable genuinely to carry out the investigation or prosecution … ”). | 《罗马规约》，第十七条第(一)款(“在下列情况下，本法院应断定案件不可受理：1. 对案件具有管辖权的国家正在对该案件进行调查或起诉，除非该国不愿意或不能够切实进行调查或起诉…”)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 16, para. 16. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第16条第16款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 44, para. 17. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十四条第十七款。 |
| United Nations Model Treaty on Extradition, art. 16. | 《联合国引渡示范条约》，第16条。 |
| Código Orgánico Integral Penal, section 405. | 《综合刑法》，第405条。 |
| See, for example, Council framework decision of 13 June 2002, art. 16, para. 1. | 例如见理事会2002年6月13日的框架决定，第16条第1款。 |
| See, for example, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Revised Manuals on the Model Treaty on Extradition and on the Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, Part One: Revised Manual on the Model Treaty on Extradition, p. 10, para. 20 (“The requirement of double criminality under the laws of both the requesting and requested States of the offence for which extradition is to be granted is a deeply ingrained principle of extradition law”). | 例如见联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室，《关于引渡示范条约和刑事事项互助示范条约的订正手册，第一部分：引渡示范条约示范订正手册》，第10页，第20段(“要求引渡的相关罪行根据请求国和被请求国的法律均属于刑事犯罪，这种双重犯罪要求是引渡法的一项根本原则”)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, arts. 15, 16, para. 1, and arts. 17, 23 and 25. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第十五条、第十六条第一款以及第十七、第二十三和第二十五条。 |
| Ibid., arts. 16, para. 2, and arts. 18–22 and 24. | 同上，第十六条第二款、第十八至第二十二条以及第二十四条。 |
| Draft article 2, paragraph 3, provides that the draft article is without prejudice to a broader definition of crimes against humanity provided for in any national law. | 第2条草案第3款规定，该条草案不妨碍任何国家法律规定的更为宽泛的危害人类罪定义。 |
| An extradition request based on a broader definition than is contained in draft article 2, paragraphs 1 and 2, however, would not be based on an offence covered by the present draft articles. | 如果引渡请求所依据的定义比第2条草案第1和第2款所述定义更为宽泛，则该请求不得以本条款草案所述犯罪为依据。 |
| See, for example, Additional Protocol I, art. 88, para. 1 (“The High Contracting Parties shall afford one another the greatest measure of assistance in connexion with criminal proceedings brought in respect of grave breaches of the Conventions or of this Protocol”); | 例如，见《第一附加议定书》，第八十八条第一款(“缔约各方应在对严重破坏各公约或本议定书的行为提出刑事诉讼方面，彼此提供最大限度的协助”)； |
| Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, art. 19, para. 1 (“Parties shall afford one another the greatest measure of assistance in connection with investigations or criminal or extradition proceedings brought in respect of the offences set forth in Article 15, including assistance in obtaining evidence at their disposal necessary for the proceedings”). | 《1954年关于发生武装冲突时保护文化财产的海牙公约第二议定书》，第19条第1款(“在对第15条所述之违约行为进行的调查和刑事诉讼或引渡程序中，缔约国之间应相互提供最大程度的司法协助，包括协助取得它们所掌握的、为诉讼程序所必须的证据”)。 |
| See also ICRC, Commentary on the First Geneva Convention, 2016, paras. 2892–2893 (on article 49). | 另见红十字国际委员会，《日内瓦第一公约评注》，2016年，第2892-2893段(关于第四十九条)。 |
| See Commentary on the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.98.XI.5), p. 185, para. 7.22 (finding that “[t]here are still … many States that are not parties to general mutual legal assistance treaties and many circumstances in which no bilateral treaty governs the relationship between the pair of States concerned in a particular matter”). | 见《〈联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约〉评注》(联合国出版物，出售品编号：E.98.XI.5)，第185页，第7.22段(认定“仍有许多国家不加入一般性相互法律协助条约，并有在具体事项上无双边条约规范有关国家之间的关系的许多情况”)。 |
| See, for example, Convention against Torture, art. 9; | 例如见《禁止酷刑公约》，第9条； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 10; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第10条； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 14. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第十四条。 |
| See Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, report of the Secretary-General on the question of the elaboration of an International Convention against Organized Transnational Crime (E/CN.15/1997/7/Add.1), p. 15. | 见预防犯罪和刑事司法委员会，秘书长关于拟订一项打击有组织跨国犯罪国际公约的问题的报告(E/CN.15/1997/7/Add.1)，第15页。 |
| Ibid. (suggestions of Australia and Austria). | 同上(澳大利亚和奥地利的建议)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7. | 《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条。 |
| The mutual legal assistance provisions in the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism are scattered among several articles, many of which concern both mutual assistance and extradition. | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》中的司法协助规定分布在若干条款中，其中许多条款都既涉及协助也涉及引渡。 |
| See International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 7, para. 5, and arts. 12–16. | 见《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第7条第5款和第12至第16条。 |
| More commonly, mutual legal assistance provisions are aggregated in a single article. | 更为常见的情况是，司法协助规定集中在一项单独的条款中。 |
| See United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, State of Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption: Criminalization, Law Enforcement and International Cooperation (New York, United Nations, 2nd ed., 2017), pp. 221–225. | 见联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室，《〈联合国反腐败公约〉的执行情况：定罪、执法及国际合作》(联合国，2017年，纽约，第2版)，第221-225页。 |
| See United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Revised Manuals on the Model Treaty on Extradition and on the Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, Part One: Revised Manual on the Model Treaty on Extradition, para. 45. | 见联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室，《关于引渡示范条约和刑事事项互助示范条约的订正手册，第一部分：关于引渡示范条约的订正手册》，第45段。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 46, para. 1 (“States Parties shall afford one another the widest measure of mutual legal assistance in investigations, prosecutions and judicial proceedings in relation to the offences covered by this Convention”). | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十六条第一款(“缔约国应当在对本公约所涵盖的犯罪进行的侦查、起诉和审判程序中相互提供最广泛的司法协助”)。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 1; | 另见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》第18条第1款； |
| United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 1; | 《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第1款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 12, para. 1. | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第12条第1款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 46, para. 2 (“Mutual legal assistance shall be afforded to the fullest extent possible under relevant laws, treaties, agreements and arrangements of the requested State Party with respect to investigations, prosecutions and judicial proceedings in relation to the offences for which a legal person may be held liable in accordance with article 26 of this Convention in the requesting State Party”). | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十六条第二款(“对于请求缔约国中依照本公约第二十六条可能追究法人责任的犯罪所进行的侦查、起诉和审判程序，应当根据被请求缔约国有关的法律、条约、协定和安排，尽可能充分地提供司法协助”)。 |
| During the negotiations for the 2000 United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, the issue of the variety of national practice on the question of liability of legal persons, particularly in criminal cases, led several delegations to propose a specific mutual legal assistance provision on legal persons, which was ultimately adopted as paragraph 2 of article 18. | 在2000年《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》的谈判过程中，由于各国在法人责任问题上(特别是刑事案件中法人责任问题上)的做法差异较大，若干代表团提议拟订一项专门关于法人的司法协助规定，这项规定最终得到通过，成为第18条第2款。 |
| During the later negotiation of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption, three proposals were put forward for the provision on mutual legal assistance, one of which failed to include an express provision on mutual legal assistance regarding legal persons. | 后来在2003年《联合国反腐败公约》的谈判过程中，就司法协助规定提出了三项提案，其中一项没有明文对关于法人的司法协助作出规定。 |
| See United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Travaux Préparatoires of the Negotiation for the Elaboration of the United Nations Convention against Corruption (New York, United Nations, 2010), pp. 374–377, footnote 5. | 见联合国毒品和犯罪问题办公室，《关于拟订联合国反腐败公约的谈判准备工作文件》(联合国，2010年，纽约)，第374-377页，脚注5。 |
| By the second negotiating meeting, that proposal was dropped from consideration (ibid., p. 378, footnote 7), leading ultimately to the adoption of paragraph 2 of article 46. | 到第二次谈判会议时，这项提案已被撤下，不在考虑之列(同上，第378页，脚注7)，最终促成通过了第四十六条第二款。 |
| See, for example, Inter-American Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Nassau, 23 May 1992), Organization of American States, Treaty Series, No. 75, art. 7; | 例如见《美洲刑事事项互助公约》(1992年5月23日，拿骚)，美洲国家组织，《条约汇编》，第75号，第7条； |
| Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Treaty on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters (Kuala Lumpur, 29 November 2004), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2336, No. 41878, p. 271, art. 1, para. 2; | 《东南亚国家联盟(东盟)刑事事项司法协助条约》(2004年11月29日，吉隆坡)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2336卷，第41878号，第271页，第1条第2款； |
| United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 2; | 《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第2款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 3. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第3款。 |
| See, for example, United Nations Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, General Assembly resolution 45/117 of 14 December 1990 (as subsequently amended by General Assembly resolution 53/112 of 9 December 1998), annex, art. 1, para. 2; | 例如见《联合国刑事事项互助示范条约》，联大1990年12月14日第45/117号决议(后经联大1998年12月9日第53/112号决议修订)，附件，第1条第2款； |
| Treaty between the United States of America and the Russian Federation on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters (Moscow, 17 June 1999), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2916, No. 50780, art. 2. | 《美利坚合众国与俄罗斯联邦刑事事项司法协助条约》(1999年6月17日，莫斯科)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2916卷，第50780号，第2条。 |
| Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, p. 170, para. 605 (advising also that under some national legal systems, amending legislation may be required to incorporate additional bases of cooperation). | 《联合国反腐败公约实施立法指南》，第170页，第605段(该段还指出，在有些国家法律制度中，可能需要修订法律才能增加额外的合作依据)。 |
| Paragraph 16 permits a State to allow a “hearing to take place by video conference if it is not possible or desirable for the individual in question to appear in person in territory under the jurisdiction of the requesting State”. | 第16款允许一国在“该人不可能或不宜到请求国领土出庭时”，“允许以视频会议方式进行询问”。 |
| This paragraph is based on paragraph 18 of article 46 of the 2003 United Nations Convention against Corruption. | 该款基于2003年《联合国反腐败公约》第四十六条第十八款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 46, para. 3 (“(f) Providing originals or certified copies of relevant documents and records, including government, bank, financial, corporate or business records”). | 同上，第四十六条第三款(“(六) 提供有关文件和记录的原件或者经核证的副本，其中包括政府、银行、财务、公司或者商业记录”)。 |
| Ibid., art. 46, para. 3 (“(j) Identifying, freezing and tracing proceeds of crime in accordance with the provisions of chapter V of this Convention; | 同上，第四十六条第三款(“(十) 根据本公约第五章的规定辨认、冻结和追查犯罪所得； |
| (k) The recovery of assets, in accordance with the provisions of chapter V of this Convention”). | (十一) 根据本公约第五章的规定追回资产”)。 |
| Ibid., art. 46, para. 3 (c). | 同上，第四十六条第三款第(三)项。 |
| See Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, pp. 171, paras. 611–12; | 见《联合国反腐败公约实施立法指南》，第171页，第611-12段； |
| State of Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, pp. 228–229. | 《〈联合国反腐败公约〉的执行情况》，第228-229页。 |
| See, for example, United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 5; | 例如见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第5款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 8; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第8款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 12, para. 2; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第12条第2款； |
| Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, art. 4, para. 2; | 《刑事事项互助示范条约》，第4条第2款； |
| ASEAN Treaty on Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters, art. 3, para. 5. | 《东盟刑事事项司法协助条约》，第3条第5款。 |
| The Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters refers to not refusing assistance on the ground of secrecy of “banks and similar financial institutions”. | 《刑事事项互助示范条约》提到不得以“银行和类似金融机构”的保密为由拒绝提供协助。 |
| Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, art. 4, para. 2. | 《刑事事项互助示范条约》，第4条第2款。 |
| Most treaties, however, refer solely to “bank secrecy”, which is interpreted as covering other financial institutions as well. | 但大部分条约只提到“银行保密”，将这一表述解释为也包括其他金融机构。 |
| See, for example, State of Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, pp. 183–184. | 例如见《〈联合国反腐败公约〉的执行情况》，第183-184页。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 46, para. 30. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十六条第三十款。 |
| See United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 30; | 见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第30款； |
| United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 20. | 《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第20款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 4. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第4款。 |
| State of Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, p. 227–228. | 《〈联合国反腐败公约〉的执行情况》，第227-228页。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 5; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第5款； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 46, para. 5. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十六条第五款。 |
| During the adoption of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, an official interpretative note indicated that: “(a) when a State Party is considering whether to spontaneously provide information of a particularly sensitive nature or is considering placing strict restrictions on the use of information thus provided, it is considered advisable for the State Party concerned to consult with the potential receiving State beforehand; | 在《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》的通过过程中，一份正式解释性说明写道：“(a) 当缔约国考虑是否自发提供特别敏感性资料或考虑对所提供的资料使用实行严格限制时，该缔约国似宜事先与潜在的接收国协商； |
| (b) when a State Party that receives information under this provision already has similar information in its possession, it is not obliged to comply with any restrictions imposed by the transmitting State”. | (b) 根据本款规定接收资料的缔约国如果已经掌握了类似的资料，即无义务遵守提供资料国所规定的任何限制”。 |
| See Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto (A/55/383/Add.1), para. 37. | 见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约及其议定书谈判正式记录(准备工作文件)的解释性说明》(A/55/383/Add.1), 第37段。 |
| Para. (1) of the commentary to art. 10, Yearbook… 1972, vol. II, p. 321 (asserting that, with respect to a similar provision in the draft articles on the prevention and punishment of crimes against diplomatic agents and other internationally protected persons: “Mutual assistance in judicial matters has been a question of constant concern to States and is the subject of numerous bilateral and multilateral treaties. | 第10条评注第(1)段，《1972年…年鉴》，第二卷，第321页 (在提到《关于防止和惩治对外交代表和其他应受国际保护人员犯罪的条款草案》中一项类似规定时指出：“司法事项上的协助始终是各国关切的一个问题，并且是大量双边和多边条约的主题。 |
| The obligations arising out of any such treaties existing between States party to the present draft are fully preserved under this article”). | 本草案缔约国之间现有的任何此种条约所产生的义务在本条中完全得到了保留”)。 |
| See, for example, Commentary on the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, p. 184, para. 7.20 (regarding article 7, paragraph 6: “[W]here the Convention requires the provision of a higher level of assistance in the context of illicit trafficking than is provided for under the terms of an applicable bilateral or multilateral mutual legal assistance treaty, the provisions of the Convention will prevail.”). | 例如见《〈联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约〉评注》，第184页，第7.20段(关于第7条第6款：“凡是对非法贩运案件该公约规定提供的协助水平高于适用的双边或多边相互法律协助条约条款规定的水平，就执行该公约的规定”)。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 46, para. 6. (“The provisions of this article shall not affect the obligations under any other treaty, bilateral or multilateral, that governs or will govern, in whole or in part, mutual legal assistance”). | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十六条第六款(“本条各项规定概不影响任何其他规范或者将要规范整个或部分司法协助问题的双边或多边条约所规定的义务”)。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 6; | 另见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第6款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 6. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第6款。 |
| See United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 7; | 见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第7款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art.18, para. 7. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第7款。 |
| See also Commentary on the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, p. 185, para. 7.23; | 另见《〈联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约〉评注》，第185页，第7.23段； |
| Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, p. 171, para. 608. | 《联合国反腐败公约实施立法指南》，第171页，第608段。 |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 89 (“In situations of serious violations of the Conventions or of this Protocol, the High Contracting Parties undertake to act, jointly or individually, in co-operation with the United Nations and in conformity with the United Nations Charter”). | 《第一附加议定书》，第八十九条( “在严重违反本公约或本议定书的情形下，缔约各方承诺在与联合国合作下按照联合国宪章采取共同或单方行动”)。 |
| See Report of the International, Impartial and Independent Mechanism to Assist in the Investigation and Prosecution of Persons Responsible for the Most Serious Crimes under International Law Committed in the Syrian Arab Republic since March 2011 (A/73/295), para. 39. | 见《协助调查和起诉自2011年3月以来在阿拉伯叙利亚共和国境内犯下国际法所规定最严重罪行者的国际公正独立机制的报告》(A/73/295)，第39段。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 46, para. 9. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十六条第九款。 |
| See Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, p. 172, para. 616 (“States parties still have the option to refuse such requests on the basis of lack of dual criminality. | 见《联合国反腐败公约实施立法指南》，第172页，第616段(“各缔约国仍然可以以并非双重犯罪为由拒绝此类请求。 |
| At the same time, to the extent this is consistent with the basic concepts of their legal system, States parties are required to render assistance involving non-coercive action”). | 同时，缔约国应在符合其法律制度基本概念的情况下提供不涉及强制行动的协助”)。 |
| For example, crimes against humanity arose before the International Court of Justice in the context of counter-claims filed by Italy in the case brought by Germany under the 1957 European Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes. | 例如，国际法院曾审理过涉及危害人类罪的案件，当时德国根据1957年《关于和平解决争端的欧洲公约》提出了诉讼，而意大利提出了反诉。 |
| Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy), Counter-Claim, Order of 6 July 2010, I.C.J. Reports 2010, p. 310, at pp. 311–312, para. 3. | 国家的管辖豁免(德国诉意大利)，反诉，2010年7月6日的命令，《2010年国际法院案例汇编》，第310页起，见第311-312页，第3段。 |
| In that instance, however, the Court found that, since the counterclaim by Italy related to facts and situations existing prior to the entry into force of the European Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes of 29 April 1957, they fell outside the scope of the Court’s jurisdiction. | 但国际法院在该案中认定，意大利的反诉涉及1957年4月29日《关于和平解决争端的欧洲公约》生效之前就存在的事实和情形，因此不在该法院的管辖范围内(同上，见第320-321页，第30段)。 |
| Ibid., pp. 320–321, para. 30. Streletz, Kessler and Krenz v. Germany, Application Nos. 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98, Judgment of 22 March 2001, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2001-II (concurring opinion of Judge Loucaides); | Streletz、Kessler和Krenz诉德国，第34044/96、第35532/97和第44801/98号申诉，欧洲人权法院大审判庭2001年3月22日的判决，《2001年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》，第二卷(Loucaides法官的赞同意见)； |
| and K.-H. W. v. Germany, Application No. 37201/97, Judgment of 22 March 2001, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2001-II (extracts) (concurring opinion of Judge Loucaides). | 以及K.-H. W.诉德国，第37201/97号申诉，欧洲人权法院大审判庭2001年3月22日的判决，《2001年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》，第二卷(节选)(Loucaides法官的赞同意见)。 |
| Almonacid-Arellano, Judgment, 26 September 2006 (see footnote 24 above), para. 154. | Almonacid-Arellano案, 2006年9月26日的判决(见上文脚注24)，第154段。 |
| Kolk and Kislyiy v. Estonia, Application Nos. 23052/04 and 24018/04, Decision on admissibility of 17 January 2006, Fourth Section, European Court of Human Rights, ECHR 2006-1. | Kolk和Kislyiy诉爱沙尼亚，第23052/04和第24018/04号申诉，欧洲人权法院第四庭2006年1月17日关于可否受理的决定，《2006年欧洲人权法院案例汇编》，第一卷。 |
| Barrios Altos v. Peru, Judgment of 14 March 2001 (see footnote 479 above) (concurring opinion of Judge Sergio García-Ramírez), para. 13; | Barrios Altos诉秘鲁，2001年3月14日的判决(见上文脚注479)(Sergio García-Ramírez法官的赞同意见)，第13段； |
| Gelman v. Uruguay, Judgment of 24 February 2011 (Merits and Reparations), Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 221, paras. 198 and 210; | Gelman诉乌拉圭，美洲人权法院2011年2月24日的判决(实质问题和赔偿)，C辑，第221号，第198和第210段； |
| and Marguš v. Croatia (see footnote 479 above), paras. 130–136. | 以及Marguš诉克罗地亚 (见上文脚注479)，第130-136段。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 35, para. 1; | 另见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第35条第1款； |
| Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 15, para. 1. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于预防、禁止和惩治贩运人口特别是妇女和儿童行为的补充议定书》，第15条第1款。 |
| Ad hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Official Records (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Tenth session, Vienna, 17–28 July 2000 (A/AC.254/33), para. 34. | 拟订一项打击跨国有组织犯罪公约特设委员会，《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约谈判正式记录(准备工作文件)，第十届会议，2000年7月17日至28日，维也纳》(A/AC.254/33)，第34段。 |
| For analysis of similar provisions, see Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011, p. 70, at p. 132, para. 157 (finding that there must be, “at the very least[,] a genuine attempt by one of the disputing parties to engage in discussions with the other disputing party, with a view to resolving the dispute”); | 对类似规定的分析，见《消除一切形式种族歧视国际公约》的适用问题案(格鲁吉亚诉俄罗斯联邦)，初步反对意见，判决，《2011年国际法院案例汇编》，第70页起，见第132页，第157段(认定，“至少[，]争议方中的一方应真正试图以解决争议为目的与另一争议方进行讨论”)； |
| ibid., p. 133, para. 159 (“the precondition of negotiation is met only when there has been a failure of negotiations, or when negotiations have become futile or deadlocked”); | 同上，第133页，第159段(“只有在谈判失败时或者在谈判不起作用或陷入僵局时才能满足谈判的前提条件”)； |
| Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (footnote 23 above), at pp. 445–446, para. 57 (“The requirement … could not be understood as referring to a theoretical impossibility of reaching a settlement”.); | 与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(比利时诉塞内加尔) (上文脚注23)，见第445-446页，第57段(“…的要求不能被理解为理论上无法达成协议”)； |
| South West Africa Cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa; | 西南非洲案(埃塞俄比亚诉南非； |
| Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 319, at p. 345 (the requirement implies that “no reasonable probability exists that further negotiations would lead to a settlement”). | 利比里亚诉南非)，初步反对意见，判决，《1962年国际法院案例汇编》，第319页起，见第345页(该项要求意味着“进一步谈判已无任何实现解决的合理可能”)。 |
| See, for example, Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 6, at pp. 40–41, para. 91. | 例如见刚果领土上的武装活动案(新申诉：2002年)(刚果民主共和国诉卢旺达)，管辖权和可否受理，判决，《2006年国际法院案例汇编》，第6页起，见第40-41页，第91段。 |
| See, for example, Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, art. 12, para. 1; | 例如见《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》，第十二条第一款； |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, art. 13, para. 1; | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》，第十三条第1款； |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 16, para. 1; | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第十六条第1款； |
| Convention against Torture, art. 30, para. 1; | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第30条第1款； |
| Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, art. 22, para. 1; | 《联合国人员和有关人员安全公约》，第22条第1款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 20, para. 1; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第20条第1款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 24, para. 1; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第24条第1款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 35, para. 2; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第35条第2款； |
| Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 15, para. 2; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于预防、禁止和惩治贩运人口特别是妇女和儿童行为的补充议定书》，第15条第2款； |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 66, para. 2. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第六十六条第二款。 |
| Article 22 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination requires the dispute to be submitted first to the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, which in turn may place the matter before an ad hoc conciliation commission. | 《消除一切形式种族歧视国际公约》第二十二条要求将争端首先提交消除种族歧视委员会，该委员会随后可指派一个专设和解委员会处理有关事项。 |
| International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, arts. 11–13 and 22. | 《消除一切形式种族歧视国际公约》，第十一至第十三条和第二十二条。 |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. IX. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》，第九条。 |
| See also OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism, art. 22, para. 2. | 另见《非洲统一组织防止和打击恐怖主义公约》，第22条第2款。 |
| See, for example, Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, art. 12, para. 2; | 例如见《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》，第十二条第二款； |
| Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, art. 13, para. 2; | 《关于防止和惩处侵害应受国际保护人员包括外交代表的罪行的公约》，第十三条第2款； |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, art. 16, para. 2; | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》，第十六条第2款； |
| Convention against Torture, art. 30, para. 2; | 《禁止酷刑公约》，第30条第2款； |
| Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel, art. 22, para. 2; | 《联合国人员和有关人员安全公约》，第22条第2款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, art. 20, para. 2; | 《制止恐怖主义爆炸事件的国际公约》，第20条第2款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 24, para. 2; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第24条第2款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 35, para. 3; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第35条第3款； |
| Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 15, para. 3; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于预防、禁止和惩治贩运人口特别是妇女和儿童行为的补充议定书》，第15条第3款； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 42, para. 2. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第四十二条第二款。 |
| The European Union also filed a declaration to article 66, paragraph 2, stating: “With respect to Article 66, paragraph 2, the Community points out that, according to Article 34, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, only States may be parties before that Court. | 欧洲联盟也对第六十六条第二款提出了一项声明，表示：“关于第六十六条第二款，本共同体指出，按照《国际法院规约》第三十四条第一款，在法院得为诉讼当事国者限于国家。 |
| Therefore, under Article 66, paragraph 2, of the Convention, in disputes involving the Community, only dispute settlement by way of arbitration will be available”. | 因此，根据《公约》第六十六条第二款，在涉及本共同体的争端中，仅可通过仲裁进行争端解决”。 |
| See, for example, United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 35, para. 4; | 例如见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第35条第4款； |
| Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 15, para. 4; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约关于预防、禁止和惩治贩运人口特别是妇女和儿童行为的补充议定书》，第15条第4款； |
| International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, art. 42, para. 3. | 《保护所有人免遭强迫失踪国际公约》，第四十二条第三款。 |
| See Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto (A/55/383/Add.1), para. 40. | 见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约及其议定书谈判正式记录(准备工作文件)的解释性说明》(A/55/383/Add.1), 第40段。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 8; | 另见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第8款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 13. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第13款。 |
| State of Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, p. 231. | 《〈联合国反腐败公约〉的执行情况》，第231页。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 9; | 另见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第9款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 14. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第14款。 |
| See also State of Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, p. 234–235. | 另见《〈联合国反腐败公约〉的执行情况》，第第234-235页。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 10; | 另见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第10款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 15; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第15款； |
| Commentary on the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, pp. 189–190, para. 7.30–7.33. | 《〈联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约〉评注》，第189-190页，第7.30-7.33段。 |
| See Commentary on the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, pp. 189–190, para. 7.34. | 《〈联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约〉评注》，第189-190页，第7.34段。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 11; | 另见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第11款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 16. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第16款。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 12; | 另见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第12款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 17. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第17款。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 24. | 另见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第24款。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 15; | 另见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第15款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 21; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第21款； |
| European Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Strasbourg, 20 April 1959), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 472, No. 6841, p. 185, art. 2; | 《欧洲刑事事项互助公约》(1959年4月20日，斯特拉斯堡)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第472卷，第6841号，第185页，第2条； |
| Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, art. 4, para. 1. | 《刑事事项互助示范条约》，第4条第1款。 |
| For commentary, see Council of Europe, Explanatory report to the European Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, document 20.IV.1959, pp. 4–5; | 评注见欧洲委员会，《欧洲刑事事项互助公约》解释性报告，20.IV.1959号文件，第4-5页； |
| Commentary on the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, pp. 194–196, paras. 7.46–7.51. | 《〈联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约〉评注》，第194-196页，第7.46-7.51段。 |
| See also Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto (A/55/383/Add.1), para. 42. | 另见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约及其议定书谈判正式记录(准备工作文件)的解释性说明》(A/55/383/Add.1), 第42段。 |
| See Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto (A/55/383/Add.1), para. 42. | 见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约及其议定书谈判正式记录(准备工作文件)的解释性说明》(A/55/383/Add.1), 第42段。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 16; | 另见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第16款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 23; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第23款； |
| Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, art. 4, para. 5. | 《刑事事项互助示范条约》，第4条第5款。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 17; | 另见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第17款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 25; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第25款； |
| United Nations Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, art. 4, para. 3. | 《联合国刑事事项互助示范条约》，第4条第3款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 17. | 《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第17款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 26. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第26款。 |
| United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 46, para. 26 (“Before refusing a request pursuant to paragraph 21 of this article or postponing its execution pursuant to paragraph 25 of this article, the requested State Party shall consult with the requesting State Party to consider whether assistance may be granted subject to such terms and conditions as it deems necessary. | 《联合国反腐败公约》，第四十六条第二十六款(“被请求缔约国在根据本条第二十一款拒绝某项请求或者根据本条第二十五款暂缓执行请求事项之前，应当与请求缔约国协商，以考虑是否可以在其认为必要的条件下给予协助。 |
| If the requesting State Party accepts assistance subject to those conditions, it shall comply with the conditions”). | 请求缔约国如果接受附有条件限制的协助，则应当遵守有关的条件”)。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 29. | 另见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第29款。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 13; | 另见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第13款； |
| International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 12, para. 3; | 《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第12条第3款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 19. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第19款。 |
| For commentary, see Commentary on the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, p. 193, para. 7.43. | 评注见《〈联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约〉评注》，第193页，第7.43段。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 20; | 另见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第20款； |
| Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, art. 9. | 《刑事事项互助示范条约》，第9条。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 27; | 另见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第27款； |
| United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 18; | 《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第18款； |
| United Nations Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, art. 15; | 《联合国刑事事项互助示范条约》，第15条； |
| European Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, art. 12; | 《欧洲刑事事项互助公约》，第12条； |
| Commentary on the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, pp. 197–198, para. 7.55. | 《〈联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约〉评注》，第197-198页，第7.55段。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 18; | 另见《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第18款； |
| Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto (A/55/383/Add.1), para. 41; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约及其议定书谈判正式记录(准备工作文件)的解释性说明》(A/55/383/Add.1), 第41段； |
| Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, pp. 174–175, para. 629. | 《联合国反腐败公约实施立法指南》，第174-175页，第629段。 |
| State of Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, p. 236. | 《〈联合国反腐败公约〉的执行情况》，第236页。 |
| See also International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 16, para. 1; | 另见《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第16条第1款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 10; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第10款； |
| Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto (A/55/383/Add.1), para. 39. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约及其议定书谈判正式记录(准备工作文件)的解释性说明》(A/55/383/Add.1), 第39段。 |
| See also International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 16, para. 2; | 另见《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第16条第2款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 11. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第11款。 |
| See also International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, art. 16, para. 3; | 另见《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》，第16条第3款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 12. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第12款。 |
| See also United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, art. 7, para. 19; | 另见《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约》，第7条第19款； |
| United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, art. 18, para. 28; | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》，第18条第28款； |
| United Nations Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, art. 20. | 《联合国刑事事项互助示范条约》，第20条。 |
| Commentary on the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, p. 198, para. 7.57. | 《〈联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约〉评注》，第198页，第7.57段。 |
| United Nations Model Treaty on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, art. 20, footnote 27. | 《联合国刑事事项互助示范条约》，第20条，脚注27。 |
| Interpretative notes for the Official Records (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto (A/55/383/Add.1), para. 43. | 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约及其议定书谈判正式记录(准备工作文件)的解释性说明》(A/55/383/Add.1)，第43段。 |
| Interpretative notes for the Official Records (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Corruption (A/58/422/Add.1), para. 44. | 《联合国反腐败公约谈判工作的正式记录(准备工作文件)注释》(A/58/422/Add.1)，第44段。 |
| At its 3257th meeting, on 27 May 2015 (Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventieth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/70/10), para. 286). | 在2015年5月27日举行的第3257次会议上(《大会正式记录，第七十届会议，补编第10号》(A/70/10)，第286段)。 |
| The topic had been included in the long-term programme of work of the Commission during its sixty-sixth session (2014), on the basis of the proposal contained in the annex to the report of the Commission (ibid., Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/69/10), para. 23). | 委员会第六十六届会议(2014年)按照委员会报告附件所载的建议(同上，《第六十九届会议，补编第10号》(A/69/10), 第23段)将此专题列入长期工作方案。 |
| A/CN.4/693 (first report), A/CN.4/706 (second report) and A/CN.4/714 and Corr.1 (third report). | A/CN.4/693(第一次报告)、A/CN.4/706(第二次报告)及A/CN.4/714和Corr.1(第三次报告)。 |
| A/CN.4/706, para. 90. | A/CN.4/706, 第90段。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-second Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/72/10), para. 146). | 《大会正式记录，第七十二届会议，补编第10号》(A/72/10), 第146段。 |
| For a discussion on nomenclature, see D. Costelloe, Legal Consequences of Peremptory Norms in International Law, Cambridge University Press, 2017, at pp. 11 et seq. | 关于术语的讨论，见D. Costelloe, Legal Consequences of Peremptory Norms in International Law, Cambridge University Press, 2017, at pp. 11 et seq。 |
| See, for example, article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention. | 例如，见1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条。 |
| See draft article 50 of the draft articles on the law of treaties, Yearbook … 1966, vol. II, p. 183, where the word “norm” is used. | 见《条约法条款草案》第50条草案，《1966年…年鉴》，第二卷，第183页，其中使用了“规范”一词。 |
| The commentaries, however, refer to “general rule[s] of international law … having the character of jus cogens” and “rules of jus cogens” (ibid., p. 248, paras. (2)–(3) of the commentary to draft article 50). | 但是，评注中则提到“具有强行法性质的国际法一般规则”和“强行法规则”(同上，第248页，第50条草案的评注第(2)-(3)段)。 |
| See, for example, the statement by the Czech Republic (A/C.6/71/SR.24, para. 72). | 例如，见捷克共和国的发言(A/C.6/71/SR.24, 第72段)。 |
| See also the statements by Canada (A/C.6/71/SR.27, para. 9), Chile (A/C.6/71/SR.25, para. 101), China (A/C.6/71/SR.24, para. 89), the Islamic Republic of Iran (A/C.6/71/SR.26, para. 118) (“The aim of the Commission’s work on the topic was not to contest the two criteria established under article 53 … . On the contrary, the goal was to elucidate the meaning and scope of the two criteria”), and Poland (ibid., para. 56). | 另见加拿大(A/C.6/71/SR.27, 第9段)､智利(A/C.6/71/SR.25, 第101段)､中国(A/C.6/71/SR.24, 第89段)、伊朗伊斯兰共和国(A/C.6/71/SR.26, 第118段)(“委员会关于这个专题的工作的目的并不是要质疑…第五十三条确立的两个标准…相反，其目的是要清楚说明这两个标准的含义与范围”)和波兰(同上，第56段)的发言。 |
| See, further, the statement by Ireland (A/C.6/71/SR.27, para. 19) (“Her delegation agreed with the view that articles 53 and 64 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties should be central to work on the topic”). | 又见爱尔兰的发言(A/C.6/71/SR.27, 第19段)(“爱尔兰代表团同意这样的观点，即1969年《维也纳条约法公约》第五十三条和第六十四条应为就该专题开展工作的核心”)。 |
| See, for example, Al Shimari, et al. v. CACI Premier Technology, Inc., No. 1:08-cv-827 (LMB/JFA), Opinion of 22 March 2019, 2019 WL 1320052 (E.D. Va. 2019), at p. 26; | 例如，见Al Shimari等人诉CACI Premier Technology公司案，第1:08-cv-827 (LMB/JFA)号案件，2016年3月22日的意见，2019 WL 1320052 (E.D. Va. 2019)，第26页； |
| Committee of United States Citizens Living in Nicaragua v. Reagan, Case No. 87-5053, Opinion of 14 October 1988, 859 F.2d 929 (D.C. Cir. 1988), at p. 940; | 在尼加拉瓜居住的美国公民委员会诉里根案，第87-5053号案件，1988年10月14日的意见，859 F.2d 929(D.C. Cir.1988)，第940页； |
| Youssef Nada v. State Secretariat for Economic Affairs and Federal Department of Economic Affairs, Case No. 1A 45/2007, Administrative appeal judgment of 14 November 2007, Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland, BGE 133 II 450, para. 7.1; | Youssef Nada诉国家经济事务秘书处和联邦经济事务部案，第1A 45/2007号案件，瑞士联邦最高法院2007年11月14日的行政上诉判决，BGE 133 II 450, 第7.1段； |
| National Commissioner of The South African Police Service v. Southern African Human Rights Litigation Centre and Another, Case No. CC 02/14, Judgment of 30 October 2014, Constitutional Court of South Africa, [2014] ZACC 30, para. 35; | 南非警察总署国家专员诉南部非洲人权诉讼中心和另一被告案，案件号CC 02/14, 南非宪法法院2014年10月30日的判决，[2014] ZACC 30, 第35段； |
| Priebke, Erich s/ solicitud de extradición, Case No. 16.063/94, Judgment of 2 November 1995, Supreme Court of Argentina, para. 70; | Priebke, Erich s/ solicitud de extradición案，第16.063/94号案件，阿根廷最高法院1995年11月2日的判决，第70段； |
| Bouzari v. Islamic Republic of Iran, Docket C38295, Decision of 30 June 2004, Court of Appeal for Ontario, 71 OR (3d) 675 (Ont CA), ILDC [International Law in Domestic Courts] 175 (CA 2004), para. 86; | Bouzari诉伊朗伊斯兰共和国案，备审案件号C38295, 安大略省上诉法院2004年6月30日的决定，71 OR (3d) 675 (Ont CA), ILDC [International Law in Domestic Courts] 175 (CA 2004)，第86段； |
| and Gabriel Orlando Vera Navarrete, EXP. No. 2798-04-HC/TC, Decision of 9 December 2004, Constitutional Tribunal of Peru, para. 8. | 以及Gabriel Orlando Vera Navarrete案，备审案件号2798-04-H/TC, 秘鲁宪法法庭2004年12月9日的裁决，第8段。 |
| See, for example, Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 226, at p. 258, para. 83; | 例如，见以核武器相威胁或使用核武器的合法性，咨询意见，《1996年国际法院案例汇编》，第226页起，见第258页，第83段； |
| Prosecutor v. Furundžija, Case No. IT-95-17/1-T, Judgment of 10 December 1998, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Judicial Reports 1998, at p. 571, para. 155; | 检察官诉Furundžija案，案件号IT-95-17/1-T, 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭1998年12月10日的判决，《1998年司法案例汇编》，第571页，第155段； |
| and Prosecutor v. Jelisić, Case No. IT-95-10-T, Judgment of 14 December 1999, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Judicial Reports 1999, pp. 431–433, para. 60. | 以及检察官诉Jelisić案，案件号IT-95-10-T, 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭1999年12月14日的判决，《1999年司法案例汇编》，第431-433页，第60段。 |
| See also Jaime Córdoba Triviño, Case No. C-578/95, Sentence of 4 December 1995, Constitutional Tribunal of Colombia. | 另见Jaime Córdoba Triviño案，案件号C-578/95, 哥伦比亚宪法法庭1995年12月4日的判决。 |
| See, especially, the separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Dugard in Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 6, at p. 88, para. 8. | 特别见杜加尔德专案法官在刚果境内武装活动案(新申诉：2002年)(刚果民主共和国诉卢旺达)中的个别意见，管辖权和可否受理，判决，《2006年国际法院案例汇编》，第6页起，见第88页，第8段。 |
| See, for example, S. Knuchel, Jus Cogens: Identification and Enforcement of Peremptory Norms, Zurich, Schulthess, 2015, at p. 19 (“Given that Article 53 provides the only written legal definition of the effects of jus cogens … as well as of the process by which such norms come into being … it is the necessary starting point for analyzing this concept”); | 例如，见S. Knuchel, Jus Cogens: Identification and Enforcement of Peremptory Norms, Zurich, Schulthess, 2015, 第19页(“鉴于第五十三条提供了关于强行法效力的唯一书面法律定义…以及这些规范形成的过程…第五十三条是分析这个概念的必要出发点”)； |
| S. Kadelbach, “Genesis, function and identification of jus cogens norms”, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 2015, vol. 46 (2016), pp. 147–172, at p. 166, noting that “treatises on jus cogens usually start” with article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention and, at p. 162, assessing enhanced responsibility and the erga omnes effects of jus cogens on the basis of article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention; | S. Kadelbach, “Genesis, function and identification of jus cogens norms”, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 2015, vol. 46 (2016)，第147-172页，见第166页，其中指出，“关于强行法的论文通常以”《维也纳公约》第五十三条为起点，和第162页，依据1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条评估强化的责任和强行法的普遍效力； |
| and U. Linderfalk, “Understanding the jus cogens debate: the pervasive influence of legal positivism and legal idealism”, ibid., pp. 51–84, at p. 52. | 以及U. Linderfalk, “Understanding the jus cogens debate: the pervasive influence of legal positivism and legal idealism”, 同上，第51-84页，见第52页。 |
| See also, generally, Costelloe (footnote 694 above), who, though never stating that article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention is the definition, certainly proceeds on that basis. | 一般而言，另见Costelloe(上文脚注694)，他虽然从未指出1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条是定义，但无疑是以此为基础的。 |
| Similarly, see L. Hannikainen, Peremptory Norms (Jus Cogens) in International Law: Historical Development, Criteria, Present Status, Helsinki, Finnish Lawyers’ Publishing Company, 1988, especially at pp. 5–12; | 同样，见L. Hannikainen, Peremptory Norms (Jus Cogens) in International Law: Historical Development, Criteria, Present Status, Helsinki, Finnish Lawyers’ Publishing Company, 1988, 特别是第5-12页； |
| and L. A. Alexidze, “Legal nature of jus cogens in contemporary international law”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, vol. 172 (1981), pp. 219–263, at p. 246. | 以及L. A. Alexidze, “Legal nature of jus cogens in contemporary international law”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, vol. 172 (1981), 第219-263页，见第246页。 |
| See T. Weatherall, Jus Cogens: International Law and Social Contract, Cambridge University Press, 2015, at pp. 6–7 (“Although the Vienna Convention concerns the law of treaties and binds only signatories … Article 53 reflected a concept with legal effect beyond the treaty context. … | 见T. Weatherall, Jus Cogens: International Law and Social Contract, CambridgeUniversity Press, 2015, 第6-7页(“虽然《维也纳公约》涉及条约法，并且仅对签署国有约束力…但第五十三条反映的概念具有超越条约范围的法律效力…国际和国内司法机关的当代实践，即在有关强行法的任何考虑中提及第五十三条，与上述概念超出条约范围的观点相一致”)； |
| The contemporary practice of international and domestic judicial organs, to refer to Article 53 for any consideration of jus cogens, is consistent with this view of a concept existing outside the treaty context”); E. Santalla Vargas, “In quest of the practical value of jus cogens norms”, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 2015, vol. 46 (2016), pp. 211–240, at pp. 223–224 (“However, the potential effects of jus cogens not only expand beyond treaty law but they even appear more significant in situations that are not concerned with treaty law”); | E. Santalla Vargas, “In quest of the practical value of jus cogens norms”, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 2015, vol. 46 (2016), 第211-240页，见第223-224页(“不过，强行法的潜在效力不仅超出了条约法，而且在与条约法无关的情况下甚至更为显著”)； |
| and A. Cassese, “For an enhanced role of jus cogens”, in A. Cassese (ed.), Realizing Utopia: the Future of International Law, Oxford University Press, 2012, pp. 158–171, at p. 160 (“Fortunately states, national courts, and international judicial bodies have invoked peremptory norms with regard to areas other than treaty-making. | 以及A. Cassese, “For an enhanced role of jus cogens”, in A. Cassese (ed.), Realizing Utopia: the Future of International Law, Oxford University Press, 2012, 第158-171页，见第160页(“幸运的是，国家、各国法院和国际司法机构在缔约以外的领域援引了强制性规范。 |
| By so doing, these entities have expanded the scope and normative impacts of peremptory norms” (emphasis in original)). | 通过这种做法，这些实体扩大了强制性规范的范围和规范性影响”(强调是原有的))。 |
| See also H. Charlesworth and C. Chinkin, “The gender of jus cogens”, Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 15 (1993), pp. 63–76, at p. 63 (“A formal, procedural definition of the international law concept of jus cogens is found in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties”). | 另见H. Charlesworth and C. Chinkin, “The gender of jus cogens”, Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 15 (1993), 第63-76页，见第63页 (“关于国际法的强行法概念的正式程序性定义见《维也纳条约法公约》”)。 |
| See paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 26 of the draft articles on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, p. 85 (“The criteria for identifying peremptory norms of general international law are stringent. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》第26条的评注第(5)段，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第85页(“识别一般国际法强制性规范的标准是严格的。 |
| Article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention requires not merely that the norm in question should meet all the criteria for recognition as a norm of general international law … but further that it should be recognized as having peremptory character by the international community of States as whole”). | 1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条不仅要求有关规范应符合被承认为一般国际法准则的所有标准…而且还应被国家之国际社会全体承认具有强制性质”)。 |
| See also the Conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law: difficulties arising from the diversification and expansion of international law (A/CN.4/L.702), conclusion (32) (“A rule of international law may be superior to other rules on account of the importance of its content as well as the universal acceptance of its superiority. | 另见“国际法不成体系问题：国际法多样化和扩展引起的困难”研究组的结论(A/CN.4/L.702), 结论(32)(“可依据其内容及其被普遍接受的优先等级来决定一个国际法规则优于其他规则。 |
| This is the case of peremptory norms of international law (jus cogens, [article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention]), that is, norms ‘accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole from which no derogation is permitted’”). | 这是国际法强制性规范(强行法，[1969年《维也纳公约》第五十三条])的情况。 也就是说，‘国际社会全体接受并公认为不许损抑’的规范”)。 |
| See, further, the Report of the Study Group on the fragmentation of international law: difficulties arising from the diversification and expansion of international law (finalized by Martti Koskenniemi) (A/CN.4/L.682 and Corr.1 and Add.1), para. 375 (“The starting-point [for establishing the criteria] must be the formulation of article 53 itself, identifying jus cogens by reference to what is ‘accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole’”). | 又见“国际法不成体系问题：国际法多样化和扩展引起的困难”研究组的报告(由马尔蒂·科斯肯涅米定稿)(A/CN.4/L.682及Corr.1和Add.1), 第375段(“[制定标准的]起点必须是第五十三条本身的措辞，参照‘国家之国际社会全体接受并公认’的规范来识别强行法”)。 |
| Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 15, at p. 23. | 对《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的保留，咨询意见，《1951年国际法院案例汇编》，第15页起，见第23页。 |
| See also P. Bisazza, “Les crimes à la frontière du jus cogens”, in L. Moreillon, et al. (eds.), Droit pénal humanitaire, Series II, vol. 4, Brussels, Bruylant, 2009, at p. 164, where she evokes, quoting Bassiouni, la conscience de l’humanité; | 另见P. Bisazza, “Les crimes à la frontière du jus cogens”, in L. Moreillon, et al., (eds.), Droit pénal humanitaire, Series II, vol. 4, Brussels, Bruylant, 2009, 第164页，她引用Bassiouni的论述，提到“人类的良知”； |
| and L. Boisson de Chazournes, “Commentaire”, in R. Huesa Vinaixa and K. Wellens (eds.), L’influence des sources sur l’unité et la fragmentation du droit international : travaux du séminaire tenu à Palma, les 20–21 Mai 2005, Brussels, Bruylant, 2006, at p. 76, referring to a conscience universelle. | 以及L. Boisson de Chazournes, “Commentaire”, in R. Huesa Vinaixa and K. Wellens (eds.), L’influence des sources sur l’unité et la fragmentation du droit international : travaux du séminaire tenu à Palma, les 20-21 Mai 2005, Brussels, Bruylant, 2006, 第76页，其中提到“普遍良知”。 |
| See, for example, Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007, p. 43, at pp. 110–111, para. 161; | 例如，见《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那诉塞尔维亚和黑山)，判决，《2007年国际法院案例汇编》，第43页起，见第110-111页，第161段； |
| and Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015, p. 3, at p. 46, para. 87. | 以及《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(克罗地亚诉塞尔维亚)，判决，《2015年国际法院案例汇编》，第3页起，见第46页，第87段。 |
| Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) (see footnote above), p. 104, para. 147. | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那诉塞尔维亚和黑山)(见上文脚注)，第104页，第147段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Furundžija (see footnote 699 above), p. 569, paras. 153–154, where the Tribunal expressly linked the status of the prohibition of torture as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) to the “importance of the values it protects”, noting that “[c]learly, the jus cogens nature of the prohibition against torture articulates the notion that the prohibition has now become one of the most fundamental standards of the international community”. | 检察官诉Furundžija案(见上文脚注699)，第569页，第153-154段，其中法庭明确将禁止酷刑作为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的地位与“它所保护的价值观的重要性”联系起来，指出“显然，禁止酷刑的强行法性质表明了如下概念，即禁止酷刑现已成为国际社会最基本的标准之一”。 |
| This holding was quoted with approval by the European Court of Human Rights in Al-Adsani v. the United Kingdom, Application no. 35763/97, Judgment of 21 November 2001, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 2001-XI, para. 30. | 欧洲人权法院在Al-Aldsani诉联合王国案中赞同地引用了这一裁决，申诉号：35763/97, 欧洲人权法院大审判庭2001年11月21日的判决，《判决和决定汇编》，2001年第十一辑，第30段。 |
| In the Case of Goiburú, et al. v. Paraguay (Judgment of 22 September 2006 on Merits, Reparations and Costs, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 153, para. 128), the Court described offences prohibited by jus cogens as those that “harm essential values and rights of the international community”. | 在Goiburú等人诉巴拉圭案(美洲人权法院2006年9月22日关于案情实质、赔偿和费用的判决，C辑，第153号，第128段)中，法院将强行法禁止的罪行描述为“损害国际社会基本价值观和权利”的罪行。 |
| See also Michael Domingues v. United States (Case 12.285, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report No. 62/02 of 22 October 2002, para. 49), where that Commission linked peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) to “public morality” and, more importantly, stated that they “derive their status from fundamental values held by the international community”, noting that violations of jus cogens “shock the conscience of humankind”. | 另见Michael Domingues诉美国案(第12.285号案件，美洲人权委员会2002年10月22日的判决，第62/02号报告，第49段)，在该案中，美洲人权委员会将一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)与“公共道德”联系起来，更重要的是，该委员会指出，“其地位源于国际社会持有的基本价值观”，并指出违反强制法的行为“使人类的良知受到震撼”。 |
| See, for example, Bayan Muna as represented by Representative Satur Ocampo et al. v. Alberto Romulo, in his capacity as Executive Secretary et al., Supreme Court of the Republic of the Philippines (2011), at p. 56 noting that jus cogens norms are “deemed … fundamental to the existence of a just international order”. | 例如，见由Satur Ocampo代表所代表的Bayan Muna等人诉作为执行秘书的Alberto Romulo等人案，菲律宾共和国最高法院(2011年)，第56页指出，强制法规范“被视为…一个公正的国际秩序存在的基础”。 |
| Kaunda and Others v. President of the Republic of South Africa & Others (Society for the Abolition of the Death Penalty in South Africa intervening as Amicus Curiae) 2005 (4) SA 235 (CC); | Kaunda等人诉南非共和国总统等人(南非废除死刑协会作为法庭之友介入)案，2005(4)SA235(CC)； |
| Minister of Justice and Others v Southern African Litigation Centre and Others, where the Court states that it agrees with the following sentiment: “As State sovereignty is increasingly viewed to be contingent upon respect for certain values common to the international community, it is perhaps unsurprising that bare sovereignty is no longer sufficient to absolutely shield High officials from prosecution for jus cogens violations”. | 司法部长和其他人诉南非诉讼中心和其他方面案，法院在该案中表示同意以下观点：“由于国家主权越来越被视为取决于对国际社会共同价值观的尊重，所以光有主权已不足以对高级官员提供绝对保护，使之免受违反强行法行为的起诉，这或许不足为奇”。 |
| Alessi and Others v Germany and Presidency of the Council of Ministers of the Italian Republic (intervening), Referral to the Constitutional Court, Order No 85/2014, ILDC 2725 (IT 2014), 21 January 2014, Italy; | Alessi等人诉德国和意大利共和国部长理事会主席(参与诉讼)案，转交宪法法院，第85/2014号命令，ILDC 2725(IT 2014)，2014年1月21日，意大利； |
| Tuscany; | 托斯卡纳； |
| Florence; | 佛罗伦萨； |
| Court of First Instance (Non è in contestazione la natura di crimine internazionale del fatto oggetto di causa e la sua potenzialità lesiva di diritti fondamentali della persona umana come consacrati nella Costituzione italiana e nella Carta dei diritti fondamentali dell’Unione Europea (2000/C 364/01). Anche considerato che nell’ordinamento interno, i diritti fondamentali della persona riconosciuti dalla Costituzione si saldano necessariamente con le norme di jus cogens poste a tutela dei diritti fondamentali della persona dal diritto internazionale venendo in rilievo i medesimi valori tendenzialmente universali di tutela della dignità della persona). | 一审法院(Non è in contestazione la natura di crimine internazionale del fatto oggetto di causa e la sua potenzialità lesiva di diritti fondamentali della persona umana come consacrati nella Costituzione italiana e nella Carta dei diritti fondamentali dell’Unione Europea (2000/C 364/01). Anche considerato che nell’ordinamento interno, i diritti fondamentali della persona riconosciuti dalla Costituzione si saldano necessariamente con le norme di jus cogens poste a tutela dei diritti fondamentali della persona dal diritto internazionale venendo in rilievo i medesimi valori tendenzialmente universali di tutela della dignità della persona)。 |
| Siderman de Blake v. Republic of Argentina, United States Court of Appeals, 965 F.2d 699 (9th Cir 1992), p. 715. | Siderman de Blake诉阿根廷共和国案，美国上诉法院，965 F.2d 699 (9th Cir 1992)，第715页。 |
| This decision was cited with approval by lower courts in the Ninth Circuit including: Estate of Hernandez-Rojas v. United States, 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS136922 (SD Cal. 2013), at p. 13; | 该裁决得到美国第九巡回上诉法院较低法院的赞同和引用，包括：Hernandez-Rojas财产托管方诉美国案，2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS136922 (SD Cal. 2013), 第13页； |
| Estate of Hernandez-Rojas v. United States, 2014 U.S. Dist. LEXIS101385 (SD Cal. 2014), at p. 9; | Hernandez-Rojas财产托管方诉美国案，2014 U.S. Dist. LEXIS101385 (SD Cal. 2014), 第9页； |
| and Doe I v. Reddy, 2003 U.S. Dist. LEXIS26120 (ND Cal 2003), at pp. 32 and 34. | 以及Doe I诉Reddy案，2003 U.S. Dist. LEXIS26120 (ND Cal 2003)，第32和34页。 |
| See also the Ninth Circuit’s opinion in Alvarez-Machain v. United States (331 F.3d 604 (9th Cir. 2003), p. 613. | 另见第九巡回上诉法院在Alvarez-Machain诉美国案(331 F.3d 604 (9th Cir. 2003)中发表的意见，第613页。 |
| Although that decision was eventually overturned by the Supreme Court in Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain, et al. (542 U.S. 692 (2004)), the idea of peremptory norms reflecting values of the international community was itself not addressed by the Supreme Court. | 尽管该裁决最终被最高法院在Sosa诉Alvarez-Machain等人案(542 U.S. 692 (2004))中推翻，但最高法院没有讨论强制性规范反映国际社会价值观这一观点本身。 |
| 25% del número legal de Congresistas contra el Decreto Legislativo N° 1097, EXP. No. 0024-2010-PI/TC, Judgment of the Jurisdictional Plenary of 21 March 2011, Constitutional Tribunal of Peru, para. 53 (de la extraordinaria importancia de los valores que subyacen a tal [jus cogens] obligación (“of the extraordinary importance of the values that underlie [the jus cogens] obligation”)). | 25% del número legal de Congresistas contra el Decreto Legislativo 第1097号案，备审案件号0024-2010-PI/TC, 秘鲁宪法法庭，司法全体会议2011年3月21日的判决，第53段(de la extraordinaria importancia de los valores que subyacen a tal [jus cogens] obligación (“[强行法]义务所体现的价值观非常重要”)。 |
| Arancibia Clavel, Enrique Lautaro s/ homicidio calificado y asociación ilícita y otros, Case No. 259, Judgment of 24 August 2004, Supreme Court of Argentina, para. 29 (es proteger a los Estados de acuerdos concluidos en contra de algunos valores e intereses generales de la comunidad internacional de Estados en su conjunto). | Arancibia Clavel, Enrique Lautaro s/ homicidio calificado y asociación ilícita y otros, 第259号案件，阿根廷最高法院2004年8月24日的判决，第29段(es proteger a los Estados de acuerdos concluidos en contra de algunos valores e intereses generales de la comunidad internacional de Estados en su conjunto)。 |
| R. Kolb, Peremptory International Law: Jus Cogens – a General Inventory, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2015, at p. 32. H. Olasolo Alonso, A. Mateus Rugeles and A. Contreras Fonseca, “La naturaleza imperativa del principio ‘no hay paz sin justicia’ respecto a los máximos responsables del fenómeno de la lesa humanidad y sus consecuencias para el ámbito de actuación de la llamada ‘justicia de transición’”, Boletín mexicano de derecho comparado, vol. 49 (2016), pp. 135–171; | R. Kolb, Peremptory International Law: Jus Cogens – a General Inventory, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2015, at p. 32. H. Olasolo Alonso, A. Mateus Rugeles and A. Contreras Fonseca, “La naturaleza imperativa del principio ‘no hay paz sin justicia’ respecto a los máximos responsables del fenómeno de la lesa humanidad y sus consecuencias para el ámbito de actuación de la llamada ‘justicia de transición’”, Boletín mexicano de derecho comparado, vol. 49 (2016), pp. 135–171; |
| C. Zelada, “Ius cogens y derechos humanos: luces y sombras para una adecuada delimitación de conceptos”, Agenda Internacional, vol. 8 (2002), pp. 129–156, at p. 139. A.A. Cançado Trindade, “Jus cogens: the determination and the gradual expansion of its material content in contemporary international case-law”, XXXV Course of International Law organized by the OAS Inter-American Juridical Committee in Rio de Janeiro (August 2008), at pp. 6 and 12; | C. Zelada, “Ius cogens y derechos humanos: luces y sombras para una adecuada delimitación de conceptos”, Agenda Internacional, vol. 8 (2002), pp. 129–156, at p. 139. A.A. Cançado Trindade, “Jus cogens: the determination and the gradual expansion of its material content in contemporary international case-law”, XXXV Course of International Law organized by the OAS Inter-American Juridical Committee in Rio de Janeiro (August 2008), at pp. 6 and 12; |
| K. Hossain, “The concept of jus cogens and the obligation under the U.N. Charter”. Santa Clara Journal of International Law, vol. 3 (2005), pp.72–98, at p. 73; | K. Hossain, “The concept of jus cogens and the obligation under the U.N. Charter”. Santa Clara Journal of International Law, vol. 3 (2005), pp.72–98, at p. 73; |
| L. Henkin, “International law and the inter-State sys”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, vol. 216 (1989), at p. 60; | L. Henkin, “International law and the inter-State sys”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, vol. 216 (1989), at p. 60; |
| J.R. Argés, “‘Ius cogens’: descripción, valoración y propuestas de aplicación actual de un tópico jurídico clásico”, doctoral dissertation, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 2017, at p. 273; | J.R. Argés, “‘Ius cogens’: descripción, valoración y propuestas de aplicación actual de un tópico jurídico clásico”, doctoral dissertation, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 2017, at p. 273; |
| A. de Beer, Peremptory Norms of General International Law (Jus Cogens) and the Prohibition of Terrorism (Leiden, Brill, 2019), pp. 79–83. E. Petrič, “Principles of the Charter of the United Nations: Jus cogens? ” Czech Yearbook of Public and Private International Law, vol. 17 (2016). | A. de Beer, Peremptory Norms of General International Law (Jus Cogens) and the Prohibition of Terrorism (Leiden, Brill, 2019), pp. 79-83. E. Petrič, “Principles of the Charter of the United Nations: Jus cogens?” Czech Yearbook of Public and Private International Law, vol. 17 (2016). |
| Hannikainen (see footnote 700 above), at p. 2. | Hannikainen (见上文脚注700)，第2页。 |
| A. Pellet, “Comments in response to Christine Chinkin and in defense of jus cogens as the best bastion against the excesses of fragmentation”, Finnish Yearbook of International Law, vol. 17 (2006), pp. 83–90, at p. 87. | A. Pellet, “Comments in response to Christine Chinkin and in defense of jus cogens as the best bastion against the excesses of fragmentation”, Finnish Yearbook of International Law, vol. 17 (2006), pp. 83-90, at p. 87. |
| C. Tomuschat, “The Security Council and jus cogens”, in E. Cannizzaro (ed.), The Present and Future of Jus Cogens, Sapienza Università Editrice, 2015, at p. 8, who describes jus cogens as “the class of norms that protect the fundamental values of the international community”. See also H. Ruiz Fabri, “Enhancing the rhetoric of jus cogens”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 23, No. 4 (2012), p. 1049, at p. 1050; | C. Tomuschat, “The Security Council and jus cogens”, in E. Cannizzaro (ed.), The Present and Future of Jus Cogens, Sapienza Università Editrice, 2015, at p. 8, 将强行法描述为“保护国际社会基本价值观的一类规范”，另见H. Ruiz Fabri, “Enhancing the rhetoric of jus cogens”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 23, No. 4 (2012), p. 1049, at p. 1050; |
| M. den Heijer and H. van der Wilt “Jus cogens and the humanization and fragmentation of international law”, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law, vol. 46 (2015), pp. 3–21, at p. 15; | M. den Heijer and H. van der Wilt “Jus cogens and the humanization and fragmentation of international law”, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law, vol. 46 (2015), pp. 3-21, at p. 15; |
| and D. Shelton, “Sherlock Holmes and the mystery of jus cogens”, ibid., pp. 23–50, especially from p. 42. | and D. Shelton, “Sherlock Holmes and the mystery of jus cogens”, 同上，第23-50页，特别是自第42页起。 |
| Tomuschat, “The Security Council and jus cogens” (see footnote 714 above), at p. 8. | Tomuschat, “The Security Council and jus cogens”(见上文脚注714)，第8页。 |
| See also Siderman de Blake v. Republic of Argentina (footnote 708 above), at p. 715, where the United States Court of Appeal referred to “values taken to be fundamental by the international community” and the Constitutional Tribunal of Peru in 25% del número legal de Congresistas, referring to “extraordinary importance of the values” (see footnote 709 above). | 另见Siderman de Blake诉阿根廷共和国案(上文脚注708)，第715页，其中美国上诉法院提到“国际社会认同的基本价值观”，秘鲁宪法法庭在25% del número legal de Congresistas案中提到“价值观非常重要”(见上文脚注709)。 |
| Hannikainen (see footnote 700 above), at p. 2, referring to “overriding interests”. | Hannikainen (见上文脚注700)，第2页，提到“最高利益”。 |
| See, also, Arancibia Clavel (footnote 710 above), where the Supreme Court of Argentina referred to “general interests of the international community” as the underlying source of peremptory norms. | 另见Arancibia Clavel (上文脚注710)，其中阿根廷最高法院提到“国际社会的普遍利益”是强制性规范的基本来源。 |
| Prosecutor v. Furundžija (see footnote 699 above), at p. 569, para. 153. | 检察官诉Furundžija案 (见上文脚注699)，第569页，第153段。 |
| García Lucero, et al. v. Chile, Judgment 28 August 2013, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 267, para. 123, note 139, quoting with approval Prosecutor v. Furundžija (see footnote 699 above). | García Lucero等人诉智利案，美洲人权法院2013年8月28日的判决，C辑，第267号，第123段，注139, 其中赞同地引述了检查官诉Furundžija案(见上文脚注699)。 |
| See also Michael Domingues v. United States (footnote 706 above), para. 49, describing jus cogens norms as being derived from a “superior order of legal norms”. | 另见Michael Domingues诉美国案(上文脚注706)，第49段，其中将强行法规范描述为源于“更高等级的法律规范”。 |
| Yassin Abdullah Kadi v. Council of the European Union and Commission of the European Communities, Case No. T-315-01, Judgment of 21 September 2005, Second Chamber, Court of First Instance of the European Communities, [2005] ECR II-3649, para. 226. | Yassin Abdullah Kadi诉欧洲联盟理事会和欧洲共同体委员会案，案件号T-315-01, 欧洲共同体初审法院第二分庭2005年9月21日的判决，[2005] ECR II-3649, 第226段。 |
| See also Hassan v. Council of the European Union and Commission of the European Communities, Case No. T-49/04, Judgment of 12 July 2006, Second Chamber, Court of First Instance of the European Communities, para. 92. | 另见Hassan诉欧洲联盟理事会和欧洲共同体委员会案，案件号T-49/04, 欧洲共同体初审法院第二分庭2006年7月12日的判决，第92段。 |
| Al-Adsani v. the United Kingdom (see footnote 706 above), para. 60. | Al-Adsani 诉联合王国案(见上文脚注706)，第60段。 |
| Mann v. Republic of Equatorial Guinea, Case No. 507/07, Judgment of 23 January 2008, High Court of Zimbabwe, [2008] ZWHHC 1. | Mann诉赤道几内亚共和国案，第507/07号案件，津巴布韦高等法院2008年1月23日的判决，[2008] ZWHHC 1。 |
| Siderman de Blake v. Republic of Argentina (see footnote 708 above), at p. 717. | Siderman de Blake诉阿根廷共和国案(见上文脚注708)，第717页。 |
| Bayan Muna as represented by Representative Satur Ocampo, et al. v. Alberto Romulo, in his capacity as Executive Secretary, et al., Case G.R. No. 159618, Judgment of 1 February 2011, Supreme Court of the Republic of the Philippines, ILDC 2059 (PH2011), at para. 92. | 由Satur Ocampo代表所代表的Bayan Muna等人诉作为执行秘书的Alberto Romulo等人案，G.R案件号159618, 菲律宾共和国最高法院2011年2月1日的判决，ILDC 2059 (PH2011)，第92段。 |
| See also Certain Employees of Sidhu & Sons Nursery Ltd., et al., Case Nos. 61942, 61973, 61966, 61995, Decision of 1 February 2012, BCLRB No. B28/2012, para. 44, where the British Columbia Labour Relations Board (Canada), identified peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) as enjoying a “higher rank in the international hierarchy than treaty law and even ‘ordinary’ customary rules”. | 另见Sidhu & Sons Nursery有限公司的某些员工等人案，第61942、61973、61966、61995号案件，2012年2月1日的裁决，BCLRB No. B28/2012, 第44段，其中不列颠哥伦比亚省劳工关系理事会(加拿大)指出一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)“在国际等级体系中享有比条约法甚至是‘普通’习惯规则更高的等级”。 |
| See also R (on the application of Al Rawi and Others) v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and Another, Case No. C1/2006/1064, Judgment of 12 October 2006, England and Wales Court of Appeal (Civil Division), [2006] EWCA Civ 1279; | 又见R(Al Rawi等人提出申诉)诉外交和联邦事务大臣及另一人案，案件号C1/2006/1064, 英格兰和威尔士上诉法院(民事分庭)2006年10月12日的判决，[2006] EWCA Civ 1279； |
| and Regina v. Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate and Others: Ex Parte Pinochet Ugarte (No. 3), Decision of 24 March 1999, England, House of Lords, [2000] 1 A.C. 147, p. 198. | 以及女王诉Bow Street都市领薪专职治安官等人：皮诺切特·乌加特缺席案(第3号)，英国上议院1999年3月24日的裁决，[2000] 1 A.C. 147, 第198页。 |
| Julio Héctor Simón y otros s/ privación ilegítima de la libertad, Case No. 17.768, Judgment of 14 June 2005, Supreme Court of Argentina, para. 48 (que se encuentra no sólo por encima de los tratados sino incluso por sobre todas las fuentes del derecho (“which is not only above treaties but even above all sources of law”)). | Julio Héctor Simón y otros s/ privación ilegítima de la libertad案，第17/768号案件，阿根廷最高法院2005年6月14日的判决，第48段(que se encuentra no sólo por encima de los tratados sino incluso por sobre todas las fuentes del derecho (“不仅高于条约，甚至高于一切法律渊源”))。 |
| See also Julio Lilo Mazzeo y otros s/rec. de casación e inconstitucionalidad, Judgment of 13 July 2007, Supreme Court of Argentina, para. 15 (jus cogens “is the highest source of international law” (se trata de la más alta fuente del derecho internacional)). | 另见Julio Lilo Mazzeo y otros s/rec. de casacíon e inconstitucionalidad案，阿根廷最高法院2007年7月13日的判决，第15段(强行法是“国际法的最高渊源”(se trata de la más alta fuente del derecho internacional))。 |
| Mani Kumari Sabbithi, et al. v. Major Waleed KH N.S. Al Saleh, et al., 605 F. Supp 2d 122 (United States District Court for the District of Columbia 2009), p. 129. | Mani Kumari Sabbithi等人诉Major Waleed KH N.S. Al Saleh等人案，605 F. Supp 2d 122 (美国哥伦比亚特区地区法院，2009年)，第129页。 |
| See also Mario Luiz Lozano v. the General Prosecutor for the Italian Republic, Case No. 31171/2008, Appeal Judgment of 24 July 2008, First Criminal Division, Supreme Court of Cassation, Italy, p. 6 (dandosi prevalenza al principio di rango più elevato e di jus cogens (“priority should be given to the principle of higher rank and of jus cogens”)). | 另见Mario Luiz Lozano 诉意大利共和国总检察官案，第31171/2008号案件，意大利最高上诉法院第一刑事分庭2008年7月24日的上诉判决，第6页 (dandosi prevalenza al principio di rango più elevato e di jus cogens (“应优先考虑强行法等级较高原则”))。 |
| See, for example, the statements by the Netherlands (A/C.6/68/SR.25, para. 101) (“Jus cogens was hierarchically superior within the international law system, irrespective of whether it took the form of written law or customary law”); | 例如，见荷兰的发言 (A/C.6/68/SR.25, 第101段) (“在国际法体系内，无论采取成文法或习惯法的形式，强行法的等级都较高”)； |
| and the United Kingdom (Official Records of the United Nations Conference on the Law Treaties, First Session, Vienna, 26 March–24 May 1968, Summary records of the plenary meetings and of the meetings of the Committee of the Whole (A/CONF.39/11), 53rd meeting, para. 53) (“in a properly organized international society there was a need for rules of international law that were of a higher order than the rules of a merely dispositive nature from which States could contract out”). | 以及联合王国的发言(《联合国条约法会议正式记录，第一届会议，1968年3月26日至5月24日，全体会议和全体委员会会议简要记录》(A/CONF.39/11), 第53次会议，第53段) (“在一个组织有序的国际社会，需要有等级更高的国际法规则，这些规则高于性质仅为酌处性、各国可以通过协约方式保证不受之约束的规则”)。 |
| Conclusion (32) of the Conclusions of the work of the Study Group on the fragmentation of international law (see footnote 702 above), at p. 182, para. 251 (“[a] rule of international law may be superior to other rules on account of the importance of its content as well as the universal acceptance of its superiority. | 见国际法不成体系问题研究组的工作结论之结论(32)(见上文脚注702), 第182页，第251段(“可依据其内容及其被普遍接受的优先等级来决定[一项]国际法规则优于其他规则。 |
| This is the case of peremptory norms of international law (jus cogens)”). | 这是国际法强制性规范(强行法)的情况”)。 |
| See, further, the Report of the Study Group on the fragmentation of international law (footnote 702 above). | 又见国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告(上文脚注702)。 |
| See, for support in the literature for the hierarchical superiority of peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), A. Orakhelashvili, Peremptory Norms in International Law, Oxford, 2006, at p. 8; | 关于文献中对一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)等级优先的支持，见A.Orakhelashvili, Peremptory Norms in International Law, Oxford, 2006, at p. 8; |
| G. M. Danilenko, “International jus cogens: issues of law-making”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 2, No. 1 (1991), pp. 42–65, at p. 42; | G. M. Danilenko, “International jus cogens: issues of law-making”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 2, No. 1 (1991), pp. 42-65, at p. 42; |
| and W. Conklin, “The peremptory norms of the international community”, ibid., vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 837–861, at p. 838 (“[T]he very possibility of a peremptory norm once again suggests a hierarchy of international law norms with peremptory norms being the ‘fundamental standards of the international community’ at the pinnacle”). | and W. Conklin, “The peremptory norms of the international community”, ibid., vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 837-861, at p. 838 (“强制性规范的可能性本身再次显示，存在国际法规范的等级，其中强制性规范是最高等级的‘国际社会基本标准’”)。 |
| See also M. M. Whiteman, “Jus cogens in international law, with a projected list”, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, vol. 7, No. 2 (1977), pp. 609–626, at p. 609; | 另见M. M. Whiteman, “Jus cogens in international law, with a projected list”, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, vol. 7, No. 2 (1977), pp. 609-626, at p. 609; |
| and M. W. Janis, “The nature of jus cogens”, Connecticut Journal of International Law, vol. 3, No. 2 (Spring 1988), pp. 359–363, at p. 359. Tomuschat, for example, describes it as a certainty that peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) are superior to other norms. | and M. W. Janis, “The nature of jus cogens”, Connecticut Journal of International Law, vol. 3, No. 2 (Spring 1988), pp. 359-363, at p. 359｡例如，Tomuschat称一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)高于其他规范这一点是肯定的。 |
| See C. Tomuschat, “Reconceptualizing the debate on jus cogens and obligations erga omnes: concluding observations”, in C. Tomuschat and J.-M. Thouvenin (eds.), The Fundamental Rules of the International Legal Order: Jus Cogens and Obligations Erga Omnes, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2006, at p. 425 (“One thing is certain, however: the international community accepts today that there exists a class of legal precepts which is hierarchically superior to ‘ordinary’ rules of international law”). | 见C. Tomuschat, “Reconceptualizing the debate on jus cogens and obligations erga omnes: concluding observations”, in C. Tomuschat and J.-M. Thouvenin (eds.), The Fundamental Rules of the International Legal Order: Jus Cogens and Obligations Erga Omnes, Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2006, at p. 425 (“但有一点是肯定的：国际社会如今接受存在等级优于‘普通’国际法规则的一类法律规范”)。 |
| See also Cassese (footnote 701 above), at p. 159. | 另见Cassese (上文脚注701)，第159页。 |
| For a contrary view, see Kolb (footnote 711 above), at p. 37, suggesting that the language of hierarchy should be avoided and that the focus should be on voidness since the former concept – of hierarchy – leads to confusion and misunderstanding. | 相反的观点见Kolb (上文脚注711)，第37页，建议避免使用等级这种措辞，重点应放在无效性上，因为前一个概念―― 等级概念――导致混淆和误解。 |
| Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (see footnote 703 above), at p. 23. | 对《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的保留(见上文脚注703)，第23页。 |
| This language has been reaffirmed by the International Court of Justice in recent judgments. | 国际法院在最近的判决中重申了这一说法。 |
| See, for example, the judgments referred to in footnote 699 above. | 例如，见上文脚注699中提到的判决。 |
| See, for example, Prosecutor v. Furundžija (footnote 699 above), at p. 571, para. 156. | 例如，见检察官诉Furundžija案(上文脚注699)，第571页，第156段。 |
| See also Prosecutor v. Jelisić (footnote 699 above), p. 399 and pp. 431–433, para. 60. | 另见检察官诉Jelisić案(上文脚注699)，第399页和第431-433页，第60段。 |
| Juridical Condition and Rights of Undocumented Migrants, Advisory Opinion OC-18/03 of 17 September 2003, requested by the United Mexican States, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series A, No. 18, p. 113, paras. 4–5. | “无证移民的法律地位和权利”，美洲人权法院应墨西哥合众国请求，于2003年9月17日提出的OC-18/03号咨询意见，A辑，第18号，第113页，第4-5段。 |
| Michael Domingues v. United States (see footnote 706 above), at para. 49. | Michael Domingues诉美国案(见上文脚注706), 第49段。 |
| Tel-Oren, et al. v. Libyan Arab Republic, et al., Judgment of 3 February 1984, 726 F.2d 774 (D.C. Cir. 1984), 233 U.S.App. D.C. 384. | Tel-Oren等人诉阿拉伯利比亚民众国等，1984年2月3日的判决，726 F.2d 774 (D.C. Cir. 1984)，233 U.S.App. D.C. 384。 |
| See also Smith v. Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Judgment of 26 November 1996, 101 F.3d 239 (2nd. Cir. 1996), at p. 242, in which the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit stated that peremptory norms “do not depend on the consent of individual states, but are universally binding by their very nature”. | 另见Smith诉阿拉伯利比亚人民社会主义民众国案，1996年11月26日的判决，101 F.3d 239 (2nd. Cir. 1996)，第242页，美国第二巡回上诉法院在其中指出，强制性规范“不依赖个别国家的同意，因其性质而具有普遍约束力”。 |
| Youssef Nada v. State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (see footnote 698 above), para. 7. | Youssef Nada诉国家经济事务秘书处案(见上文脚注698)，第7段。 |
| See, for example, Conklin (footnote 728 above); C. Rozakis, The Concept of Jus Cogens in the Law of Treaties, Amsterdam, North-Holland Publishing Company, 1976, at p. 78; | 例如见Conklin (上文脚注728);C. Rozakis, The Concept of Jus Cogens in the Law of Treaties, Amsterdam, North-Holland Publishing Company, 1976, at p. 78; |
| G. Gaja, “Jus cogens beyond the Vienna Convention”, in Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, vol. 172 (1981), pp. 271–289, at p. 283; | G. Gaja, “Jus cogens beyond the Vienna Convention”, in Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, vol. 172 (1981), pp. 271-289, at p. 283; |
| G. M. Danilenko, Law-Making in the International Community, Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993, at p. 211; | G. M. Danilenko, Law-Making in the International Community, Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993, at p. 211; |
| Alexidze (footnote 700 above); | Alexidze (footnote 700 above); |
| P-M. Dupuy and Y. Kerbrat, Droit international public, 11th ed., Paris, Précis Dalloz, 2012, at p. 322 (la cohésion de cet ensemble normatif exige la reconnaissance par tous ses sujets d’un minimum de règles imperatives (“the cohesion of this set of standards requires recognition by all its subjects of a minimum of mandatory rules” ) (emphasis in original)); | P-M. Dupuy and Y. Kerbrat, Droit international public, 11th ed., Paris, Précis Dalloz, 2012, at p. 322 (la cohésion de cet ensemble normatif exige la reconnaissance par tous ses sujets d’un minimum de règles imperatives (“这套标准的一致性要求所有主体都公认有最低限度的强制性规则”) (强调是原有的))； |
| A. Rohr, La responsabilidad internacional del Estado por violación al jus cogens, Buenos Aires, SGN Editora, 2015, at p. 6; | A. Rohr, La responsabilidad internacional del Estado por violación al jus cogens, Buenos Aires, SGN Editora, 2015, at p. 6; |
| D. Dubois, “The authority of peremptory norms in international law: State consent or natural law? ”, Nordic Journal of International Law, vol. 78 (2009), pp. 133–175, at p. 135 (“A jus cogens or peremptory norm … is applicable to all States regardless of their consenting to it”); | D. Dubois, “The authority of peremptory norms in international law: State consent or natural law?”, Nordic Journal of International Law, vol. 78 (2009), pp. 133-175, at p. 135 (“无论各国同意与否，强行法或强制性规范…对所有国家均适用”)； |
| and M. Saul, “Identifying jus cogens norms: the interaction of scholars and international judges”, Asian Journal of International Law, vol. 5 (2014), pp. 26–54, at p. 31 (“Jus cogens norms are supposed to be binding on all states”). | and M. Saul, “Identifying jus cogens norms: the interaction of scholars and international judges”, Asian Journal of International Law, vol. 5 (2014), pp. 26-54, at p. 31 (“强行法规范应该对所有国家具有约束力”)。 |
| States were virtually unanimous on this point: see, for example, Finland (on behalf of the Nordic countries) (A/C.6/73/SR.24, para. 126); Greece (A/C.6/73/SR.27, para. 9); Malaysia (ibid., para. 104); | 各国在这点上的意见几乎是一致的：例如，见芬兰(代表北欧国家)(A/C.6/73/SR.24, 第126段)、希腊(A/C.6/73/SR.27, 第9段)、马来西亚(同上，第104段)、葡萄牙(A/C.6/73/SR.26, 第119段)､南非(A/C.6/73/SR.27, 第46段)､泰国(A/C.6/73/SR.26, 第96段)､联合王国(A/C.6/73/SR.22, 第84段)和美国(A/C.6/73/SR.29, 第34段)。 |
| Portugal (A/C.6/73/SR.26, para. 119); South Africa (A/C.6/73/SR.27, para. 46); | |
| Thailand (A/C.6/73/SR.26, para. 96); the United Kingdom (A/C.6/73/SR.22, para. 84); | 但参见Knuchel (上文脚注700)，第49-136页。 |
| and the United States (A/C.6/73/SR.29, para. 34). But see Knuchel (footnote 700 above), at pp. 49–136. See also the statement by the Islamic Republic of Iran (A/C.6/71/SR.26, para. 118), where the two criteria identified are said to be, first, a norm recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation was permitted, and, second, a norm that could be modified only by a subsequent jus cogens norm. | 另见伊朗伊斯兰共和国的发言(A/C.6/71/SR.26, 第118段)，其中称所确定的两个标准是：首先是由国家组成的整个国际社会公认为不许损抑的规范，其次是只能由以后的强行法规范加以更改的规范。 |
| Paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 26 of the draft articles on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, p. 85 (emphasis added). | 《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条草案的评注第(5)段(《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第85页)(强调是后加的)。 |
| See also Rivier, Droit international public, 2nd ed., Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 2013, at p. 566 (Ne peut accéder au rang de règle impérative qu’une provision déjà formalisée en droit positif et universellement acceptée comme règle de droit (“Only a provision already formalized in positive law and universally accepted as law can achieve the rank of peremptory norm”)). | 另见Rivier, Droit international public, 2nd ed., Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 2013,第566页(Ne peut accéder au rang de règle impérative qu’une provision déjà formalisée en droit positif et universellement acceptée comme règle de droit (“只有已在实在法中正式确立并被普遍接受为法律的规定才能达到强制性规范的等级”))。 |
| See also U. Linderfalk, “The creation of jus cogens – making sense of article 53 of the Vienna Convention”, Heidelberg Journal of International Law, vol. 71 (2011), pp. 359–378, at p. 371 (“by ‘the creation of a rule of jus cogens’ I mean, not the creation of a rule of law, but rather the elevation of a rule of law to a jus cogens status”). | 另见U. Linderfalk, “The creation of jus cogens – making sense of article 53 of the Vienna Convention”, Heidelberg Journal of International Law, vol. 71 (2011), 第359-378页，见第371页(“我说的‘创立强行法规则’，并不是指创立法律规则，而是将法律规则提升到强行法地位”)。 |
| Report of the Study Group on the fragmentation of international law: difficulties arising from the diversification and expansion of international law (A/CN.4/L.702), para. 14 (10), note 11. | “国际法不成体系问题：国际法多样化和扩展引起的困难”研究组的报告(A/CN.4/L.702), 第14(10)段，注11。 |
| Ibid. See also footnote 667 to paragraph (2) of the commentary to draft conclusion 1 of the draft conclusions on the identification of customary international law, Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its Seventieth Session (A/73/10) (“general international law” is used in various ways (not always clearly specified) including to refer to rules of international law of general application, whether treaty law or customary international law or general principles of law.) | 同上。 另见关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案中结论草案1的评注第(2)段脚注667, 《国际法委员会第七十届会议工作报告》(A/73/10)(“一般国际法有多种不同用法(含义并非始终明确)，包括用于指代通用国际法规则，不论是条约法、习惯国际法，还是一般法律原则”)。 |
| See, for example, Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 14, at pp. 137–138, para. 274. | 例如见尼加拉瓜境内和针对尼加拉瓜的军事和准军事活动案(尼加拉瓜诉美利坚合众国)，实质问题，《1986年国际法院案例汇编》，第14页起，见第137-138页，第274段。 |
| See also Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 7, at p. 76, para. 132. | 另见加布奇科沃－大毛罗斯项目案(匈牙利/斯洛伐克)，判决，《1997年国际法院案例汇编》，第7页起，见第76页，第132段。 |
| North Sea Continental Shelf, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 3, at pp. 38–39, para. 63. | 北海大陆架案，判决，《1969年国际法院案例汇编》，第3页起，见第38至39页，第63段。 |
| See Cassese (footnote 701 above), at p. 164 (“The second question amounts to asking by which means an international tribunal should ascertain whether a general rule or principle of international law has acquired the status of a peremptory norm. | 见Cassese (上文脚注701)，第164页(“第二个问题等于询问一个国际法庭如何确定国际法的一般规则或原则是否已获得强制性规范的地位。 |
| Logically, this presupposes the existence of such a customary rule or principle”) (emphasis in original); | 从逻辑上说，前提是存在这样一种习惯规则或原则”) (强调是原有的)； |
| G. Cahin, La coutume internationale et les organisations internationales : l’incidence de la dimension institutionnelle sur le processus coutumier, Paris, Pédone, 2001, at p. 615, who states that customary international law is the normal, if not exclusive, means of formation of jus cogens norms (voie normale et fréquente sinon exclusive). See also Rivier (footnote 738 above), at p. 566 (Le mode coutumier est donc au premier rang pour donner naissance aux règles destinées à alimenter le droit impératif (“Customary international law is thus a primary source of rules that will form the basis of peremptory law”)). See, further, J.E. Christófolo, Solving Antinomies between Peremptory Norms in Public International Law, Zurich, Schulthess, 2016, p. 115 (“As the most likely source of general international law, customary norms would constitute ipso facto and ipso iure a privileged source of ius cogens norms”); | G. Cahin, La coutume internationale et les organisations internationales : l’incidence de la dimension institutionnelle sur le processus coutumier, Paris, Pédone, 2001, 第615页，其中指出，习惯国际法即使不是形成强行法规范的唯一方式，也是通常的方式(voie normale et fréquente sinon exclusive)｡另见Rivier (上文脚注738), 第566页(Le mode coutumier est donc au premier rang pour donner naissance aux règles destinées à alimenter le droit impératif (“因此习惯国际法是构成强制法基础的各项规则的主要渊源”))｡又见J. E. Christófolo, Solving Antinomies between Peremptory Norms in Public International Law, Zurich, Schulthess, 2016, 第115页(“作为一般国际法的最有可能的来源，习惯规范将构成强行法规范的事实上和法律上的优先来源”)； |
| and A. Bianchi, “Human rights and the magic of jus cogens”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 19 (2008), p. 491, at p. 493 (“The possibility that jus cogens could be created by treaty stands in sharp contrast to the view that peremptory norms can emerge only from customary law”). | 以及A. Bianchi, “Human rights and the magic of jus cogens”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 19 (2008), 第491页起，见第493页(“可以通过条约创立强行法的观念与强制性规范只能源自习惯法这种看法形成了鲜明的对比”)。 |
| See, for a contrary view, Janis (footnote 728 above), at p. 361. | 相反的观点见Janis (上文脚注728)，第361页。 |
| For statements by States, see the statement by Pakistan at the thirty-fourth session of the General Assembly (A/C.6/34/SR.22, para. 8) (“The principle of the non-use of force, and its corollary, were jus cogens not only by virtue of Article 103 of the Charter [of the United Nations], but also because they had become norms of customary international law recognized by the international community”). | 关于各国的发言，见巴基斯坦在联大第三十四届会议上的发言(A/C.6/34/SR.22, 第8段)(“不使用武力原则及其必然结果都是强行法，其依据不仅是《[联合国]宪章》第一百零三条，而且也是因为它们已成为国际社会公认的习惯国际法规范”)。 |
| See also the statements by the United Kingdom (A/C.6/34/SR.61, para. 46) and Jamaica (A/C.6/42/SR.29, para. 3) (“The right of peoples to self-determination and independence was a right under customary international law, and perhaps even a peremptory norm of general international law”). | 另见联合王国(A/C.6/34/SR.61, 第 46段)和牙买加的发言(A/C.6/42/SR.29, 第3段)(“人民自决和独立的权利是习惯国际法规定的权利，或许甚至是一般国际法强制性规范”)。 |
| Arancibia Clavel (see footnote 710 above), para. 28. | Arancibia Clavel案(见上文脚注710), 第28段。 |
| 25% del número legal de Congresistas (see footnote 709 above), para. 53 (Las normas de ius cogens parecen pues encontrarse referidas a normas internacionales consuetudinarias que bajo el auspicio de una opinio iuris seu necessitatis (“jus cogens norms seem like they refer more to international customary norms than to opinio juris seu necessitatis”)). | 25% del número legal de Congresistas案(见上文脚注709), 第53段(Las normas de ius cogens parecen pues encontrarse referidas a normas internacionales consuetudinarias que bajo el auspicio de una opinio iuris seu necessitatis (“强行法规范似乎更多地指的是国际习惯规范，而不是法律必要确信”))。 |
| Bayan Muna v. Alberto Romulo (see footnote 723 above), para. 92. | Bayan Muna诉Alberto Romulo案(见上文脚注723)，第92段。 |
| The Kenya Section of the International Commission of Jurists v. the Attorney-General and Others, Miscellaneous Criminal Application 685 of 2010, Judgment of 28 November 2011, High Court of Kenya, [2011] eKLR, p. 14. | 国际法学家委员会肯尼亚分会诉总检察长等人案，2010年杂项刑事申诉第685号，肯尼亚高等法院2011年11月28日的判决，[2011] eKLR, 第14页。 |
| Kazemi Estate v. Islamic Republic of Iran, File No. 35034, Appeal decision of 10 October 2014, Supreme Court of Canada, 2014 SCC 62, [2014] 3 S.C.R. 176, at p. 249, para. 151. | Kazemi财产托管方诉伊朗伊斯兰共和国案，案卷号35034, 加拿大最高法院2014年10月10日的上诉裁决，2014 SCC 62, [2014] 3 S.C.R. 176, 第249页，第151段。 |
| Germany v. Milde (Max Josef), Case No. 1072/2009, Appeal Judgment of 13 January 2009, First Criminal Section, Supreme Court of Cassation, Italy, ILDC 1224 (IT 2009), para. 6 (“customary rules aiming to protect inviolable human rights did not permit derogation because they belonged to peremptory international law or jus cogens”). | 德国诉Milde (Max Josef)案，第1072/2009号案件，意大利最高上诉法院第一刑事分庭2009年1月13日的上诉判决，ILDC 1224 (IT 2009)，第6段(“旨在保护不可侵犯人权的习惯规则不许克减，因为它们属于强制性国际法或强行法”)。 |
| Siderman de Blake v. Republic of Argentina (see footnote 708 above), at p. 715, citing Committee of United States Citizens Living in Nicaragua v. Reagan (see footnote 698 above), at p. 940. | Siderman de Blake诉阿根廷共和国案(见上文脚注708)，第715页，其中援引了在尼加拉瓜居住的美国公民委员会诉里根案(见上文脚注698)，第940页。 |
| Ibid. This contrast between “ordinary” rules of customary international law and jus cogens – suggesting the latter constitutes extraordinary rules of customary international law – is often based on the decision of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in Prosecutor v. Furundžija (see footnote 699 above), at p. 569, para. 153, where a similar distinction is drawn. | 同上。 习惯国际法“普通”规则和强行法之间的这种对比――表明后者构成习惯国际法特殊规则――往往是以前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭在检察官诉Furundžija案(见上文脚注699)中的裁决为依据的。 见第569页，第153段，该案作了类似的区分。 |
| It has been mentioned, with approval, in several decisions, including decisions of the courts of the United Kingdom. | 多项裁决，包括联合王国法院的裁决，一再赞同地提到这种区分。 |
| See, for example, Regina v. Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate and Others: Ex Parte Pinochet Ugarte (No. 3) (footnote 723 above), at p. 198. | 例如见女王诉Bow Street都市领薪专职治安官等人：皮诺切特·乌加特缺席案(第3号)(上文脚注723)，第198页。 |
| See also R (on the application of Al Rawi and Others) (ibid.). | 另见R(Al Rawi等人提出申诉)一案(同上)。 |
| Buell v. Mitchell, 274 F.3d 337 (6th Cir. 2001), at pp. 372–373. | Buell诉Mitchell案，274 F.3d 337 (6th Cir. 2001)，第372-373页。 |
| Ibid., at p. 373. | 同上，第373页。 |
| Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012, p. 422, at p. 457, para. 99. | 与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(比利时诉塞内加尔)，判决，《2012年国际法院案例汇编》，第422页起，见第457页，第99段。 |
| Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (see footnote 699 above), at p. 257, para. 79. | 以核武器相威胁或使用核武器的合法性(见上文脚注699)，第257页，第79段。 |
| See, for example, “Las Dos Erres” Massacre v. Guatemala, Judgment of 24 November 2009, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 211, at p. 41, para. 140. | 例如见“Las Dos Erres”大屠杀诉危地马拉案，美洲人权法院2009年11月24日的判决，C辑，第211号，第41页，第140段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Delalić, et al., Case No. IT-96-21-T, Judgment of 16 November 1998, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, at para. 454. | 检察官诉Delalić等人案，案件号IT-96-21-T, 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭1998年11月16日的判决，第454段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Furundžija (see footnote 699 above), at p. 569, para. 153. | 检察官诉Furundžija案(见上文脚注699)，第569页，第153段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Jelisić (see footnote 699 above), at pp. 431–433, para. 60. | 检察官诉Jelisić案(见上文脚注699)，第431-433页，第60段。 |
| While there is little practice in support of general principles of law as a basis for peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), the following cases, among others, may be considered in this connection: Prosecutor v. Jelisić (footnote 699 above), at pp. 431–433, para. 60, where the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, having accepted that the prohibition of genocide was a norm of jus cogens, stated that the principles underlying the prohibition were “principles … recognized by civilised nations”. | 虽然支持以一般法律原则作为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)基础的实践极少，但除其他外，以下案件可视为与此问题相关：检察官诉Jelisić案(上文脚注699)，第431-433页，第60段，在该案中，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭接受禁止灭绝种族是强行法规范，指出禁止种族灭绝的基本原则是“为文明国家所承认的原则”。 |
| The Inter-American Court of Human Rights determined the right to equality to be a peremptory norm of general international law flowing from its status as a general principle of law in its advisory opinion on the Juridical Condition and Rights of Undocumented Migrants (see footnote 731 above), at p. 99, para. 101: “Accordingly, this Court considers that the principle of equality before the law, equal protection before the law and non-discrimination belongs to jus cogens, because the whole legal structure of national and international public order rests on it and it is a fundamental principle that permeates all laws. | 美洲人权法院在其关于无证移民的法律地位和权利的咨询意见(见上文脚注731)第99页第101段中，根据平等权具有的一般法律原则地位而认定其为一般国际法强制性规范，“因此，本法院认为，法律面前平等、受到法律平等保护和不歧视的原则属于强行法，因为国家和国际公共秩序的整个法律结构都以此为基础，这是贯穿所有法律的一项基本原则。 |
| ” See also the statement by the Islamic Republic of Iran (A/C.6/71/SR.26, para. 120): “The general principles of law to which [A]rticle 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice referred were the best normative foundation for norms of jus cogens”. | ”另见伊朗伊斯兰共和国的发言(A/C.6/71/SR.26, 第120段)：“《国际法院规约》第三十八条提到的一般法律原则是强制性规范的最佳规范性基础”。 |
| See North Sea Continental Shelf (footnote 742 above), at pp. 38–39, para. 63, where the Court described general international law as rules that, “by their very nature, must have equal force for all members of the international community.” | 见北海大陆架案(见上文脚注742)，第38-39页，第63段，法院在其中将一般国际法描述为“就其本质而言，必须对国际社会的全体成员具有平等效力”的规则。 |
| Conclusions of the Study Group on the fragmentation of international law (see footnote 727 above), at paras. 20–21. | 国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论(见上文脚注727)，第20-21段。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| See, for example, Knuchel (footnote 700 above), at p. 52 (“general principles [of law] may be elevated to jus cogens if the international community of States as a whole accepts and recognizes them as such”); | 例如见Knuchel (上文脚注700)，第52页(“一般[法律]原则可以提升为强行法，如果国家组成之国际社会承认和接受它们是强行法的话”)； |
| Shelton, “Sherlock Holmes and the mystery of jus cogens” (footnote 714 above), at pp. 30–34; | Shelton, “Sherlock Holmes and the mystery of jus cogens” (上文脚注714), 第30-34页； |
| A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Jus cogens: the determination and the gradual expansion of its material content in contemporary international case-law”, in Organization of American States, Inter-American Juridical Committee, XXXV Curso de Derecho Internacional, 2008, at p. 27. | A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Jus cogens: the determination and the gradual expansion of its material content in contemporary international case-law”, in Organization of American States, Inter-American Juridical Committee, XXXV Curso de Derecho Internacional, 2008, 第27页。 |
| See also Weatherall (footnote 701 above), at p. 133; | 另见Weatherall (上文脚注701), 第133页； |
| and T. Kleinlein, “Jus cogens as the ‘highest law’? Peremptory norms and legal hierarchies”, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law, vol. 46 (2016), p. 173, at p. 195 (“a peremptory norm must first become general international law i.e. customary international law or general principles of law pursuant to Article 38(1) of the [Statute of the International Court of Justice]”). | 以及T. Kleinlein, “Jus cogens as the ‘highest law’? Peremptory norms and legal hierarchies”, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law, vol. 46 (2016), 第173页起，见第195页(“强制性规范必须首先成为一般国际法，即[《国际法院规约》]第三十八条第一款规定的国际习惯法或一般法律原则”)。 |
| See also Conklin (footnote 728 above), at p. 840; | 又见Conklin (上文脚注728), 第840页； |
| O. M. Dajani, “Contractualism in the law of treaties”, Michigan Journal of International Law, vol. 34 (2012), p. 1, at p. 60; | O. M. Dajani, “Contractualism in the law of treaties”, Michigan Journal of International Law, vol. 34 (2012), 第1页起,见第60页； |
| R. Nieto-Navia, “International peremptory norms (jus cogens) and international humanitarian law”, in L. Chand Vorah, et al. (eds.), Man’s Inhumanity to Man: Essays on International Law in Honour of Antonio Cassese, The Hague, 2003, p. 595, at pp. 613 et seq. (“One can state generally that norms of jus cogens can be drawn generally from the following identified sources of international law: (i) General treaties … and (ii) General principles of law recognized by civilized nations”); | R. Nieto-Navia, “International peremptory norms (jus cogens) and international humanitarian law”, in L. Chand Vorah, et al. (eds.), Man’s Inhumanity to Man: Essays on International Law in Honour of Antonio Cassese, The Hague, 2003, 第595页起，见第613页及以后各页 (“可以笼统地说，强行法规范一般源于下列已确定的国际法渊源：(一) 一般条约…及(二) 文明国家承认的一般法律原则”)； |
| Orakhelashvili (footnote 728 above), at p. 126; | Orakhelashvili(上文脚注728)，第126页； |
| and Santalla Vargas (footnote 701 above), at p. 214 (“jus cogens derives from customary law and general principles of international law”). | 以及Santalla Vargas (上文脚注701)，第214页(“强行法源于习惯法和国际法一般原则”)。 |
| North Sea Continental Shelf (see footnote 742 above), at pp. 38–39, para. 63 (“for, speaking generally, it is a characteristic of purely conventional rules and obligations that, in regard to them, some faculty of making unilateral reservations may, within certain limits, be admitted; | 北海大陆架案(见上文脚注742), 第38-39页，第63段(“因为，一般而言，纯公约性规则和义务的一个特点是，允许对它们有限度地作出单方面保留的某些能力； |
| – whereas this cannot be so in the case of general or customary international law rules and obligations which, by their very nature, must have equal force for all members of the international community”). | ――而对于一般或习惯法规则和义务则不允许，习惯法规则和义务根据其性质，必须对国际社会所有成员具有同等效力”)。 |
| See also Bianchi (footnote 743 above), at p. 493 (“The possibility that jus cogens could be created by treaty stands in sharp contrast to the view that peremptory norms can emerge only from customary law”). | 另见Bianchi (上文脚注743)，第493页(“可以通过条约创立强行法的观念与强制性规范只能源自习惯法这种看法形成了鲜明的对比”)。 |
| G.I. Tunkin, “Is general international law customary law only? ”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 4 (1993), at p. 534, especially p. 541 (“I believe that international lawyers should accept that general international law now comprises both customary and conventional rules of international law”). | G. I. Tunkin, “Is general international law customary law only?”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 4 (1993), 第534页，特别是第541页(“我认为国际律师应当接受，一般国际法现在包括国际法的习惯规则和公约性规则两者”)。 |
| See, specifically in the context of jus cogens, G. I. Tunkin, “Jus cogens in contemporary international law”, The University of Toledo Law Review, vol. 1971, Nos. 1–2 (Fall–Winter 1971), p. 107, at p. 116 (“principles of jus cogens consist of ‘rules which have been accepted either expressly by treaty or tacitly by custom … | 在强行法方面，尤其见G. I. Tunkin, “Jus cogens in contemporary international law”, The University of Toledo Law Review, vol. 1971, Nos. 1-2 (Fall-Winter 1971), 第107页起，见第116页(“强行法原则包括‘通过条约明示接受或通过习惯默示接受的规则…’。 |
| ’. Many norms of general international law are created jointly by treaty and custom”). | 一般国际法的许多规范都是通过条约和习惯共同创立的”)。 |
| See also Knuchel (footnote 700 above), at p. 50 (“Contemporary international law comprises, in the words of the [International Court of Justice], ‘instruments of a universal or quasi-universal character,’ and nothing precludes future conventions from creating universally binding norms which could be elevated to jus cogens”). | 另见Knuchel(上文脚注700)，第50页 (“用[国际法院]的话来说，当代国际法包括‘普遍或准普遍性质的文书’，没有任何规定不容日后的公约创立具有普遍约束力且可以提升为强行法的规范。 |
| See also Nieto-Navia (footnote 764 above), at p. 613 (“One can state generally that norms of jus cogens can be drawn generally from the following identified sources of international law: (i) General treaties … and (ii) General principles of law recognized by civilized nations”). | ”)。 另见Nieto-Navia (上文脚注764)，第613页(“可以笼统地说，强行法规范一般源于下列已确定的国际法渊源：(一) 一般条约…及(二)文明国家公认的一般法律原则”)。 |
| See however, Weatherall (footnote 701 above), at pp. 125–126; | 不过，见Weatherall (上文脚注701)，第125-126页； |
| Hannikainen (footnote 700 above), at p. 92; | Hannikainen (上文脚注700)，第92页； |
| E. J. Criddle and E. Fox-Decent, “A fiduciary theory of jus cogens”, Yale Journal of International Law, vol. 34 (2009), p. 331. | E. J. Criddle and E. Fox-Decent, “A fiduciary theory of jus cogens”, Yale Journal of International Law, vol. 34 (2009), 第331页。 |
| See, further, Orakhelashvili (footnote 728 above), at p. 113 (“The propensity for academics to place emphasis on custom seems to follow from the general acknowledgment of the unsuitability of treaties to create peremptory norms”); | 又见Orakhelashvili (上文脚注728)，第113页(“学术界倾向于把重点放在习惯上，似是由于普遍认为不宜通过条约创立强制性规范”)； |
| and U. Linderfalk, “The effect of jus cogens norms: whoever opened Pandora’s Box, did you ever think about the consequences? ”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 18 (2007), p. 853, at p. 860. | 以及U. Linderfalk, “The effect of jus cogens norms: whoever opened Pandora’s Box, did you ever think about the consequences?”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 18 (2007), 第853页起，见第860页。 |
| Paragraph (1) of the commentary to article 50 of the draft articles on the law of treaties (see footnote 696 above), vol. II, p. 247. | 《条约法条款草案》第50条评注第(1)段(见上文脚注696)，第二卷，第247页。 |
| North Sea Continental Shelf (see footnote 742 above). | 北海大陆架案(见上文脚注742)。 |
| See also draft conclusion 11 of the draft conclusions on the identification of customary international law. | 另见关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案中的结论草案11。 |
| North Sea Continental Shelf (see footnote 742 above), at p. 38, para. 61. | 北海大陆架案(见上文脚注742), 第38页，第61段。 |
| Ibid., at pp. 38–41, paras. 61–69. | 同上，第38-41页，第61-69段。 |
| Ibid., at pp. 41–43, paras. 70–74. | 同上，第41-43页，第70-74段。 |
| See also Margellos and Others v. Federal Republic of Germany, Case No. 6/2002, Petition for Cassation, Judgment of 17 September 2002, Special Supreme Court of Greece, para. 14 (“the provisions contained in the … Hague Regulations attached to the Hague Convention IV of 1907 have become customary rules of international law (jus cogens)”.) | 另见Margellos等人诉德意志联邦共和国案，第6/2002号案件，上诉申请，希腊特别最高法院2002年9月17日的判决，第14段(“载于1907年《海牙第四公约》所附《海牙章程》的规定已成为国际法习惯规则(强行法)”。 ) |
| See for example, Prosecutor v. Tolimir, Case No. IT-05-88/2-T, Judgment of 12 December 2012, Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, at para. 733 (“These provisions of the [Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide] are widely accepted as customary international law rising to the level of jus cogens”); | 例如，见检察官诉Tolimir案，案件号IT-05-88/2-T, 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭第二审判分庭2012年12月10日的判决，第733段(“[《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》]的这些条款被广泛接受为已达到强行法级别的习惯国际法”)； |
| and Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (see footnote 754 above). | 以及与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(见上文脚注754)。 |
| See also the statement by Mr. Ago at the 828th meeting of the Commission in 1966, Yearbook … 1966, vol. I (Part One), p. 37, para. 15 (“Even if a rule of jus cogens originated in a treaty, it was not from the treaty as such that it derived its character but from the fact that, even though derived from the treaty … , it was already a rule of general international law”). | 另见Ago先生在1966年委员会第828次会议上的发言，《1966年…年鉴》，第一卷(第一部分)，第37页，第15段 (“即使一项强行法规则来源于条约，它也不是从条约本身取得这种性质，之所以有这种性质，是因为尽管它衍生自条约…，却本已是一般国际法规则”)。 |
| Official Records of the United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties, First and Second Sessions, 26 March-24 May 1968 and 9 April-22 May 1969, vol. III, Documents of the Conference, p. 174, document A/CONF.39/C.1/L.306 and Add.1 and 2. | 《联合国条约法会议正式记录，第一届和第二届会议》，1968年3月26日至5月24日和1969年4月9日至5月22日，第三卷，会议文件，第174页，文件A/CONF.39/C.1/L.306及Add.1和2。 |
| Ibid., First Session, Summary records of the plenary meetings and of the meetings of the Committee of the Whole, Summary record of the eightieth meeting of the Committee of the Whole, p. 471 at para. 4. | 同上，第一届会议，全体会议和全体委员会会议简要纪录，全体委员会第八十次会议简要纪录，第471页，第4段。 |
| See Committee of United States Citizens Living in Nicaragua (footnote 698 above), at p. 940 (“Finally, in order for such a customary norm of international law to become a peremptory norm, there must be a further recognition by ‘the international community … as a whole [that this is] a norm from which no derogation is permitted’”); | 见在尼加拉瓜居住的美国公民委员会案(上文脚注698)，第940页，(“最后，为了使这种习惯国际法规范成为强制性规范，必须得到‘…国际社会全体’进一步承认，该规范是不许克减的规范’”)； |
| and Michael Domingues v. United States (footnote 706 above), at para. 85 (“Moreover, the Commission is satisfied, based upon the information before it, that this rule has been recognized as being of a sufficiently indelible nature to now constitute a norm of jus cogens, a development anticipated by the Commission in its Roach and Pinkerton decision”). | 以及Michael Domingues诉美国案(上文脚注706)，第85段(“此外，委员会根据所收到的资料，确信本规则已被承认具有不可磨灭的效力，时至今日，足能构成强行法规范，这是委员会早在Roach和Pinkerton案的裁决中就已预料到的事态发展”)。 |
| See also Prosecutor v. Simić, Case No. IT-95-9/2-S, Sentencing Judgment of 17 October 2002, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, at para. 34. | 另见检察官诉Simić案，案件号IT-95-9/2-S, 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭审判分庭2002年10月17日的判决，第34段。 |
| See, for discussion, J. Vidmar, “Norm conflicts and hierarchy in international law: towards a vertical international legal system?”, in E. de Wet and J. Vidmar (eds.), Hierarchy in International Law: the Place of Human Rights, Oxford, 2011, p. 26. | 讨论情况见J. Vidmar, “Norm conflicts and hierarchy in international law: towards a vertical international legal system?”, in E. de Wet and J. Vidmar (eds.), Hierarchy in International Law: the Place of Human Rights, Oxford, 2011, 第26页。 |
| See also C. Costello and M. Foster, “Non-refoulement as custom and jus cogens? Putting the prohibition to the test”, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law, vol. 46 (2016), p. 273, at p. 281 (“to be jus cogens, a norm must meet the normal requirements for customary international law … and furthermore have that additional widespread endorsement as to its non-derogability”); | 另见C. Costello and M. Foster, “Non-refoulement as custom and jus cogens? Putting the prohibition to the test”, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law, vol. 46 (2016), 第273页起，见第281页(“要成为强行法，一项规范必须符合习惯国际法的正常要求…此外，其不可克减性还要得到更广泛的认可”)； |
| and A. Hameed, “Unravelling the mystery of jus cogens in international law”, British Yearbook of International Law, vol. 84 (2014), p. 52, at p. 62. | 以及A. Hameed, “Unravelling the mystery of jus cogens in international law”, British Yearbook of International Law, vol. 84 (2014), 第52页起，见第62页。 |
| See, further, G. A. Christenson, “Jus cogens: guarding interests fundamental to international society”, Virginia Journal of International Law, vol. 28 (1987–1988), p. 585, at p. 593 (“The evidence would also need to demonstrate requisite opinio juris that the obligation is peremptory, by showing acceptance of the norm’s overriding quality”). | 又见G. A. Christenson, “Jus cogens: guarding interests fundamental to international society”, Virginia Journal of International Law, vol. 28 (1987-1988)，第585页起，见第593页(“证据还要通过表明规范的头等重要性质已获接受，来证明义务是强制性的这一点已存在必要法律确信”)。 |
| See article 50 of the draft articles on the law of treaties, (footnote 696 above), p. 247. | 见《条约法条款草案》第50条(上文脚注696), 第247页。 |
| See the statement by Mr. Luna, summary records, 828th meeting (footnote 772 above), at para. 34 (“[jus cogens] was positive law created by States, not as individuals but as organs of the international community”). | 见Luna先生的发言，第828次会议简要记录(上文脚注772)，第34段 (“[强行法]是国家非作为个体而是作为国际社会机关所创立的实在法”)。 |
| See, for example, Canada (A/C.6/71/SR.27, para. 9), indicating that “it would be beneficial for the Commission … to enlarge the idea of the acceptance and recognition of peremptory norms to include other entities, such as international and non-governmental organizations”. | 例如，见加拿大(A/C.6/71/SR.27, 第9段)，其中指出，“委员会…若将接受和承认强制性规范的观念扩大到国际组织和非政府组织等其他实体，将会很有用。 |
| See paragraph (3) of the commentary to draft article 53 of the draft articles on the law of treaties between States and international organizations or between international organizations, Yearbook … | ” 见《国家和国际组织间或国际组织相互间条约法的条款草案》第53条草案评注第(3)段。 |
| 1982, vol. II (Part Two), p. 56. | 《1982年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第56页。 |
| See also, in the context of the current topic, the statement by Canada (footnote above). | 就本专题而言，另见加拿大的发言(上文脚注)。 |
| Paragraph (3) of the commentary to draft article 53 of the draft articles on the law of treaties between States and international organizations or between international organizations. | 《国家和国际组织间或国际组织相互间条约法的条款草案》第53条草案评注第(3)段。 |
| Prosecutor v. Katanga, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/07-34-05-tENg, Decision on the Application for the Interim Release of Detained Witnesses of 1 October 2013, Trial Chamber II, International Criminal Court, at para. 30 (“peremptoriness [of the principle of non-refoulement] finds increasing recognition among States”). | 检察官诉Katanga案，案件号ICC-01/04-01/07-34-05-tENg, 国际刑事法院第二审判分庭2013年10月1日就暂时释放在押证人的申请作出的决定，第30段(“[不推回原则的]强制性日益获得各国承认”)。 |
| Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (see footnote 754 above), at para. 99. | 与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(见上文脚注754)，第99段。 |
| The Court cites, amongst others, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Geneva Conventions for the protection of war victims, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, General Assembly resolution 3452 (XXX) of 9 December 1975, and domestic legislation. | 除其他外，法院援引了《世界人权宣言》、关于保护战争受难者的日内瓦四公约、《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》、联大1975年12月9日第3452 (XXX)号决议和国内立法。 |
| See, for example, Buell v. Mitchell (footnote 752 above), at p. 373. | 例如见Buell诉Mitchell案(上文脚注752)，第373页。 |
| See also On Application of Universally Recognized Principles and Norms of International Law and of International Treaties of the Russian Federation by Courts of General Jurisdiction, Ruling No. 5 of 10 October 2003 as amended on 5 March 2013, decision of the Plenary Session of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, at para. 1 (“The universally recognized principles of international law should be understood as the basic imperative norms of international law, accepted and recognized by the international community of states as a whole, deviation from which is inadmissible”). | 另见“关于一般管辖权法院对普遍公认的国际法原则和规范及俄罗斯联邦国际条约的适用”，2003年10月10日第5号裁决(2013年3月5日修正)，俄罗斯联邦最高法院全体会议的决定，第1段(“普遍公认的国际法原则应理解为整个国际社会接受和承认的国际法基本强制性准则，偏离这些准则是不允许的”)。 |
| Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia) (see footnote 704 above), at p. 46, para. 87; | 《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用案(克罗地亚诉塞尔维亚)(见上文脚注704)，第46页，第87段； |
| and A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for Humankind: Towards a New Jus Gentium (I), Leiden, 2010, at p. 316 (“It is my view that there is, in the multicultural world of our times, an irreducible minimum, which, in so far as international law-making is concerned, rests on its ultimate material source: human conscience”). | 以及A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for Humankind: Towards a New Jus Gentium (I), Leiden, 2010, 第316页(“我认为，在我们这个时代的多元文化世界中，有一个不能再低的起码标准，就制订国际法而言，其所依据的最最重要的来源是：人类的良知”)。 |
| Draft conclusion 4 of the draft conclusions on the identification of customary international law. | 关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案中的结论草案4。 |
| Draft conclusion 5 of the draft conclusions on subsequent agreements and subsequent practice in relation to the interpretation of treaties (A/73/10, chap. IV). | 关于与条约解释相关的嗣后协定和嗣后实践的结论草案中的结论草案5(A/73/10, 第四章)。 |
| Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (footnote 703 above), p. 23: “The origins of the Convention show that it was the intention of the United Nations to condemn and punish genocide …. The Genocide Convention was therefore intended by the General Assembly and by the contracting parties to be definitely universal in scope”; | 对《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的保留(上文脚注703)，第23页：“《公约》的起源表明，联合国欲谴责和惩治灭绝种族行为，…因此，大会和缔约国欲使《灭绝种族罪公约》在适用范围上具有绝对普遍性”； |
| see also conclusion 12 of the conclusions on the identification of customary international law. | 另见关于习惯国际法的识别的结论之结论12。 |
| Mr. Yasseen, Chairperson of the Drafting Committee, Official Records of the United Nations Conference on the Law Treaties, First Session … (see footnote 726 above), 80th meeting, at para. 12. | 起草委员会主席Yasseen先生，《联合国条约法会议正式记录，第一届会议…》(见上文脚注726)，第80次会议，第12段。 |
| See also E. de Wet, “Jus cogens and obligations erga omnes”, in D. Shelton (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of International Human Rights Law, Oxford, 2013, p. 541, at p. 543 (“This threshold for gaining peremptory status is high, for although it does not require consensus among all states … it does require the acceptance of a large majority of states”). | 另见E. de Wet, “Jus cogens and obligations erga omnes”, in D. Shelton (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of International Human Rights Law, Oxford, 2013, 第541页起，见第543页(“取得强制性地位的这一门槛很高，因为它虽然不要求所有国家的一致意见…但确实需要大多数国家接受”)。 |
| See, further, Christófolo (footnote 743 above), at p. 125 (“[The formation of peremptory norms reflects] a common will represent[ing] the consent of an overwhelming majority of States. | 又见Christófolo (上文脚注743)，第125页(“[强制性规范的形成反映]代表绝大多数国家表示同意的共同意愿。 |
| Neither one State nor a very small number of States can obstruct the formative process of peremptory norms”). | 任何一个国家和少数国家都不能阻挠强制性规范的形成过程”)。 |
| See Michael Domingues v. United States (footnote 706 above), at para. 85 (“The acceptance of this norm crosses political and ideological boundaries and efforts to detract from this standard have been vigorously condemned by members of the international community as impermissible under contemporary human rights standards”). | 见Michael Domingues诉美国案(上文脚注706)，第85段(“接受这一规范超越了政治和意识形态界限，国际社会成员强烈谴责偏离这一标准的做法，这是当代人权标准所不允许的”)。 |
| See, for example, Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jarmahiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 13, at p. 30, para. 27. | 例如，见大陆架案(阿拉伯利比亚民众国/马耳他，判决，《1985年国际法院案例汇编》，第13页起，见第30页，第27段。 |
| Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (see footnote 754 above), para. 99. | 与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(见上文脚注754)，第99段。 |
| Conclusion 10 of the conclusions on the identification of customary international law. General Assembly resolution 73/203 of 20 December 2018, annex. | 关于习惯国际法的识别的结论之结论10, 联大2018年12月20日第73/203号决议，附件。 |
| In the case concerning Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (see footnote 754 above), para. 99, the International Court of Justice referred to both treaties (“the 1949 Geneva Conventions for the protection of war victims; | 在与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(见上文脚注754)第99段中，国际法院提到两项条约(“1949年《关于保护战争受害者的日内瓦公约》； |
| the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966”) and resolutions (“the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948; | 1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》”)及不同决议(“1948年《世界人权宣言》； |
| General Assembly resolution 3452/30 of 9 December 1975 on the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment”), in expressing its recognition of the prohibition of torture as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | …联大1975年12年月9日关于保护所有人不受酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚的第3452/30号决议”)，表示承认禁止酷刑是一般国际法的一项强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| See also Prosecutor v. Mucić, Judgment, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 16 November 1998 (IT-96-21-T) and Prosecutor v. Delalić, et al. (see footnote 757 above), at para. 454, relying on the 1950 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights), the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the 1984 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Punishment or Treatment, and the 1969 American Convention on Human Rights (“Pact of San José, Costa Rica”). | 另见检察官诉Mucić案，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭1998年11月16日的判决 (IT-96-21-T)及检察官诉Delalić等人案(见上文脚注757)，第454段，该案的依据包括1950年《欧洲保护人权与基本自由公约》(《欧洲人权公约》)、1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》、1984年《禁止酷刑和其他残忍、不人道或有辱人格的待遇或处罚公约》，及1969年《美洲人权公约》(“哥斯达黎加圣何塞公约”)。 |
| See also Prosecutor v. Furundžija (footnote 699 above), at p. 563, para. 144. | 另见检察官诉FurundžIja案(上文脚注699)，第563页，第144段。 |
| In reaching its decision on the peremptory character of the prohibition of the execution of individuals under the age of 18, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights in Michael Domingues v. United States (see footnote 706 above), at para. 85, relied on the ratification by States of treaties such as the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the 1989 Convention on the rights of the child, and the 1969 American Convention on Human Rights (“Pact of San José, Costa Rica”), which it said were “treaties in which this proscription is recognized as non-derogable”. | 美洲人权委员会在Michael Domingues诉美国案(见上文脚注706)第85段中就禁止处决未满18岁的人的强制性作出裁决时，依据的是各国批准的条约，如1966年《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》、1989年《儿童权利公约》和1969年《美洲人权公约》(“哥斯达黎加圣何塞公约”)，该委员会指出，“这些条约承认这一禁止是不可克减的”。 |
| See also the separate opinion of Vice-President Ammoun in Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 16, at p. 79, relying on General Assembly and Security Council resolutions for the conclusion that the right to self-determination is a peremptory norm. | 另见副院长安蒙关于南非不顾安全理事会第276 (1970)号决议继续留驻纳米比亚(西南非洲)对各国的法律后果的个别意见，咨询意见，《1971年国际法院案例汇编》，第16页，第79页，其中依据联大和安全理事会决议得出结论，认为自决权是一项强制性规范。 |
| See also the Written Observations Submitted by the Government of the Solomon Islands to the International Court of Justice on the request by the World Health Organization for an Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Use of Nuclear Weapons in View of their Effects on Human Health and the Environment, at pp. 39–40, para. 3.28 (“It is quite normal in international law for the most common and the most fundamental rules to be reaffirmed and repeatedly incorporated into treaties”). | 另见所罗门群岛政府向国际法院提交的书面意见，回应世界卫生组织从使用核武器对人的健康和环境产生的影响出发，就其合法性问题征求咨询意见的请求，第39-40页，第3.28段 (“国际法中最常见和最根本的规则被重申并一再纳入各项条约是相当正常的”)。 |
| See, for example, Prosecutor v. Furundžija (footnote 699 above), at p. 569, note 170. | 例如，见检察官诉FurundžIja案(上文脚注699)，第569页，注170。 |
| See also Al-Adsani v. the United Kingdom (footnote 706 above), at paras. 60–61, where the Court relied, inter alia, on Regina v. Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate and Others: Ex Parte Pinochet Ugarte (No. 3) (footnote 723 above) and “other cases before … national courts” in its assessment of the peremptory character of the prohibition of torture. | 另见Al-Adsani诉联合王国案(上文脚注706)，第60-61段，除其他外，法院在评价禁止酷刑的强制性时，依据的是女王诉Bow Street都市领薪专职治安官等人：皮诺切特·乌加特缺席案(第3号)(上文脚注723)及“国家法院…审理的其他案件”。 |
| In coming to the conclusion that the prohibition of torture was of a peremptory character, the International Court of Justice in the case concerning Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (see footnote 754 above), at para. 99, referred to the fact that the prohibition had “been introduced into the domestic law of almost all States”. | 在得出禁止酷刑具有强制性的结论时，国际法院在关于与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(见上文脚注754)第99段中提到，这一禁令“已被纳入几乎所有国家的国内法”。 |
| Similarly, in its decision on the prohibition of the execution of individuals below the age of 18, the Inter-American Commission in Michael Domingues v. United States (see footnote 706 above), at para. 85, took account of the fact that States had introduced relevant amendments to their national legislation. | 同样，美洲人权委员会在Michael Domingues诉美国案(见上文脚注706)关于禁止处决未满18岁的人的裁决第85段中指出，各国已对国家立法提出了相关修正。 |
| See, for example, on aggression: Ghana (Official Records of the United Nations Conference on the Law Treaties, First Session … (footnote 726 above), 53rd meeting, para. 15); | 例如，见：关于侵略：加纳(《联合国法律条约会议正式记录，第一届会议…》(上文脚注726)，第53次会议，第15段)； |
| the Netherlands (A/C.6/SR.781, para. 2); | 荷兰(A/C.6/SR.781, 第2段)； |
| Uruguay (Official Records of the United Nations Conference on the Law Treaties, First Session … (footnote 726 above), 53rd meeting, para. 48); | 乌拉圭(《联合国法律条约会议正式记录，第一届会议…》(上文脚注726)，第53次会议，第48段)； |
| Japan (S/PV.2350); | 日本(S/PV.2350)； |
| Belarus (A/C.6/73/SR.26, para. 90); | 白俄罗斯(A/C.6/73/SR.26, 第90段)； |
| and Mozambique (A/C.6/73/SR.28, para. 3). | 及莫桑比克(A/C.6/73/SR.28, 第3段)。 |
| In this respect, in the case concerning Questions Relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (see footnote 754 above), at para. 99, the International Court of Justice referred to the fact that “acts of torture are regularly denounced within national and international fora” in asserting the peremptory character of the prohibition of torture. | 在这方面，在与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(见上文脚注754)第99段中，国际法院在断言禁止酷刑的强制性时，提到“国家和国际论坛经常谴责酷刑行为”的事实。 |
| See also paragraph (2) of the commentary to conclusion 13 of the draft conclusions on customary international law (footnote 740 above) (“The term ‘subsidiary means’ denotes the ancillary role of such decisions in elucidating the law, rather than being themselves a source of international law (as are treaties, customary international law and general principles of law). | 另见关于习惯国际法的结论草案结论13的评注第(2)段(上文脚注740) (“‘辅助手段’一词指明这类判决在阐明法律方面发挥辅助作用，但它们本身并非国际法的来源(条约、习惯国际法和一般法律原则也是如此)。 |
| The use of the term ‘subsidiary means’ does not, and is not intended to, suggest that such decisions are not important for the identification of customary international law”). | ‘辅助手段’一词的使用不是也无意表明这类判决对于习惯国际法的识别不重要”)。 |
| Prosecutor v. Furundžija (see footnote 699 above), para. 144. | 检察官诉FurundžIja案(见上文脚注699), 第144段。 |
| Soering v. the United Kingdom, Application no. 14038/88, Judgment of 7 July 1989, European Court of Human Rights; | Soering诉联合王国案，第14038/88号申诉，欧洲人权法院1989年7月7日的判决； |
| Cruz Varas and Others v. Sweden, Application no. 15576/89, Judgment of 20 March 1991, European Court of Human Rights, Series A: Judgments and Decisions, vol. 201; | Cruz Varas 等人诉瑞典案，第15576/89号申诉，欧洲人权法院1991年3月20日的判决，A辑：判决和决定，第201卷； |
| and Chahal v. the United Kingdom, Application no. 22414/93, Judgment of 15 November 1996, Grand Chamber, European Court of Human Rights. | 及Chahal诉联合王国案，第22414/93号申诉，欧洲人权法院大审判庭1996年11月15日的判决。 |
| See, for example, Al-Adsani v. the United Kingdom (footnote 706 above), at para. 30; and García Lucero, et al. v. Chile (footnote 718 above), at paras. 123–124, especially note 139. | 例如，见Al-Adsani诉联合王国案(上文脚注706)，第30段，及García Lucero等人诉智利案(上文脚注718)，第123-124段，尤其见注911。 |
| See also, generally, Regina v. Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate and Others: Ex Parte Pinochet Ugarte (No. 3) (footnote 723 above), where several of the Lords referred to Prosecutor v. Furundžija (footnote 699 above). | 另见女王诉Bow Street都市领薪专职治安官等人：皮诺切特·乌加特缺席案(第3号) (上文脚注723)，其中几位上院议员提到“检察官诉FurundžIja”案(上文脚注699)。 |
| Prosecutor v. Ayyash, et al., Case No. STL-11-01/I, Interlocutory Decision of 16 February 2011 on the Applicable Law: Terrorism, Conspiracy, Homicide, Perpetration, Cumulative Charging, Appeals Chamber, Special Tribunal for Lebanon, at para. 76. | 检察官诉Ayyash等人案，STL-11-01/I号案件，黎巴嫩问题特别法庭上诉分庭2011年2月16日关于适用法律的中间决定：恐怖主义、共谋、杀人、犯罪、加重指控，第76段。 |
| For this decision the Court relied on, inter alia, the judgment of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić (Case No. IT-94-1-AR-72, Decision of 2 October 1995 on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia); | 在作出这项裁决时，除其他外，法院依据了前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭对检察官诉Duško Tadić案的判决(案件号IT-94-1-AR-72, 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭1995年10月2日对辩方就管辖权问题提出的中间上诉动议作出的决定； |
| Prosecutor v. Delalić, et al. (see footnote 757 above); | 检察官诉Delalić等人案(见上文脚注757)； |
| and Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Judgment of 2 September 1998, Trial Chamber I, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. | 及检察官诉Akayesu案，案件号ICTR-96-4-T, 卢旺达问题国际刑事法庭第一审判分庭1998年9月2日的判决。 |
| El Sayed, Case No. CH/PRES/2010/01, Order of 15 April 2010 assigning Matter to Pre-Trial Judge, President of the Special Tribunal of Lebanon, para. 29, referring in particular to Case of Goiburú, et al. v. Paraguay (see footnote 706 above). | El Sayed案，案件号CH/PRES/2010/01, 2010年4月15日关于将事项分配给预审法官的命令，黎巴嫩问题特别法庭庭长，第29段，其中特别提到Goiburú等人诉巴拉圭案(见上文脚注706)。 |
| See ibid., paras. 21–28. | 见，同上，第21至28段。 |
| Ibid., para. 29. | 同上，第29段。 |
| See Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Genocide (footnote 703 above); | 见对《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的保留(上文脚注703)； |
| Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (footnote 793 above), p. 16; | 南非继续留驻纳米比亚对各国的法律后果(上文脚注793)，第16页； |
| Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 136; | 在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果，咨询意见，《2004年国际法院案例汇编》，第136页； |
| Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (footnote 699 above); | “以核武器相威胁或使用核武器的合法性”(上文脚注699)； |
| Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 3; | 巴塞罗那电车、电灯及电力有限公司案，判决，《1970年国际法院案例汇编》，第3页； |
| East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 90; | 东帝汶(葡萄牙诉澳大利亚)案，判决，《1995年国际法院判例汇编》，第90页； |
| and Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (footnote 741 above). | 及尼加拉瓜境内和针对尼加拉瓜的军事和准军事活动案(上文脚注741)。 |
| See Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (footnote 754 above), at para. 99. | 见与起诉或引渡义务有关的问题案(上文脚注754)，第99段。 |
| See paragraph (5) of the commentary to draft conclusion 14 of the draft conclusions on the identification of customary international law. | 关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案之结论草案14, 评注第(5)段。 |
| Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 18 (1989) on non-discrimination, Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 40, vol. I (A/45/40 (Vol. I)), annex VI, sect. A, para. 1. | 人权事务委员会，关于不歧视的第18号一般性意见(1989年)，(《大会正式记录，第四十五届会议，补编第40号》，第一卷(A/45/40 (Vol. I))，附件六，A节，第1段。 |
| RM v. Attorney-General, Civil Case No. 1351 2002 (O.S.), Judgment of 1 December 2006, High Court of Kenya at Nairobi, [2006] eKLR, at p. 18. | RM诉总检察长案，第1351 2002(O.S.)号民事案件，内罗毕肯尼亚高等法院2006年12月1日的判决，[2006] eKLR, 第18页。 |
| See Prosecutor v. Katanga (footnote 781 above), at para. 30, referring to the 2007 Advisory Opinion on the Extraterritorial Application of Non-Refoulement Obligations under the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. | 见检察官诉Katanga案(上文脚注781)，第30段，其中提及联合国难民事务高级专员公署2007年关于1951年《关于难民地位的公约》及其1967年《议定书》规定的不驱回义务域外适用问题的咨询意见。 |
| The Court also referred to the several Executive Committee Conclusions of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. | 法院还提及联合国难民事务高级专员公署的若干执行委员会结论。 |
| See Prosecutor v. Furundžija (footnote 699 above), at paras. 144 and 153. | 见检察官诉FurundžIja案(上文脚注699)，第144和153段。 |
| The Tribunal referred to the Inter-American Convention on Human Rights, General Comment on Article 7 and general comment No. 24 of the Human Rights Committee, and a report by Special Rapporteur Kooijmans. | 法庭提到了《美洲人权公约》、人权事务委员会关于第7条的一般性意见和第24号一般性意见，以及特别报告员科艾曼斯的一份报告。 |
| Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (see footnote 741 above), at pp. 100–101, para. 190. | 尼加拉瓜境内和针对尼加拉瓜的军事和准军事活动案(见上文脚注741)，第100-101页，第190段。 |
| See also Re Víctor Raúl Pinto, Re, Pinto (Víctor Raúl) v. Relatives of Tomás Rojas, Case No. 3125-94, Decision on Annulment of 13 March 2007, Supreme Court of Chile, ILDC 1093 (CL 2007), at paras. 29 and 31. | 另见Re Víctor Raúl Pinto, Re, Pinto(Víctor Raúl)诉Tomás Rojas的亲属案，第3125-94号案件，智利最高法院2007年3月13日关于宣告判决无效的裁决，ILDC 1093(CL 2007)，第29和31段。 |
| Paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 26 of the articles on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条评注第(5)段。 |
| See den Heijer and van der Wilt (footnote 714 above), at p. 9, referring to the norms in the list as those “beyond contestation”. | 见den Heijer and van der Wilt (上文脚注714)，第9页，其中提到清单上的规范是“无可争议”的。 |
| See also Christófolo (footnote 743 above), at p. 151; | 另见Christófolo(上文脚注743)，第151页； |
| and Weatherall (footnote 701 above), at p. 202. | 及Weatherall (上文脚注701)，第202页。 |
| See also de Wet (footnote 788 above), at p. 543. | 另见de Wet (上文脚注788)，第543页。 |
| She relies, however, not on a Commission list, but rather on the list from paragraph 374 of the report of the Study Group of the Commission (see footnote 702 above), with a list that is slightly modified from that of the Study Group. | 但她所依据的不是委员会的清单，而是委员会研究组的报告第374段提供的清单(见上文脚注702)，并对研究组的报告作了轻微改动。 |
| For example, in the list de Wet provides, “the right of self-defence” is included as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) in its own right, while the list of the Study Group contains the “prohibition of aggression” but not “self-defence” as an independent peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 例如，在de Wet提供的清单中，“自卫权”本身被列为一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，而研究组的清单所载的独立强行法规范是“禁止侵略”，而不是“自卫”。 |
| See, for example, Nguyen Thang Loi v. Dow Chemical Company (In re Agent Orange Product Liability Litigation, 373 F. Supp. 2d 7 (E.D.N.Y. 2005), at p. 108, relying on M.C. Bassiouni, “Crimes against humanity”, in R. Gutman and D. Rieff (eds.), Crimes of War: What the Public Should Know, Norton, 1999; | 例如，见Nguyen Thang Loi诉陶氏化学公司案(关于橙剂产品的责任诉讼案，373 F.Supp.2d 7 (E.D.N.Y. 2005)， 第108页，依据的是M. C. Bassiouni, “Crimes against humanity”, in R. Gutman and D. Rieff (eds.), Crimes of War: What the Public Should Know, Norton, 1999; |
| Prosecutor v. Kallon and Kamara, Case Nos. SCSL-2004-15-AR72(E) and SCSL-2004-16-AR72(E), Decision of 13 March 2004 on Challenge to Jurisdiction: Lomé Accord Amnesty, Appeals Chamber, Special Court for Sierra Leone, at para. 71, relying on L. Moir, The Law of Internal Armed Conflict, Cambridge, 2002; | 检察官诉Kallon和Kamara案，案件编号：SCSL-2004-15-AR72(E)和SCSL-2004-16-AR72(E)、2004年3月13日关于对管辖权提出异议的裁定：洛美协议大赦，塞拉利昂问题特别法庭，上诉分庭，第71段，依据的是L.Moir, The Law of Internal Armed Conflict, Cambridge, 2002； |
| and Bayan Muna v. Alberto Romulo (see footnote 723 above), at p. 55, citing M.C. Bassiouni, “International crimes: jus cogens and obligatio erga omnes”, Law and Contemporary Problems, vol. 59 (1996), p. 63. | 及Bayan Muna诉Alberto Romulo案(见上文脚注723)，第55页，引述M.C.Bassiouni, “International crimes: jus cogens and obligatio erga omnes”, Law and Contemporary Problems, vol. 59 (1996), p. 63。 |
| See also Siderman de Blake v. Republic of Argentina (footnote 708 above), at p. 717, citing several authors, including K. Parker and L.B. Neylon, “Jus cogens: compelling the law of human rights”, Hastings International and Comparative Law Review, vol. 12, No. 2 (Winter 1989), pp. 411–463; | 另见Siderman de Blake诉阿根廷共和国案(上文脚注708), 第717页，引述了几位作者，包括K.Parker和L.B. Neylon, “Jus cogens: compelling the law of human rights”, Hastings International and Comparative Law Review, vol. 12, No. 2 (Winter 1989), pp. 411-463; |
| and K. C. Randall, “Universal jurisdiction under international law”, Texas Law Review, vol. 66 (1987–1988), pp. 785–841, in support of the proposition that the prohibition of torture is a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 及K.C.Randall, “Universal jurisdiction under international law”, Texas Law Review, vol. 66 (1987-1988), pp. 785-841, 以支持禁止酷刑是普通国际法的强制性规范(强行法)的主张。 |
| See also paragraph (3) of the commentary to draft conclusion 14 of the draft conclusions on the identification of customary international law (“There is need for caution when drawing upon writings, since their value for determining the existence of a rule of customary international law varies: this is reflected in the words ‘may serve as’. | 另见关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案之结论草案14的评注第(3)段)(“在借鉴论著时必须保持警惕，因为它们在确定某项习惯国际法规则存在方面的价值可能有差异：‘可用作’这一措辞即反映了这种提醒。 |
| First, writers sometimes seek not merely to record the state of the law as it is (lex lata) but to advocate its development (lex ferenda). | 首先，著述者有时不仅试图记录法律的现状(现行法)，还设法支持其发展(拟议法)。 |
| In doing so, they do not always distinguish (or distinguish clearly) between the law as it is and the law as they would like it to be. | 在这么做时，他们并不总是区分(或清楚地区分)法律的现状和他们所设想的法律的状况。 |
| Second, writings may reflect the national or other individual viewpoints of their authors. | 其次，论著可反映著述者本国的观点或其他个人观点。 |
| Third, they differ greatly in quality. | 第三，论著的质量参差不齐。 |
| Assessing the authority of a given work is thus essential”). | 因此，评估特定著述的权威性至关重要”)。 |
| Danilenko, Law-Making in the International Community (see footnote 735 above), at p. 212 (“As originally conceived, within the codification process relating to the law of treaties, the concept of jus cogens applies only to treaty relationships … to invalidate bilateral and multilateral agreements contrary to fundamental community rules recognized as ‘higher law’”). | Danilenko, Law-Making in the International Community(见上文脚注735), 第212页(“正如最初在条约法编纂进程中设想的那样，强行法的概念只适用于条约关系…使违反被公认为‘更高一级法律’的基本共同体规则的双边和多边协定失效”)。 |
| See also Kleinlein (footnote 764 above), at p. 181; | 另见Kleinlein (上文脚注764)，第181页； |
| K. Kawasaki, “A brief note on the legal effects of jus cogens in international law”, Hitotsubashi Journal of Law and Politics, vol. 34 (2006), p. 27; | K.Kawasaki, “A brief note on the legal effects of jus cogens in international law”, Hitotsubashi Journal of Law and Politics, vol. 34 (2006), p. 27; |
| and den Heijer and van der Wilt (footnote 714 above), at p. 7. | 及den Heijer and van der Wilt(上文脚注714)，第7页。 |
| Costelloe (see footnote 694 above), at p. 55 (“the relevant [provisions of the 1969 Vienna Convention] are very narrow, and the question whether they still have much relevance … and are now virtually a dead letter, is justified”). | Costelloe(见上文脚注694)，第55页(“相关的[1969年《维也纳公约》的规定]非常狭窄，以及它们是否仍然具有很大相关性的问题…以及现在几乎是一纸空文的说法，是有道理的”)。 |
| See Charlesworth and Chinkin (footnote 701 above), pp. 65–66 (“Despite fears that the inclusion of [article 53 of the Vienna Convention] would subvert the principle of pacta sunt servanda and act to destabilize the certainty provided by treaty commitments, jus cogens doctrine has been only rarely invoked in this context. | 见Charlesworth and Chinkin(上文脚注701)，第65-66页(“尽管担心纳入[《维也纳公约》第五十三条]将破坏条约必须遵守的原则，并可能打破条约承诺提供的确定性，但在这方面极少援引强行法理论。 |
| It thus has had little practical impact upon the operation of treaties”); | 因此，它对条约的实施几乎没有实际影响”)； |
| and Kadelbach (footnote 700 above), p. 161 (“direct conflict in the sense that a treaty has an illicit subject-matter is a theoretical case”). | 及Kadebach(上文脚注700)，第161页(“从条约有非法主题事项的意义上说，直接抵触是一种理论上的情况”)。 |
| See also Cassese (footnote 701 above), pp. 159–160 (“Should we conclude that consequently what is normally asserted to be a major advance accomplished by the 1969 Vienna Convention … has in fact proved over the years to be an outright flop?”). | 另见Cassese(上文脚注701)，第159-160页(“我们是否应得出结论认为，通常所称的1969年《维也纳公约》所取得的重大进展…经过这些年后实际上证明是彻底的失败吗？”)。 |
| See, for examples, Shelton, “Sherlock Holmes and the mystery of jus cogens” (footnote 714 above), at p. 36; | 例如，见Shelton, “Sherlock Holmes and the mystery of jus cogens” (上文脚注714), 第36页； |
| and Kadelbach (footnote 700 above), p. 152. | 及Kadelbach(上文脚注700)，第152页。 |
| See, for discussion, Knuchel (ibid.), at p. 141. | 关于讨论，见Knuchel(同上)，第141页。 |
| For general statements to this effect, see the statement by the Netherlands during the eighteenth session of the Sixth Committee, Agenda Item 69, Report of the International Law Commission, para. 2 (on the question of jus cogens, the “Agreement concerning the Sudeten German Territory, signed at Munich on 29 September 1938, was one of the few examples of treaties which had come to be regarded as contrary to international public order”). | 关于这方面的一般性声明，见荷兰在第六委员会第十八届会议期间的发言，议程项目69, 国际法委员会的报告，第2段(关于强行法问题，“1938年9月29日在慕尼黑签署的《关于苏台德德国领土的协定》是少数被认为违反国际公共秩序的条约之一”)。 |
| Cyprus, at the same meeting and in order to show the practice in support of nullity as a consequence of conflict with peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), listed a number of treaties as providing for nullity on account of conflict with peremptory norm, namely the prohibition on the use of force (“The Covenant of the League of Nations, the General Treaty for the Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy (known as the Briand Kellogg Pact); | 在同次会议上，为了表明支持因与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)相抵触而导致无效的做法，塞浦路斯列出了一些条约，这些条约对于与禁止使用武力这一强制性规范相抵触而无效的问题做了规定(《国际联盟盟约》、《关于废弃战争作为国家政策工具的一般条约》(称为“《白里安－凯洛格公约》)； |
| the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal; | 《纽伦堡法庭宪章》； |
| the Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the trial of the major war criminals in the Far East and, most recently, Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter of the United Nations made it lex lata in modern international law that a treaty procured by the illegal threat or use of force was void ab initio”). | 审判远东重要战犯的《国际军事法庭宪章》，以及通过非法使用武力达成的条约自始无效最近因《联合国宪章》第二条第四款被规定为现代国际法中的现行法”)。 |
| See also Israel during the eighteenth session of the Sixth Committee, Agenda Item 69, Report of the International Law Commission, para. 8. | 另见以色列在第六委员会第十八届会议期间的发言，议程项目69, 国际法委员会的报告，第8段。 |
| For more specific statements see East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Counter-Memorial of the Government of Australia of 1 June 1992, para. 223, declaring that the “Timor Gap Treaty” (the Treaty on the zone of cooperation in an area between the Indonesian province of East Timor and Northern Australia, signed over the zone of cooperation on 11 December 1989, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1654, No. 28462, p. 105), if in conflict with the right of self-determination, would be invalid on account of being in breach of a norm of jus cogens; | 更具体的陈述，见东帝汶(葡萄牙诉澳大利亚)案，澳大利亚政府1992年6月1日的辩诉状，第223段，其中宣布《帝汶沟条约》(1989年12月11日就合作地带签署的《关于在印度尼西亚东帝汶省与澳大利亚北部之间地区建立合作区的条约》，联合国《条约汇编》，第1654卷，第28462号，第105页)如果与自决权相抵触，则因违反强制法规范而无效； |
| the memorandum of the Legal Adviser of the State Department, Roberts B. Owen, to the Acting Secretary of State, 29 December 1979, in U.S. Digest, chapter 2, section 1, para. 4, reproduced in M.L. Nash, “Contemporary practice of the United States relating to international law”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 74, No. 2 (April 1980), p. 418, at p. 419 (“Nor is it clear that the treaty between the USSR and Afghanistan … is valid. | 国务院法律顾问Roberts B. Owen给代理国务卿的备忘录，1979年12月29日，载于U.S. Digest, 第2章第1节，第4段，转载于M.L.Nash, “Contemporary practice of the United States relating to international law”, “美国国际法学报”，第74卷，第2号(1980年4月)，第418页，第419页(“也不清楚苏联和阿富汗之间的条约…是否有效。 |
| If it actually does lend itself to support of Soviet intervention of the type in question in Afghanistan, it would be void under contemporary principles of international law, since it would conflict with what the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties describes as a ‘peremptory norm of general international law’ … , namely that contained in Article 2, paragraph 4 of the Charter” of the United Nations). | 如果该条约真的支持苏联对阿富汗的这类干预，根据当代国际法原则，条约无效，因为它与《维也纳条约法公约》所称的‘一般国际法强制性规范’相抵触…，即与《联合国宪章》第二条第四款所载规范相抵触”)。 |
| General Assembly resolution 33/28A of 7 December 1978; | 联大1978年12月7日第33/28A号决议； |
| General Assembly resolution 34/65 B of 29 November 1979; | 联大1979年11月29日第34/65 B号决议； |
| General Assembly resolutions 36/51 of 24 November 1981; | 联大1981年11月24日第36/51号决议； |
| and General Assembly resolution 39/42 of 5 December 1984. | 及联大1984年12月5日第39/42号决议。 |
| Prosecutor v. Taylor, Case No. SCSL-2003-01-I, Decision of 31 May 2004 on Immunity from Jurisdiction, Appeals Chamber, Special Court for Sierra Leone, para. 53. | 检察官诉Taylor案，案件编号SCSL-2003-01-I, 塞拉利昂问题特别法庭上诉分庭2004年5月31日关于管辖豁免问题的裁决，第53段。 |
| See also Prosecutor v. Kallon, Case No. SCSL-2004-15-AR72(E), Decision of 13 March 2004 on Constitutionality and Lack of Jurisdiction, Appeals Chamber, Special Court for Sierra Leone. | 另见检察官诉Kallon案，案件编号SCSL-2004-15-AR72(E)，塞拉利昂问题特别法庭上诉分庭2004年3月13日关于合宪性和缺乏管辖权的裁决。 |
| Prosecutor v. Taylor (see footnote above), para. 53. | 检察官诉Taylor案(见上文脚注)，第53段。 |
| Aloeboetoe and Others v. Suriname, Judgment of 10 September 1993 on Reparation and Costs, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Series C, No. 15. | Aloeboetoe等人诉苏里南案，美洲人权法院1993年9月10日关于赔偿和费用的判决，C辑，第15号。 |
| Ibid., at para. 57. | 同上，第57段。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| See paragraph (6) of the commentary to article 50 of the draft articles on the law of treaties, Yearbook … 1966, vol. II, p. 248 (draft article 50 “has to be read in conjunction with article 61 (Emergence of a new rule of jus cogens), and in the view of the Commission, there is no question of the present article having retroactive effects. | 见《条约法条款草案》第50条的评注第(6)段，《1966年…年鉴》，第二卷，第248页(第50条草案“须结合第61条(强行法新规则的产生)来解读，并且委员会认为，毫无疑问本条具有追溯力。 |
| It concerns cases where a treaty is void at the time of its conclusion by reason of the fact that its provisions are in conflict with an already existing rule of jus cogens. | 它涉及的是条约在缔结时由于其规定与已经存在的强行法现有规则抵触，因而条约无效的情况。 |
| The treaty is wholly void because its actual conclusion conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law … . Article 61, on the other hand, concerns cases where a treaty, valid when concluded, becomes void and terminates by reason of the subsequent development establishment of a new rule of jus cogens with which its provisions are in conflict. | 条约因其实际缔结与一般国际法强制性规范抵触而整体无效…另一方面，第61条所涉情况是，一项条约在缔结时有效，但因其规定与嗣后拟定的一项强行法新规则抵触而成为无效并终止。 |
| The words ‘becomes void and terminates’ make it quite clear, the Commission considered that the emergence of a new rule of jus cogens is not to have retroactive effects on the validity of a treaty. | ‘成为无效并终止’的措辞极为清楚地说明，委员会认为，新的强行法规则的出现对条约效力将不具追溯力。 |
| The invalidity is to attach only from the time of the establishment of the new rule of jus cogens”) (emphasis in original). | 无效仅是从拟定新的强行法规则之时起产生效力”)(强调是原有的)。 |
| See paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 41 of the draft articles on the law of treaties, Yearbook … 1966, vol. (II), p. 238. | 见《条约法条款草案》第41条草案评注第(5)段，《1966年…年鉴》，第二卷，第238页。 |
| Guide to Practice on Reservations to Treaties, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/66/10/Add.1), guideline 4.4.3. | 《对条约的保留实践指南》，《大会正式记录，第六十六届会议，补编第10号》(A/66/ 10/Add.1), 准则4.4.3。 |
| Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (see footnote 741 above), at pp. 93–94, para. 175 (addressing this issue in the context of a reservation to a declaration recognizing as compulsory the jurisdiction of the Court under Article 36, paragraph 2, of its Statute). | 尼加拉瓜境内和针对尼加拉瓜的军事和准军事活动案(见上文脚注741), 第93-94页，第175段(在对一项声明提出保留、根据法院《规约》第三十六条第二款承认法院管辖权强制性的背景下处理此问题)。 |
| Guide to Practice on Reservations to Treaties (see footnote 827 above), para. (5) of the commentary to guideline 4.4.3. | 《对条约的保留实践指南》(见上文脚注827)，准则4.4.3评注第(5)段。 |
| See, for example, paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 26 of the articles on the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, p. 85. | 例如，见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条的评注第(5)段，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第85页。 |
| Siderman de Blake v. Republic of Argentina (see footnote 708 above), p. 715 (citing to the Restatement (Third) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States (1987), § 102 comment k). | Siderman de Blake诉阿根廷共和国案(见上文脚注708)，第715页(引述《美国外交关系法注释汇编》(第三版) (1987年)，§102评论k)。 |
| Julio Héctor Simón y otros s/ privación ilegítima de la libertad (see footnote 724 above), para. 48 (original: “el carácter de ius cogens de modo que se encuentra no sólo por encima de los tratados sino incluso por sobre todas las fuentes del derecho”). | Julio Héctor Simón y otros s/ privación ilegítima de la libertad案(见上文脚注724)，第48段 (原文：“el carácter de ius cogens de modo que se encuentra no sólo por encima de los tratados sino incluso por sobre todas las fuentes del derecho”“强行法的性质使得它不仅高于条约，甚至高于所有法律渊源”)。 |
| Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy: Greece intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012, p. 99, at p. 140, para. 92. | 国家的管辖豁免案(德国诉意大利：希腊参加诉讼)，判决，《2012年国际法院案例汇编》，第99页起，见第140页，第92段。 |
| Ibid., paras. 92–93. | 同上，第92-93段。 |
| See in this respect, Ulf Linderfalk, Understanding Jus Cogens in International Law and International Legal Discourse (forthcoming, 2019), at section 1.3.1 (examples include the priority-rule implicitly confirmed by the International Court of Justice in the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State case: in the event of a conflict between a jus cogens norm and a rule of customary international law, States must act upon the former). | 就此问题，另见Ulf Linderfalk, Understanding Jus Cogens in International Law and International Legal Discourse (即将发表，2019年)，第1.3.1节(实例包括国际法院在国家的管辖豁免案中间接确认的优先规则：当一项强行法规范与一项习惯国际法规则相抵触时，国家必须依照前者行事)。 |
| Al-Adsani v. the United Kingdom (see footnote 706 above), para. 60. | Al-Adsani诉联合王国案(见上文脚注706)，第60段。 |
| See also Prosecutor v. Furundžija (footnote 699 above), para. 153. | 另见检察官诉 Furundžija案(上文脚注699)，第153段。 |
| Joint dissenting opinion of Judges Rozakis and Caflisch (joined by Judges Wildhaber, Costa, Cabral Barreto and Vajić) in Al-Adsani v. the United Kingdom (see footnote 706 above), para. 1. | 罗萨基斯法官和卡弗利施法官(后维尔德哈伯法官、科斯塔法官、卡布拉尔·巴雷托法官和瓦吉奇法官加入)在Al-Adsani诉联合王国案中的联合反对意见(见上文脚注706), 第1段。 |
| See also T. Kleinlein (footnote 764 above), p. 187 (“it is a relatively straightforward case to perceive a structural hierarchy between jus cogens and regional or local customary rules”). | 另见T.Kleinlein (上文脚注764)，第187页(“认为强行法与区域或地方习惯规则之间存在结构等级是一个相对简单明了的论述”)。 |
| The Kenya Section of the International Commission of Jurists v. the Attorney-General and Others (see footnote 748 above). | 国际法学家委员会肯尼亚分会诉总检察长等人案(上文脚注748)。 |
| See also C v. Director of Immigration, HCAL 132/2006, [2008] 2 HKC 165, [2008] HKCFI 109, ILDC 1119 (HK 2008), 18 February 2008, para. 75. | 另见C诉入境事务处处长案，HCAL 132/2006、[2008] 2 HKC 165、[2008] HKCFI 109、ILDC 1119 (HK 2008), 2008年2月18日，第75段。 |
| R (Mohamed) v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, [2008] EWHC 2048 (Admin), [2009] 1 WLR 2579, para. 142 (ii). | R(穆罕默德)诉外交和联邦事务大臣案，[2008] EWHC 2048年(Admin)，[2009] 1 WLR 2579, 第142(ii)段。 |
| See also A. Caro de Beer and D. Tladi, “The use of force against Syria in response to alleged use of chemical weapons by Syria: a return to humanitarian intervention?”, Heidelberg Journal of International Law, vol. 79, No. 2 (2019), p. 217, in which the authors noted that if the prohibition on the use of force were regarded as a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens), a subsequent rule of customary international law could only emerge if it were “‘accepted and recognized’ as having a peremptory character, in a way that would modify the” pre-existing peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 另见A. Caro de Beer和D. Tladi, “因叙利亚涉嫌使用化学武器而对叙利亚使用武力：恢复人道主义干预？”《海德堡国际法杂志》，第79卷，第2期(2019年)，第217页，作者在其中指出，如果禁止使用武力被视为一般国际法的强制性规范(强行法)，只有当习惯国际法的嗣后规则被“接受和承认”为具有强制性时，才能出现，从而修改以前存在的一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| Draft conclusion 15 of the draft conclusions on identification of customary international law, report of the International Law Commission on the work of its seventieth session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/73/10), p. 121. | 关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案之结论草案15, 国际法委员会第七十届会议工作报告，《大会正式记录，第七十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/73/10), 第121页。 |
| On the universal application of these norms, see, for example, the written statement of 19 June 1995 by the Government of Mexico on the request for an advisory opinion submitted to the International Court of Justice by the General Assembly at its forty-ninth session (resolution 49/75K), para. 7 (“The norms … are of a legally binding nature for all the States (jus cogens)”). | 关于这些规范的普遍适用，例如，见1995年6月19日墨西哥政府关于联大第四十九届会议请求国际法院提出咨询意见的书面声明(第49/75K号决议)，第7段(“规范…对所有国家都具有法律约束力(强行法)”)。 |
| Youssef Nada v. State Secretariat for Economic Affairs and Federal Department of Economic Affairs (see footnote 698 above), para. 7 (emphasis added). | Youssef Nada诉国家经济事务秘书处和联邦经济事务部案(见上文脚注698)，第7段(强调是后加的)。 |
| Juridical Condition and Rights of Undocumented Migrants (see footnote 731 above), p. 113, paras. 4–5. | “无证移民的法律地位和权利”(见上文脚注731)，第113页，第4-5段。 |
| See also the Islamic Republic of Iran, “the ‘persistent objector’ … had no place in the formation of jus cogens” (A/C.6/68/SR.26, para. 4). | 另见伊朗伊斯兰共和国，“一贯反对者”…在强行法形成过程中没有地位”(A/C.6/68/ SR.26, 第4段)。 |
| See also statements by States in the 2016 and 2018 meetings of the Sixth Committee (agenda item 78: report of the International Law Commission), particularly the following: Brazil “welcomed the clarification in draft conclusion 15 [of the draft conclusions on identification of customary international law] that the inclusion of the persistent objector rule was without prejudice to any issues of jus cogens” (A/C.6/71/SR.22, para. 18); | 另见各国2016年和2018年在第六委员会会议上的发言(议程项目78:国际法委员会的报告)，特别是以下发言：巴西“欢迎[关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案]结论草案15的澄清，即纳入一贯反对者规则不影响任何强行法问题”(A/C.6/71/SR.22, 第18段)； |
| Chile stated that “[w]]here the rules of jus cogens were concerned, the persistent objector institution did not apply” (A/C.6/71/SR.21, para. 102); | 智利指出，“就强行法规则而言，一贯反对者制度不适用(A/C.6/71/SR.21, 第102段)； |
| Cyprus “welcomed paragraph 3 [of draft conclusion 15 of the draft conclusions on identification of customary international law] … [as] without prejudice to any question concerning peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens)” (A/C.6/73/SR.23, para. 43); | 塞浦路斯“欢迎关于习惯国际法识别的结论草案之结论草案15第3段…不妨碍关于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的任何问题”(A/C.6/73/SR.23, 第43段)； |
| El Salvador “agreed with the Special Rapporteur that the doctrine of the persistent objector was not applicable to jus cogens norms” (A/C.6/71/SR.25, para. 63); | 萨尔瓦多“同意特别报告员的意见，即一贯反对者的理论不适用于强行法规范”(A/C.6/71/SR.25, 第63段)； |
| Finland, on behalf of the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden), “welcomed the inclusion in the draft conclusions [on identification of customary international law] of the persistent objector rule …. | 芬兰代表北欧国家(丹麦、芬兰、冰岛、挪威和瑞典)发言，“欢迎在结论草案中纳入[关于习惯国际法识别的]一贯反对者规则。 |
| Nonetheless, the category of rule to which the State objected should be taken into account and particular consideration must be given to universal respect for fundamental rules, especially those relating to the protection of individuals” (A/C.6/71/SR.20, para. 52); | 然而，应顾及国家反对的规则类别，必须特别考虑普遍尊重各个基本规则，特别是与保护个人有关的规则”(A/C.6/71/SR.20, 第52段)； |
| Greece “reiterated [the] delegation’s doubts about the applicability of the persistent objector rule in relation not only to the rules of jus cogens but also to the broader category of the general principles of international law” (A/C.6/71/SR.22, para. 10); | 希腊“重申[该国代表团对一贯反对者规则既适用于强行法规则，也适用于更广泛的国际法一般原则表示怀疑”(A/C.6/71/SR.22, 第10段)； |
| Iceland, speaking on behalf of the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden), stated that “the notion of persistent objector was not compatible with the concept of jus cogens” (A/C.6/71/SR.24, para. 63); | 冰岛代表北欧国家(丹麦、芬兰、冰岛、挪威和瑞典)发言说，“一贯反对者的概念与强行法的概念不相符合”(A/C.6/71/SR.24, 第63段)； |
| Mexico stated that “there could be no persistent objection to jus cogens rules” (A/C.6/71/SR.22, para. 25); | 墨西哥指出，“强行法规则不可能有持久的反对意见”(A/C.6/71/SR.22, 第25段)； |
| Slovenia “agreed with the enunciation of jus cogens norms as being of a special and exceptional nature, reflecting the common and overarching values adhered to by the international community. | 斯洛文尼亚“同意强行法规范具有特殊和例外性质的表述，反映了国际社会坚持的共同和首要价值观。 |
| For that reason, [the] delegation reaffirmed its view that the persistent objector was incompatible with the nature of jus cogens” (A/C.6/71/SR.26, para. 114); | 为此，代表团重申它的观点，即一贯反对者概念与强行法的性质不相符合”(A/C.6/71/SR.26, 第114段)； |
| South Africa “agreed with [the Special Rapporteur’s] preliminary observation that there could be no objection to jus cogens norms” (A/C.6/71/SR.26, para. 86); | 南非“同意[特别报告员]的初步意见，即不能反对强行法规范”(A/C.6/71/SR.26, 第86段)； |
| and Spain stated that “it was regrettable that it had not been specifically stated in draft conclusion 15 [of the draft conclusions on identification of customary international law] that there could be no persistent objection to peremptory norms of general international law” (A/C.6/73/SR.21, para. 91). | 西班牙指出，“令人遗憾的是，[关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案]之结论草案15[没有明确指出，不能持续反对一般国际法的强制性规范”(A/C.6/73/SR.21, 第91段)。 |
| Michael Domingues v. United States (see footnote 706 above), para. 49. | Michael Domingues诉美国案(见上文脚注706)，第49段。 |
| C. Mik, “Jus cogens in contemporary international law”, Polish Yearbook of International Law, vol. 33, No. 27 (2013), p. 50. | C. Mik, “Jus cogens in contemporary international law”, 《波兰国际法年鉴》，第33卷，第27号(2013年)，第50页。 |
| See also D. Costelloe (footnote 694 above), pp. 21–23. | 另见D. Costelloe (上文脚注694)，第 21–23页。 |
| For example, see the commentary to Part VI, as well as paragraph 4 of the commentary to conclusion 15 of the conclusions on identification of customary international law. | 例如，见关于习惯国际法的识别的结论第六部分的评注，以及结论15的评注第4段。 |
| The scope of this draft conclusion is thus broader than the scope of the 2006 International Law Commission guiding principles applicable to unilateral declarations of States capable of creating legal obligations, which “relate only to unilateral acts stricto sensu, i.e. those taking the form of formal declarations formulated by a State with the intent to produce obligations under international laws” (preambular paragraph 5 of the guiding principles). | 本结论草案的范围因此比国际法委员会2006年关于适用于能够产生法律义务的国家单方面声明的指导原则的范围更为宽泛，那些原则“仅涉及严格意义上的单方面行为，即那些以国家出于创立国际法义务之意图而所作的正式声明为形式的单方面行为”。 |
| See the Guide to Practice on Reservations to Treaties (footnote 827 above), paragraph (18) of the commentary to guideline 3.1.5.3, stating that it was true that “the rule prohibiting derogation from a rule of jus cogens applies not only to treaty relations, but also to all legal acts, including unilateral acts”. | 另见《对条约的保留实践指南》(上文脚注827)，准则3.1.5.3评注第(18)段，其中指出，“禁止减损强行法规则的规则不仅适用于条约关系，而且适用于所有法律行为，包括单方面行为”。 |
| Guiding principle 8, Yearbook … 2006, vol. II (Part Two), p. 165. | 指导原则8, 《2006年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第165页。 |
| Ibid., commentary to guiding principle 2. | 同上，指导原则2的评注。 |
| Case Concerning Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 554, at p. 573, para. 39. | 边界争端案(布基纳法索/马里)，判决，《1986年国际法院案例汇编》，第554页起，见第573页，第39段。 |
| See also Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 253, at p. 267, para. 43 (“When it is the intention of the State making the declaration that it should become bound according to its terms, that intention confers on the declaration the character of a legal undertaking, the State being thenceforth legally required to follow a course of conduct consistent with the declaration”). | 另见核试验案(澳大利亚诉法国)，判决，《1974年国际法院案例汇编》，第253页起，见第267页，第43段(“当发表声明的国家打算根据其条款接受约束时，这一意图赋予声明以法律承诺的性质，从那时起，法律要求该国遵循与声明相一致的行为方针”)。 |
| Frontier Dispute (see footnote 851 above), para. 40. | 边界争端案(见上文脚注851)，第40段。 |
| Nuclear Tests (see footnote 851 above), para. 44. | 核试验案(见上文脚注851)，第44段。 |
| See paragraph (2) of the commentary to draft conclusion 12 of the draft conclusions on identification of customary international law. | 见关于习惯国际法的识别的结论草案之结论草案12的评注第2段。 |
| See report of the International Law Commission on the work of its seventieth session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/73/10), p. 147. | 见国际法委员会第七十届会议工作报告，《大会正式记录，第七十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/73/10), 第147页。 |
| By virtue of Article 25 of the Charter of the United Nations, which provides that the “Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council”, the decisions of the Security Council under Chapter VII of the Charter are binding. | 《联合国宪章》第二十五条规定，“联合国会员国同意接受并履行安全理事会之决议”，根据该条，安全理事会根据《宪章》第七章作出的决定具有约束力。 |
| Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (see footnote 793 above), p. 53, para. 114 (“The language of a resolution of the Security Council should be carefully analysed before a conclusion can be made as to its binding effect. | 南非继续留驻纳米比亚对各国的法律后果(上文脚注793)，第53页，第114段。 (“在得到结论认为一项安全理事会决议具有约束力之前，应仔细分析该决议的措辞。 |
| In view of the nature of the powers under Article 25, the question whether they have been in fact exercised is to be determined in each case, having regard to the terms of the resolution to be interpreted, the discussions leading to it, the Charter provisions invoked and, in general, all circumstances that might assist in determining the legal consequences of the resolution of the Security Council”). | 鉴于第二十五条规定的权力的性质，实际上是否行使了这些权力的问题应根据每一种情况来加以确定，同时考虑到需要解释的决议的条款、通过该决议前的讨论、援引的《宪章》条款以及总的来说可能有助于确定安全理事会决议的法律后果的所有情况”)。 |
| Article 103 of the Charter of the United Nations provides that “[i]n the event of a conflict between the obligations of the Members of the United Nations under the present Charter and their obligations under any other international agreement, their obligations under the present Charter shall prevail”. | 《联合国宪章》第一百零三条规定，“联合国会员国在本宪章下之义务与其依任何其他国际协定所负之义务有冲突时，其在本宪章下之义务应居优先”。 |
| While this provision speaks only of international agreements, it has been interpreted as applying to customary international law and certainly to resolutions, decisions and acts of other international organizations. | 虽然这一条款只提到国际协定，但它被解释为适用于习惯国际法，当然也适用于其他国际组织的决议、决定和行为。 |
| See, for discussion, the report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law: difficulties arising from the diversification and expansion of international law (finalized by Martti Koskenniemi) (A/CN.4/L.682, Corr.1 and Add.1), paras. 344–345, especially at para. 345 (“Therefore it seems sound to join the prevailing opinion that Article 103 should be read extensively – so as to affirm that [C]harter obligations prevail also over United Nations Member States’ customary law obligations”). | 关于讨论，见“国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告：国际法多样化和扩展引起的困难”(由马尔蒂·科斯肯涅米定稿)，(A/CN.4/L.682、Corr.1和Add.1), 第344-345段，特别是第345段。 (“因此，似乎应该认可主流意见，即应广泛阅读第一百零三条，以确认宪章义务也优先于联合国会员国的习惯法义务”)。 |
| For the statements by States, see for example, Switzerland, on behalf of Germany, Sweden and Switzerland (“some courts have also expressed their willingness to ensure that Security Council decisions comply with” peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens), “from which neither the Member States nor the United Nations may derogate” (S/PV.5446, p. 28); | 各国的发言，例如，见瑞士代表德国、瑞典和瑞士(“一些法院也表示愿意确保安全理事会的决定符合”一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)，“会员国和联合国均不得加以克减”(S/PV.5446, 第28页)； |
| Qatar (while, by virtue of Article 103 of the Charter, obligations flowing from Security Council resolutions supersede other obligations, this did not apply to peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) (S/PV.5779, p. 23). | 卡塔尔(虽然根据《宪章》第一百零三条，安全理事会决议产生的义务优先于其他义务，但这不适用于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)(S/PV.5779, 第23页)。 |
| See also Argentina and Nigeria (S/PV.5474, p. 20; | 另见阿根廷和尼日利亚(分别见S/PV.5474, 第20页； |
| and S/PV.5474 (Resumption 1), p. 19, respectively); | S/PV.5474 (复会一)，第19页)； |
| Finland, speaking on behalf of the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden), observed that there was a “widely held view that the powers of the Security Council, albeit exceptionally wide, were limited by the peremptory norms of international law” (A/C.6/60/SR.18, para. 18); | 芬兰代表北欧国家(丹麦、芬兰、冰岛、挪威和瑞典)发言说，“人们普遍认为，安全理事会的权力虽然非常广泛，但受到国际法强制性规范的限制”(A/C.6/60/SR.18, 第18段)； |
| and Iran (Islamic Republic of) (A/C.6/66/SR.7, para. 84). | 伊朗伊斯兰共和国(A/C.6/66/SR.7, 第84段)。 |
| For other views by States, see the United States (A/C.6/60/SR.20, para. 36), which cautioned that “general pronouncements about the relationship” between peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and Security Council resolutions “should be avoided” and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (A/C.6/73/SR.27, para. 73, citing to para. 5 of the annex to the written statement) stated that there is no “State practice to support the contention that a State can refuse to comply with a binding [Security Council] resolution based on an assertion of a breach of a jus cogens norm” and the Russian Federation (A/C.6/73/SR.26, para. 131), which emphasized that discussions on the issue of Security Council resolutions in connection with jus cogens norms “were not based on any practice”, and that the draft conclusion could be misinterpreted in a way “which would undermine the activities of the Security Council”. | 其他国家的意见，见美国(A/C.6/60/SR.20, 第36段)，其中提醒说，“应当避免”对一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)和安全理事会决议之间的“关系做出笼统声明”； 大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国 (A/C.6/73/SR.27, 第73段，引述书面陈述附件第5段)，声明没有任何“国家实践支持一国可以违反强行法规范为由拒绝遵守一项有约束力的[安全理事会]决议的论点； 俄罗斯联邦 (A/C.6/73/SR.26, 第131段)，其中强调，就安全理事会决议问题与强行法规范有关的讨论“不是以任何实践为基础的”，结论草案可能会被误解，“从而破坏安全理事会的活动”。 |
| For the views of Courts see, e.g. R (On the Application of Al-Jedda) v. Secretary of State for Defence, Appeal Judgment of 12 December 2007, House of Lords [2008] 3 All ER 28 (Lord Bingham), para. 35; | 不同法院的意见，例如，见R (Al-Jedda的申诉)诉国防部长案，2007年12月12日上诉判决，上议院，[2008] 3 All ER 28 (宾汉勋爵)，第35段； |
| Youssef Nada v. State Secretariat for Economic Affairs and Federal Department of Economic Affairs (see footnote 698 above), para. 7 (“Yet jus cogens, the peremptory law binding on all subjects of international law, marks the limit of the obligation to apply resolutions of the Security Council. | Youssef Nada诉国家经济事务秘书处和联邦经济事务部案(见上文脚注698)，第7段。 (“然而，强行法，即对国际法所有主体具有约束力的强制性法律，限定了适用安全理事会决议的义务。 |
| For this reason, it must be determined whether, as the petitioner asserts, the resolutions of the Security Council containing the sanctions violate jus cogens”) (original in German, translation courtesy of Oxford Reports on International Law in Domestic Courts); | 为此，正如请愿人所声称的，必须确定安全理事会通过的制裁决议是否违反强行法”)(原文为德文，译文由《牛津国内法院适用国际法报告》提供)； |
| Tadić, Judgment, 15 July 1999 (footnote 152 above), para. 296; | Tadić案，1999年7月15日的判决(上文脚注152)，第296段； |
| Yassin Abdullah Kadi v. Council of the European Union and Commission of the European Communities (see footnote 719 above), para. 226 (on appeal, European Court did not address the matter). | Yassin Abdullah Kadi诉欧洲联盟理事会和欧洲共同体委员会案(见上文脚注719)，第226段(上诉案，欧洲法院未处理此事)。 |
| Zaire (A/C.6/35/SR.32, para. 38). | 扎伊尔(A/C.6/35/SR.32, 第38段)。 |
| See also the statement of the Netherlands at the 25th meeting of the Sixth Committee during the forty-ninth session of the General Assembly, in which it stated that “an international crime would always involve a breach of a jus cogens or erga omnes obligation” (A/C.6/49/SR.25, para. 38). | 另参见荷兰在联大第四十九届会议期间在第六委员会第25次会议上的发言。 荷兰在发言中指出，“国际罪行总会涉及到违反强行法或普遍义务”(A/C.6/49/SR.25, 第38段)。 |
| See also the Czech Republic (A/C.6/49/SR.26, para. 19) and Burkina Faso (A/C.6/54/SR.26). | 另见捷克共和国(A/C.6/49/SR.26, 第19段)和布基纳法索(A/C.6/54/SR.26)。 |
| Nulyarimma and Others v. Thompson, Appeal Decision of 1 September 1999, [1999] FCA 1192, 165 ALR 621, 96 FCR 153, ILDC 2773 (AU 1999), para. 81. | Nulyarimma等人诉Thompson案，1999年9月1日的上诉裁定，[1999] FCA 1192, 165 ALR 621, 96 FCR 153, ILDC 2773(AU 1999)，第81段。 |
| Kane v. Winn, 31 F. Supp. 2d 162, 199 (D. Mass. 2004). | Kane诉Winn案，31 F. Supp. 2d 162, 199(D. Mass. 2004)。 |
| See also R and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and Secretary of State for Home Affairs, Appeal Judgment of 12 October 2006 of the High Court, [2006] ALL ER (D) 138, para. 102, referring to “ius cogens erga omnes”. | 另见R和联合国难民事务高级专员公署诉外交和联邦事务大臣和内政大臣案，高等法院2006年10月12日的上诉判决，[2006] ALL ER (D) 138, 第102段，提及“普遍强行法”。 |
| See also Jorgic case, J (a Bosnian Serb), Individual Complaint, Judgment of 12 December 2000 of the German Constitutional Court, 2 BvR 1290/99, ILDC 132 (DE 2000), para. 17. | 另见Jorgic案，J(波斯尼亚塞族人)，个人申诉，德国宪法法院2000年12月12日的判决，2 BvR 1290/99, ILDC 132 (DE 2000), 第17段。 |
| See, for example, Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965, Advisory Opinion of 25 February 2019, para. 180 (viewing the right to self-determination as having an erga omnes character). | 例如，见1965年查戈斯群岛从毛里求斯分裂的法律后果，2019年2月25日的咨询意见，第180段(将自决权视为具有普遍性)。 |
| See also East Timor (Portugal v. Australia) (footnote 805 above), p. 102, para. 29, in which the Court described the statement that self-determination had an erga omnes character as being “irreproachable”. | 另见东帝汶(葡萄牙诉澳大利亚)案(上文脚注805)，第102页，第29段，法院将自决具有普遍性一说描述为“无懈可击”。 |
| In Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015, p. 3, at p. 47, para. 87, the Court affirmed “that the Genocide Convention contains obligations erga omnes” and “that the prohibition of Genocide has the character of a peremptory norm (jus cogens)”. | 在《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用(克罗地亚诉塞尔维亚)案判决(《2015年国际法院案例汇编》，第3页起，第47页，第87段)当中，法院申明，“《灭绝种族罪公约》内含普遍义务”，且“灭绝种族禁令具有强制性规范(强行法)性质”。 |
| See Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (footnote 805 above), paras. 88, 149 and 155; | 见在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果，咨询意见(上文脚注805)，第88、第149和第155段； |
| and Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (footnote 805 above), p. 32, paras. 33–34, in which the Court determined “obligations [that] derive … from the outlawing of acts of aggression, and of genocide … protection from slavery and racial discrimination”. | 巴塞罗那电车、电灯及电力有限公司案(上文脚注805)，第32页，第33-34段，法院在其中裁定，“义务源自…法律上对侵略行为和灭绝种族行为的禁止…以及对免遭奴役和种族歧视的保护”。 |
| See also conclusion (33) of the conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (A/CN.4/L.702, p. 21). | 另见国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论，结论33(A/CN.4/L.702, 第21页)。 |
| The conclusions also appear in Yearbook … 2006, vol. II (Part Two), para. 251. | 上述结论另见《2006年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第251段。 |
| See draft articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts (Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, para. 76, and the commentaries thereto, para. 77). | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》(《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)及更正，第76段，以及条款草案评注，第77段)。 |
| The articles also appear in General Assembly resolution 56/83 of 12 December 2001, annex, as modified by A/56/49(Vol. I)/Corr.4. | 上述条款另见经A/56/49(Vol. I)/Corr.4修改的联大2001年12月12日第56/83号决议附件。 |
| See, in particular, Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965 (footnote 863 above), para. 180 and Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (footnote 805 above), para. 159. | 特别参见：1965年查戈斯群岛从毛里求斯分裂的法律后果(上文脚注863)，第180段； 在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果(上文脚注805)，第159段。 |
| See Part Two, chapter III, of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, especially paragraph (4) of the general commentary to that chapter, in which “the recognition of the concept of peremptory norms of international law” is said to be a development “closely related” to obligations erga omnes, and paragraph (7) of the general commentary, in which the Commission states that “there is at the very least substantial overlap between” obligations erga omnes and peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens). | 《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第二部分第三章，尤其是：该章总评注第(4)段，其中将“承认国际法强制性规范概念”称为一个与普遍义务“有密切联系”的进展情况； 总评注第(7)段，其中委员会指出普遍义务与一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)之间“至少存在着相当大的重叠”。 |
| See, for example, M. Cherif Bassiouni, “International crimes: jus cogens and obligatio erga omnes”, Law and Contemporary Problems, vol. 59, No. 4 (1996), p. 63; | 例如，见：M. Cherif Bassiouni, “International crimes: jus cogens and obligatio erga omnes”, Law and Contemporary Problems, vol. 59, No. 4 (1996), p. 63; |
| I. Scobbie, “The invocation of responsibility for the breach of ‘obligations under peremptory norms of general international law’”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 13, No. 5 (2002), p. 1210 (“Following Barcelona Traction, the Commission has taken the view that peremptory norms and obligations ‘owed to the international community as a whole’ are essentially two sides of the one coin”); | I. Scobbie, “The invocation of responsibility for the breach of ‘obligations under peremptory norms of general international law’”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 13, No. 5 (2002), p. 1210 (“Following Barcelona Traction, the Commission has taken the view that peremptory norms and obligations ‘owed to the international community as a whole’ are essentially two sides of the one coin”); |
| F. Forrest Martin, “Delineating a hierarchical outline of international law sources and norms”, Saskatchewan Law Review, vol. 65 (2002), p. 353; | F. Forrest Martin, “Delineating a hierarchical outline of international law sources and norms”, Saskatchewan Law Review, vol. 65 (2002), p. 353; |
| S. Villalpando, L’émergence de la communauté internationale dans de la Responsabilité des États (Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 2005), p. 106; | S. Villalpando, L’émergence de la communauté internationale dans de la Responsabilité des États (Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 2005), p. 106; |
| C. Tomuschat, “Reconceptualizing the debate …” (footnote 728 above), p. 430; | C. Tomuschat, “Reconceptualizing the debate …” (footnote 728 above), p. 430; |
| A. Pellet, “Conclusions”, in Tomuschat and Thouvenin (ibid.). | A. Pellet, “Conclusions”, in Tomuschat and Thouvenin (ibid.).. |
| See, for example, Villalpando (footnote 866 above) and Forrest Martin (footnote 866 above). | 例如，见Villalpando(上文脚注866)和Forrest Martin(上文脚注866)。 |
| Articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, paragraph (7) of the general commentary to Part Two, chapter III. | 《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》，第二部分第三章总评注第(7)段。 |
| Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965 (see footnote 863 above), para. 180 (“all States have a legal interest in protecting that right”); | 1965年查戈斯群岛从毛里求斯分裂的法律后果(见上文脚注863)，第180段(“所有国家都有保护该权利的合法利益”)； |
| Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (see footnote 805 above), p. 32, para. 33 (“al1 States can be held to have a legal interest in their protection)”. | 巴塞罗那电车、电灯及电力有限公司案(上文脚注805)，第32页，第33段(“可认为所有国家都有对其进行保护的合法利益”)。 |
| Ibid., art. 48, para. 1 (b). | 同上，第48条，第1(b)段。 |
| Ibid., paragraph (1) of the commentary to article 48. | 同上，第48条评注第(1)段。 |
| Ibid., art. 48, para. 2 (a). | 同上，第48条，第2(a)段。 |
| Ibid., art. 48, para. 2 (b). | 同上，第48条，第2(b)段。 |
| Ibid., see generally Part One, chapter V. Paragraph (1) of the general commentary to Part One, chapter V, states that the existence of these grounds “provides a shield against an otherwise well-founded claim for the breach of an international obligation”. | 同上，一般见第一部分第五章。 第一部分第五章总评注第(1)段指出，上述理由的存在“可提供一面盾牌，用以对抗否则是理由充分的对违背某项国际义务的索偿要求”。 |
| Ibid., paragraph (4) of the commentary to article 26. | 同上，第26条评注第(4)段。 |
| Ibid., paragraph (7) of the general commentary to Part Two, chapter III. | 同上，第二部分第三章总评注第(7)段。 |
| See, for example, the Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, General Assembly resolution 2625 (XXV) of 24 October 1970, annex, para. 1 (“States have the duty to cooperate with one another, irrespective of the differences in their political, economic and social systems, in the various spheres of international relations, in order to maintain international peace and security and to promote international economic stability and progress, the general welfare of nations and international cooperation free from discrimination based on such differences”). | 例如，见《关于各国依联合国宪章建立友好关系及合作之国际法原则之宣言》，联大1970年10月24日第2625 (XXV)号决议，附件，第1段(各国不问在政治、经济及社会制度上有何差异均有义务在国际关系之各方面彼此合作，以期维持国际和平与安全，并增进国际经济安定与进步、各国之一般福利、及不受此种差异所生歧视之国际合作。 |
| See paragraph (3) of the commentary to article 41 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | ) 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》，第41条评注第(3)段。 |
| A, Amnesty International (intervening) and Commonwealth Lawyers Association (intervening) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, Judgment of the House of Lords of 8 December 2005 [2006] 1 All ER 575, para. 34. | A、大赦国际(参与诉讼)和英联邦律师协会(参与诉讼)诉内政大臣案，上议院2005年12月8日的判决，[2006] 1 All ER 575, 第34段。 |
| See draft articles on the protection of persons in the event of disasters, with commentaries (report of the International Law Commission on the work of its sixty-eighth session, Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-first Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/71/10)), paragraph (1) of the commentary to draft article 7 (“The duty to cooperate is well established as a principle of international law and can be found in numerous international instruments”). | 见附有评注的《发生灾害时的人员保护条款草案》(国际法委员会第六十八届会议工作报告，《大会第七十一届会议正式记录，补编第10号》(A/71/10))，第7条草案评注第(1)段(“合作的义务是一项公认的国际法原则，在众多国际文书中均有表述”)。 |
| Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (see footnote 805 above), para. 155. | 在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果(见上文脚注805)，第155段。 |
| Ibid., para. 159. | 同上，第159段。 |
| Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965 (see footnote 863 above), para. 182. | 1965年查戈斯群岛从毛里求斯分裂的法律后果(见上文脚注863)， 第182段。 |
| Case of La Cantuta v. Peru, Merits, Reparations and Costs, Judgment of 29 November 2006, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, para. 160 (“As pointed out repeatedly, the acts involved in the instant case have violated peremptory norms of international law (jus cogens). | La Cantuta诉秘鲁案，实质问题、赔偿和费用，美洲人权法院2006年11月29日的判决，第160段(“正如已反复指出的那样，本案所涉行为违反了国际法强制性规范(强行法)。 |
| … In view of the nature and seriousness of the events … the need to eradicate impunity reveals itself to the international community as a duty of cooperation among states”). | …鉴于事件的性质和严重程度…消除有罪不罚现象的必要性已向国际社会表明，各国之间有责任进行合作。 ”) |
| See, for example, paragraph (3) of the commentary to article 41 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts (“What is called for in the face of serious breaches is a joint and coordinated effort by all States to counteract the effects of these breaches”). | 例如，见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》，第41条评注第(3)段(“在严重违背行为面前所需要的，是所有国家共同、协调地作出努力，抵消违背行为的影响”)。 |
| Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (see footnote 805 above), para. 160. | 在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果(见上文脚注805)，第160段。 |
| Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965 (see footnote 863 above), para. 182. | 1965年查戈斯群岛从毛里求斯分裂的法律后果(见上文脚注863)，第182段。 |
| See article 4 (h) of the Constitutive Act of the African Union (2000), which permits the African Union to intervene to bring to an end breaches of the prohibition of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. | 见《非洲联盟组织法》(2000年)第4条第h款，其中允许非洲联盟进行干预，以制止违反灭绝种族罪、危害人类罪和战争罪禁令之情事。 |
| See paragraph (2) of the commentary to article 41 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》，第41条评注第(2)段。 |
| Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (see footnote 805 above), para. 159. | 在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果(见上文脚注805)，第159段。 |
| Ibid. (“It is also for all States, while respecting the United Nations Charter and international law, to see to it that any impediment, resulting from construction of the wall, to the exercise by the Palestinian people of its right to self-determination is brought to an end”) (emphasis added). | 同上。 (“所有各国在遵守《联合国宪章》及国际法的同时，应确保终止任何通过修建隔离墙而对巴勒斯坦人民行使民族自决权造成阻碍的行为。 ”) (强调是后加的)。 |
| See paragraphs (6), (11) and (12) of the commentary to article 41 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》，第41条评注第(6)、第(11)和第(12)段。 |
| Kuwait Airways Corporation v. Iraqi Airways Company and Others (Nos. 4 and 5) [2002] UKHL 19, [2002] 2 AC 883, para. 29. | 科威特航空公司诉伊拉克航空公司及其他方案(第4和第5号) [2002] UKHL 19, [2002] 2 AC 883, 第29段。 |
| See also A, Amnesty International (intervening) and Commonwealth Lawyers Association (intervening) v. Secretary of State for the Home Department (footnote 879), para. 34. | 另见A、大赦国际(参与诉讼)和英联邦律师协会(参与诉讼)诉内政大臣案(脚注879)，第34段。 |
| Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (see footnote 793 above), para. 111. | 南非继续留驻纳米比亚对各国的法律后果(见上文脚注793)，第111段。 |
| Ibid., para. 119. | 同上，第119段。 |
| Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (see footnote 805 above), para. 159. | 在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果(见上文脚注805)，第159段。 |
| See Security Council resolution 276 (1970) of 30 January 1970. | 见安全理事会1970年1月30日第276 (1970)号决议。 |
| General Assembly resolution 3411 D (XXX) of 28 November 1975, para. 3. | 联大1975年11月28日第3411 D (XXX)号决议，第3段。 |
| See, for example, Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (footnote 793 above), para. 119, stating that States are under an obligation “to refrain from lending any support or any form of assistance to South Africa with reference to its occupation of Namibia”. | 例如，见南非继续留驻纳米比亚对各国的法律后果(上文脚注793)，第119段，其中指出各国有义务“不就南非占领纳米比亚向其提供任何支持或任何形式的协助”。 |
| See also Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (footnote 805 above), para. 159; | 另见：在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果(上文脚注805)，第159段； |
| and General Assembly resolution 3411 D (XXX), para. 3. | 联大第3411 D (XXX)号决议，第3段。 |
| Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (see footnote 793 above), para. 125. | 南非继续留驻纳米比亚对各国的法律后果(见上文脚注793)，第125段。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| A detailed elaboration of the elements of seriousness, i.e. gross or systematic violations, can be found in paragraphs (7) and (8) of the commentary to article 40 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 关于严重违反情事(即严重或系统性的违反情事)要素的详细阐述，见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》，第40条评注第(7)和第(8)段。 |
| See generally paragraph (13) of the commentary to article 41 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》，第41条评注第(13)段。 |
| See, for example, Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965 (footnote 863 above), para. 178; | 例如，见：1965年查戈斯群岛从毛里求斯分裂的法律后果(上文脚注863)，第178段； |
| Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (footnote 805 above), para. 149 et seq.; | 在被占领巴勒斯坦领土修建隔离墙的法律后果(上文脚注805)，第149段及其后段落； |
| and Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (footnote 793 above), para. 118. | 南非继续留驻纳米比亚对各国的法律后果(上文脚注793)，第118段。 |
| See generally, Part Two of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 一般见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》，第二部分。 |
| The consequences include cessation and non-repetition (art. 30) and reparation (art. 31). | 后果包括停止和不重复(第30条)以及赔偿(第31条)。 |
| Reparations themselves may take different forms, including restitution (art. 35), compensation (art. 36), satisfaction (art. 37) and interest (art. 38). | 赔偿本身可以不同形式进行，包括恢复原状(第35条)、补偿(第36条)、抵偿(第37条)和利息(第38条)。 |
| See, in respect of international organizations, articles 41 and 42 of the articles on the responsibility of international organizations. | 就国际组织而言，见《国际组织的责任条款》第41和42条。 |
| The draft articles and the commentaries thereto appear in Yearbook … 2011, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 87–88. | 上述条款草案及其评注见《2011年…年鉴》第二卷(第二部分)，第87-88段。 |
| The articles themselves appear in the annex to General Assembly resolution 66/100 of 9 December 2011. | 条款本身，见联大2011年12月9日第66/100号决议附件。 |
| See, for example, the Report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (footnote 857 above), para. 414. | 例如，见国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告(上文脚注857)，第414段。 |
| This was done for example in Council of the European Union v. Front populaire pour la libération de la saguia-el-hamra et du rio de oro (Front Polisario), Case C-104/16 P, Judgment of 21 December 2016, Court of Justice of the European Union (Grand Chamber), Official Journal of the European Union, C 53/19 (20 February 2017), para. 88 et seq., especially para. 114, in which the Court, having determined that the principle of self-determination was “one of the essential principles of international law” and one establishing erga omnes obligations (para. 88), proceeded to interpret a treaty between the European Commission and Morocco in such a way as to respect this rule (“It follows that the Liberalisation Agreement could not be understood at the time of its conclusion as meaning that its territorial scope included the territory of Western Sahara” (para. 114)). | 例如，欧洲联盟理事会诉萨基亚阿姆拉和里奥德奥罗人民解放阵线(波利萨里奥阵线)C-104/16 P号案，2016年12月21日的判决书，欧洲联盟法院(大审判庭)，《欧洲联盟公报》，C 53/19(2017年2月20日)，第88段及其后各段，特别是第114段，其中，法院确定自决原则是“国际法的一项基本原则”，也是确立普遍义务的原则之一(第88段)，随后以尊重这一规则的方式解释了欧洲联盟委员会与摩洛哥之间的一项条约(“因此，在缔结《自由化协定》时，不能将之理解为其领土范围包括西撒哈拉领土”(第114段)。 |
| See paragraph (3) of the commentary to article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》，第26条评注第(3)段。 |
| See conclusion 42 of the work of the Study Group on the Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties arising from the Diversification and Expansion of International Law (Yearbook … 2006, vol. II, Part Two, para. 251); | 见国际法不成体系问题：国际法多样化和扩展引起的困难研究组的工作，结论42(《2006年…年鉴》，第二卷，第二部分，第251段)； |
| see also Mik (footnote 845 above), p. 73 et seq. | 另见Mik(上文脚注845)，第73页及其后各页。 |
| Official Records of the United Nations Conference on the Law Treaties, First Session … (see footnote 726 above), 4 May 1968, statements by: France, 54th meeting, para. 29 (“[t]he article as it stood gave no indication how a rule of law could be recognized as having the character of jus cogens, on the content of which divergent, even conflicting interpretations had been advanced during the discussion. | 《联合国条约法会议正式记录，第一届会议…》(见上文脚注726)，1968年5月4日，以下国家的发言：法国，第54次会议，第29段(“现有的条款没有说明法治如何被承认具有强行法的性质，在讨论期间对条款内容提出了不同、甚至是相互矛盾的解释。 |
| … Also, no provision had been made for any jurisdictional control over the application of such a new and imprecise notion”); | …此外，也没有关于对这一不精确的新概念的适用实行任何管辖权控制的规定”)； |
| and Norway, 56th meeting, para. 37 (“[t]he article gave no guidance on some important questions, namely, what were the existing rules of jus cogens and how did such rules come into being? | 及挪威，第56次会议，第37段(“该条款没有就一些重要问题提供指导，即有哪些现有的强行法规则，这些规则是如何形成的？ |
| The Commission’s text stated the effects of those rules but did not define them, so that serious disputes might arise between States; | 委员会的案文指出了这些规则的影响，但没有定义这些规则，因此国家之间可能出现严重的争端； |
| and it provided no effective means of settling such disputes”). | 而且案文没有提供解决这种争端的有效手段”)。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| See the 1969 Vienna Convention, arts. 65 and 66. | 见1969年《维也纳公约》，第六十五和六十六条。 |
| See the Charter of the United Nations, Article 33, paragraph 1. | 见《联合国宪章》，第三十三条第一款。 |
| Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (see footnote 741 above), at p. 66, para. 109. | 加布奇科沃－大毛罗斯项目案(见上文脚注741)，第66页，第109段。 |
| As of April 2019, out of a total 116 States Parties, 23 States have made reservations to the dispute settlement framework. | 截至2019年4月，在总共116个缔约国中，有23个国家对争端解决框架提出了保留。 |
| Of these, 15 States sought to exclude the application of article 66 (a) concerning the submission of disputes to the International Court of Justice in relation to claims of invalidity on the grounds of conflict with peremptory norms (Algeria, Armenia, Belarus, Brazil, China, Cuba, the Czech Republic, Guatemala, Hungary, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Slovakia, Tunisia, Ukraine and Viet Nam); | 在这些国家中，有15个国家试图就因与强制性规范相抵触而无效的声明向国际法院提交争端的问题，排除第六十六条(a)款的适用(阿尔及利亚、亚美尼亚、白俄罗斯、巴西、中国、古巴、捷克共和国、危地马拉、匈牙利、俄罗斯联邦、沙特阿拉伯、斯洛伐克、突尼斯、乌克兰和越南)； |
| and four States have declared that the provisions of article 53 and 64 will not apply in relations between them and those States that have reserved on the application of the dispute settlement framework (Belgium, Denmark, Finland and Portugal). | 有四个国家宣布，第五十三条和第六十四条的规定将不适用于它们和那些就争端解决框架的适用提出保留的国家之间的关系(比利时、丹麦、芬兰和葡萄牙)。 |
| A further four States have declared that the provisions of article 66 do not serve to limit the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice if it exists under any other instrument (Canada, Germany, New Zealand and the United Kingdom). | 另有四个国家宣布，如果根据任何其他文书存在国际法院的管辖权，则第六十六条的规定不会限制该法院的管辖权(加拿大、德国、新西兰和联合王国)。 |
| Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (see footnote 699 above), at p. 32, para. 64 (“The same applies to the relationship between peremptory norms of general international law (jus cogens) and the establishment of the Court’s jurisdiction: the fact that a dispute relates to compliance with a norm having such a character, which is assuredly the case with regard to the prohibition of genocide, cannot of itself provide a basis for the jurisdiction of the Court”). | 刚果境内武装活动案(见上文脚注699)，第32页，第64段(“这同样适用于一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)与确立法院管辖权之间的关系：一项争端涉及是否遵守具有这种性质的规范，禁止灭绝种族罪无疑属于这种情况，但这一事实本身不能为法院的管辖权提供依据”)。 |
| See also paragraph (6) of the commentary to article 40 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts addressing the non-exhaustive nature of the norms referred to in those articles (“It should be stressed that the examples given above may not be exhaustive. | 另见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第40条的评注第(6)段，其中述及这些条款中提到的规范并非详尽无遗(“应当强调指出，上文所举的例子可能不是详尽无遗的。 |
| In addition, article 64 of the 1969 Vienna Convention contemplates that new peremptory norms of general international law may come into existence through the processes of acceptance and recognition by the international community of States as a whole, as referred to in article 53. | 而且，1969年《维也纳公约》第六十四条考虑到，如第五十三条所言，一般国际法的强制性规范随着整个国际社会的接受和承认还会有新的强制性规范出现。 |
| The examples given here are thus without prejudice to existing or developing rules of international law which fulfil the criteria for peremptory norms under article 53”). | 因此，此处所举的例子并不损害能够满足第五十三条下强制性规范标准的现有和正在制订中的国际法规则”)。 |
| See paragraphs (1) and (3) of the commentary to draft article 50 of the draft articles on the law of treaties. | 见《条约法条款草案》第50条草案评注第(1)和(3)段。 |
| See paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 26 of the draft articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案》第26评注第(5)段。 |
| Ibid., paragraph (4) of the commentary to article 40. | 同上，第40条评注第(4)段。 |
| Ibid. (“Among these prohibitions, it is generally agreed that the prohibition of aggression is to be regarded as peremptory”). | 同上。 (“在这类禁止中，人们普遍认为，禁止侵略应被视为强制性的”)。 |
| See also paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 26 (“Those peremptory norms that are clearly accepted and recognized include the prohibitions of aggression”). | 另见第26条评注第(5)段(“明确接受和承认的强制性规范包括禁止侵略”)。 |
| See paragraph (1) of the commentary to draft article 50 of the draft articles on the law of treaties, Yearbook … 1966, vol. II, para. 38. | 见《条约法条款草案》第50条草案评注第(1)段，《1966年…年鉴》，第二卷，第38段。 |
| In paragraph (3) of the same commentary, the Commission referred to the “unlawful use of force contrary to the principles of the Charter”. | 在同一评注第(3)段中，委员会提到“违反《宪章》原则非法使用武力”。 |
| See conclusion (33) of the Conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (footnote 863 above). | 见国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论(33)(上文脚注863)。 |
| Report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (see footnote 857 above), para. 374. | 国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告(见上文脚注857)，第374段。 |
| It should be noted that the report of the Study Group also refers, as a separate norm, to the right to self-defence. | 应当指出，作为一项单独的规范，研究组的报告还提到自卫权。 |
| See paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 26 and paragraph (4) of the commentary to draft article 40 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条评注第(5)段和第40条草案评注第(4)段。 |
| Conclusion (33) of the Conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (see footnote 863 above) and the report of the Study Group (see footnote 857 above), para. 374. | 国际法不成体系问题研究组结论(33)(见上文脚注863)和研究组的报告(见上文脚注857)，第374段。 |
| Preamble, draft articles on crimes against humanity, chapter IV of the present report. | 本报告第四章，《危害人类罪条款草案》，序言部分。 |
| See paragraph (5) of the commentary to draft article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条草案评注第(5)段。 |
| Report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (see footnote 857 above), para. 374. | 国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告(见上文脚注857)，第374段。 |
| See paragraph (5) of the commentary to draft article 40 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第40条草案评注第(5)段。 |
| See conclusion (33) of the Conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (footnote 863 above). | 见国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论(33)(上文脚注863)。 |
| Report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (see footnote 857 above), para. 374. | 国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告(见上文脚注857)，第374段。 |
| See paragraph (4) of the commentary to article 40 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第40条评注第(4)段。 |
| Ibid., paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 26. | 同上，第26条评注第(5)段。 |
| Report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (see footnote 857 above), para. 374. | 国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告(见上文脚注857)，第374段。 |
| See conclusion (33) of the conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (footnote 863 above). | 见国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论(33)(上文脚注863)。 |
| See paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条评注第(5)段。 |
| Ibid., paragraph (4) of the commentary to article 40. | 同上，第40条评注第(4)段。 |
| This is similarly the formulation used in the report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (see footnote 857 above), para. 374. | 这同样是国际法不成体系问题研究组报告中使用的提法(见上文脚注857)，第374段。 |
| See paragraph (3) of the commentary to draft article 50 of the draft articles on the law of treaties. | 见《条约法条款草案》第50条草案评注第(3)段。 |
| See paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 40 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第40条评注第(5)段。 |
| The report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (see footnote 857 above, para. 374) also referred to the prohibition of torture as an example of a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens). | 国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告(见上文脚注857, 第374段)还提到禁止酷刑是一般国际法强制性规范(强行法)的一个例子。 |
| See paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条评注第(5)段。 |
| See conclusion (33) of the conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (footnote 863 above). | 见国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论(33)(上文脚注863)。 |
| See paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 40 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, in which the Commission referred to the “the obligation to respect the right of self-determination”. | 见《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第40条评注第(5)段，委员会在其中提到“尊重自决权的义务”。 |
| See also conclusion (33) of the conclusions of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (footnote 863 above) and the report of the Study Group on fragmentation of international law (footnote 857 above), para. 374. | 另见国际法不成体系问题研究组的结论(33)(上文脚注863)和国际法不成体系问题研究组的报告(上文脚注857)，第374段。 |
| In paragraph (3) of the commentary to draft article 50 of the draft articles on the law of treaties, the Commission referred to the “principle of self-determination”. | 在《条约法条款草案》第50条草案的评注第(3)段中，委员会提到“自决原则”。 |
| In paragraph (5) of the commentary to article 26 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, the Commission referred to the right to self-determination. | 在《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》第26条的评注第(5)段中，委员会提到自决权。 |
| See paragraph (3) of the commentary to draft article 50 of the draft articles on the law of treaties. | 见《条约法条款草案》第50条草案评注第(3)段。 |
| Draft article 19, paragraph 3 (d), of the draft articles on State responsibility, Yearbook … 1976, vol. II (Part Two), pp. 95–96, read in conjunction with paragraphs (17) and (18) of the commentary to draft article 19 (ibid., p. 102). | 《国家的责任条款草案》，第19条草案第3款(d)项段，《1976年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第95-96页，结合第19条草案评注第(17)和(18)段阅读(同上，第102页)。 |
| The decision was made at the 3171st meeting of the Commission, on 28 May 2013 (see Yearbook … 2013, vol. II (Part Two), p. 78, para. 167). | 委员会2013年5月28日第3171次会议做出了这一决定(见《2013年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第78页，第167段)。 |
| For the syllabus of the topic, see Yearbook … 2011, vol. II (Part Two), annex V. | 本专题的大纲见《2011年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，附件五。 |
| Documents A/CN.4/674 and Corr.1 (preliminary report), A/CN.4/685 (second report) and A/CN.4/700 (third report). | A/CN.4/674和Corr.1(初步报告)、A/CN.4/685(第二次报告)以及A/CN.4/700(第三次报告)号文件。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/69/10), chap. XI. | 《大会正式记录，第六十九届会议，补编第10号》(A/69/10), 第十一章。 |
| Ibid., Seventieth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/70/10), chap. IX. | 同上，《第七十届会议，补编第10号》(A/70/10), 第九章。 |
| Documents A/CN.4/L.870 and A/CN.4/L.870/Rev.1. | A/CN.4/L.870和A/CN.4/L.870/Rev.1号文件。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-first Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/71/10), para. 188. | 《大会正式记录，第七十一届会议，补编第10号》(A/71/10), 第188段。 |
| Ibid., chap. X. | 同上，第十章。 |
| Document A/CN.4/L.876. | A/CN.4/L.876号文件。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-second Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/72/10), para. 255. | 《大会正式记录，第七十二届会议，补编第10号》(A/72/10), 第255段。 |
| Ibid., para. 260. | 同上，第260段。 |
| Ibid., para. 262. | 同上，第262段。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/73/10), chap. IX. | 《大会正式记录，第七十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/73/10), 第九章。 |
| Ibid., para. 218. | 同上，第218段。 |
| Document A/CN.4/720. | A/CN.4/720号文件。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/73/10), para. 172. | 《大会正式记录，第七十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/73/10), 第172段。 |
| See second report of the Special Rapporteur (A/CN.4/728): draft principle 6 bis (Corporate due diligence), draft principle 8 bis (Martens Clause), draft principle 13 bis (Environmental modification techniques), draft principle 13 ter (Pillage), draft principle 13 quater (Responsibility and liability), draft principle 13 quinquies (Corporate responsibility), and draft principle 14 bis (Human displacement). | 见特别报告员第二次报告(A/CN.4/728)：原则草案6之二(公司应尽职责)、原则草案8之二(马顿斯条款)、原则草案13之二(改变环境的技术)、原则草案13之三(掠夺)、原则草案13之四(责任与赔偿责任)、原则草案13之五(企业责任)和原则草案14之二(人员流离失所)。 |
| The statement of the Chair of the Drafting Committee is available from the website of the Commission (http://legal.un.org/ilc). | 起草委员会主席的声明可查阅委员会网站(http://legal.un.org/ilc)。 |
| Principles of International Law recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal, Yearbook … 1950, vol. II, document A/1316, Part III, p. 374. | 纽伦堡法庭宪章和判决书所确认的国际法原则，《1950年…年鉴》，第二卷，A/1316号文件，第三部分，第374页。 |
| See also principles on the allocation of loss in the case of transboundary harm arising out of hazardous activities, Yearbook … 2006, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 66–67, pp. 58–90; | 另见危险活动所致跨界损害的损失分配原则，《2006年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第66-67段，第58-90页； |
| and the guiding principles applicable to unilateral declarations of States capable of creating legal obligations, Yearbook … 2006, vol. II (Part Two), para. 176, p. 161. | 适用于能够产生法律义务的国家单方面声明的指导原则，《2006年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第176段，第161页。 |
| Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts (Additional Protocol I) (Geneva, 8 June 1977), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1125, No. 17512, p. 3. | 《1949年8月12日日内瓦四公约关于保护国际性武装冲突受害者的附加议定书》(《第一附加议定书》)(1977年6月8日，日内瓦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1125卷，第17512号，第3页。 |
| See also draft principles 13, 14 and 16 of the present draft principles. | 另见本原则草案的原则草案13、14和16。 |
| The topic was put on the long-term programme of work of the Commission in 2011 and moved onto the current programme of work in 2013, see Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/66/10), annex E, and ibid., Sixty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/68/10), para. 131. | 本专题于2011年列入委员会的长期工作方案，并于2013年转列入当前工作方案，见《大会正式记录，第六十六届会议，补编第10号》(A/66/10)，附件E，并见同上，《第六十八届会议，补编第10号》(A/68/10)第131段。 |
| See ibid., Sixty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/68/10), para. 135, and ibid., Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/69/10), paras. 192–213. | 见同上，《第六十八届会议，补编第10号》(A/68/10)第135段，以及同上，《第六十九届会议，补编第10号》(A/69/10)第192-213段。 |
| See, e.g., A/CN.4/685, para. 18. | 例如，见A/CN.4/685, 第18段。 |
| Ibid., footnote 18: Norway (on behalf of the Nordic countries) (A/C.6/69/SR.25, para. 133), Portugal (A/C.6/69/SR.26, para. 6), Singapore (A/C.6/69/SR.26, para. 66), New Zealand (A/C.6/69/SR.27, para. 3) and Indonesia (A/C.6/69/SR.27, para. 67). | 同上，脚注18，挪威(代表北欧国家)(A/C.6/69/SR.25, 第133段)、葡萄牙(A/C.6/69/SR.26, 第6段)、新加坡(A/C.6/69/SR.26, 第66段)、新西兰(A/C.6/69/SR.27, 第3段)和印度尼西亚(A/C.6/69/SR.27, 第67段)。 |
| For example, remedial measures might be required during an occupation. | 例如，在占领期间可能需要采取补救措施。 |
| Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field (Convention I) (Geneva, 12 August 1949), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 75, No. 970, p. 31, art. 47; | 《改善战地武装部队伤者病者境遇的日内瓦公约》(《第一公约》) (1949年8月12日，日内瓦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第75卷，第970号，第31页，第四十七条； |
| Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (Convention II) (Geneva, 12 August 1949), ibid., No. 971, p. 85, art. 48; | 《改善海上武装部队伤者病者及遇船难者境遇的日内瓦公约》(《第二公约》) (1949年8月12日，日内瓦)，同上，第971号，第85页，第四十八条； |
| Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Convention III) (Geneva, 12 August 1949), ibid., No. 972, p. 135, art. 127; | 《关于战俘待遇的日内瓦公约》(《第三公约》) (1949年8月12日，日内瓦)，同上，第972号，第135页，第一百二十七条； |
| Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Convention IV) (Geneva, 12 August 1949), ibid., No. 973, p. 287, art. 144; | 《关于战时保护平民的日内瓦公约》(《第四公约》) (1949年8月12日，日内瓦)，同上，第973号，第287页，第一百四十四条； |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 83; | 《第一附加议定书》，第八十三条； |
| Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the protection of victims of non-international armed conflicts (Additional Protocol II) (Geneva, 8 June 1977), ibid., No. 17513, p. 609, art. 19; | 《1949年8月12日日内瓦四公约关于保护非国际性武装冲突受难者的附加议定书》(第二附加议定书) (1977年6月8日，日内瓦)，同上，第17513号，第609页，第十九条； |
| Protocol additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the adoption of an additional distinctive emblem (Additional Protocol III) (Geneva, 8 December 2005), ibid., vol. 2404, No. 43425, p. 261, art. 7; | 《1949年8月12日日内瓦四公约关于采纳一个新增特殊标志的附加议定书》(第三附加议定书)(2005年12月8日，日内瓦)，同上，第2404卷，第43425号，第261页，第七条； |
| and the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (hereinafter, “Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons”) (Geneva, 10 October 1980), ibid., vol. 1342, No. 22495, p. 137, art. 6. | 以及《禁止或限制使用某些可被认为具有过分伤害力或滥杀滥伤作用的常规武器公约》(1980年10月10日，日内瓦)，同上，第1342卷，第22495号，第137页，第六条。 |
| See also J.-M. Henckaerts and L. Doswald-Beck (eds.), Customary International Humanitarian Law, vol. I, Rules (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2005), rule 143, pp. 505–508. | 另见J.-M. Henckaerts和L. Doswald-Beck，《国际人道主义习惯法》，第1卷：规则(剑桥，剑桥大学出版社，2005年)，规则143, 第505-508页。 |
| Article 35 of Additional Protocol I reads: | 《第一附加议定书》第三十五条规定： |
| “1. In any armed conflict, the right of the Parties to the conflict to choose methods or means of warfare is not unlimited. | “一、在任何武装冲突中，冲突各方选择作战方法和手段的权利，不是无限制的。 |
| 2. It is prohibited to employ weapons, projectiles and material and methods of warfare of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering. | 二、禁止使用属于引起过分伤害和不必要痛苦的性质的武器、投射体和物质及作战方法。 |
| 3. It is prohibited to employ methods or means of warfare which are intended, or may be expected, to cause widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment.” | 三、禁止使用旨在或可能对自然环境引起广泛、长期而严重损害的作战方法或手段。 ” |
| Article 55 reads: | 第五十五条规定： |
| “1. Care shall be taken in warfare to protect the natural environment against widespread, long-term and severe damage. | “一、在作战中，应注意保护自然环境不受广泛、长期和严重的损害。 |
| This protection includes a prohibition of the use of methods or means of warfare which are intended or may be expected to cause such damage to the natural environment and thereby to prejudice the health or survival of the population. | 这种保护包括禁止使 用旨在或可能对自然环境造成这种损害从而妨害居民的健康和生存的作战方法或手段。 |
| 2. Attacks against the natural environment by way of reprisals are prohibited.” | 二、作为报复对自然环境的攻击，是禁止的。 ” |
| Geneva Convention I, art. 1; | 《日内瓦第一公约》第一条； |
| Geneva Convention II, art. 1; | 《日内瓦第二公约》第一条； |
| Geneva Convention III, art. 1; | 《日内瓦第三公约》第一条； |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 1. | 《日内瓦第四公约》第一条。 |
| Examples of States that have introduced such provisions in their military manuals include Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Benin, Burundi, Canada, Central African Republic, Chad, Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, France, Germany, Italy, Kenya, Netherlands, New Zealand, Peru, the Russian Federation, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Togo, Ukraine, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America. | 在军事手册中纳入这些规定的国家有：阿根廷、澳大利亚、比利时、贝宁、布隆迪、加拿大、中非共和国、乍得、哥伦比亚、科特迪瓦、法国、德国、意大利、肯尼亚、荷兰、新西兰、秘鲁、俄罗斯联邦、南非、西班牙、瑞典、瑞士、多哥、乌克兰、大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国和美利坚合众国。 |
| Information available at https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_rul_rule45 (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 相关信息见 https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_rul_rule45 (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| The Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed Conflict (A/49/323, annex) state, in guideline 17, that: “States shall disseminate these rules and make them known as widely as possible in their respective countries and include them in their programmes of military and civil instruction”. | 《关于武装冲突中环境保护的军事手册和指南准则》(A/49/323, 附件)的准则17指出：“各国应传播这些规则，各自在其国内广为宣传，并将这些规则编入其军事和民事教学方案中”。 |
| See the ICRC commentary (2016) on article 1 of Geneva Convention I (the commentaries on the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the Protocols thereto are available from www.icrc.org/en/war-and-law/treaties-customary-law/geneva-conventions (accessed on 8 July 2019)). | 见红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第一公约》的评注(2016年)，第一条 (日内瓦四公约及其附加议定书的评注可查阅www.icrc.org/en/war-and-law/treaties-customary-law/geneva-conventions (2019年7月8日访问))。 |
| The ICRC study on customary international law provides a broader interpretation, according to which the obligation to respect and ensure respect is not limited to the Geneva Conventions but refers to the entire body of international humanitarian law binding upon a particular State (Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 139, p. 495). | 红十字国际委员会关于习惯国际法的研究提供了较广义的解释，根据这一解释，尊重和确保尊重的义务不限于日内瓦四公约，而是指对某一特定国家具有约束力的整个国际人道法(J.-M. Henckaerts和L. Doswald-Beck编，《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969)，规则139, 第495页)。 |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 36. | 《第一附加议定书》，第三十六条。 |
| C. Pilloud and J. Pictet, “Article 35: Basic rules”, ICRC Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, Y. Sandoz, C. Swinarski and B. Zimmerman (eds.) (Geneva, Martinus Nijhoff, 1987), p. 398, para. 1402. | C. Pilloud and J. Pictet, “Article 35: Basic rules”, ICRC Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, Y. Sandoz, C. Swinarski and B. Zimmerman (eds.) (Geneva, Martinus Nijhoff, 1987), 第398页，第1402段。 |
| The commentary on “Article 36: New weapons” refers to this section for an explanation of means and methods on p. 425, para. 1472. | 关于“第三十六条：新武器”的评注在第425页第1472段作为对手段和方法的解释提到本节。 |
| States that are known to have in place national mechanisms to review the legality of weapons and that have made the instruments setting up these mechanisms available to ICRC include Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States. | 已知建立审查武器合法性的国家机制并向红十字国际委员会提供设立这些机制的文书的国家有：澳大利亚、比利时、加拿大、丹麦、德国、荷兰、挪威、瑞典、联合王国和美国。 |
| Other States have indicated to ICRC that they carry out reviews pursuant to Ministry of Defence instructions, but these have not been made available. | 另一些国家向红十字国际委员会表示它们根据国防部的指令进行审查，但尚未提供这些指令。 |
| Information received from ICRC on 31 December 2017. | 2017年12月31日从红十字国际委员会收到的资料。 |
| Some States, such as Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, see a value in considering international human rights law in the review of military weapons because military personnel may in some situations (e.g. peacekeeping missions) use the weapon to conduct law enforcement missions. | 瑞典、瑞士和联合王国等一些国家认为有必要在审查军事武器时考虑到国际人权法，因为军事人员可能在某些情况下(例如维和特派团)使用武器履行执法任务。 |
| For further commentary, see S. Casey-Maslen, N. Corney and A. Dymond-Bass, “The review of weapons under international humanitarian law and human rights law”, Weapons under International Human Rights Law, Casey-Maslen (ed.) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2014). | 进一步的评论，见S. Casey-Maslen, N. Corney and A. Dymond-Bass, “The review of weapons under international humanitarian law and human rights law”, Weapons under International Human Rights Law, Casey-Maslen (ed.) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2014)。 |
| Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (see footnote 969 above), rules 70 and 71, pp. 237–250. | Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》 (见上文脚注969), 规则70和71, 第237–250页。 |
| By virtue of the customary rule that civilians must not be made the object of attack, weapons that are by nature indiscriminate are also prohibited in non-international armed conflicts. | 由于习惯法规定不得将平民作为攻击目标，因此在非国际性武装冲突中也禁止本质上具有滥杀滥伤作用的武器。 |
| The prohibition of weapons that are by nature indiscriminate is also set forth in several military manuals applicable in non-international armed conflicts, for instance those of Australia, Colombia, Ecuador, Germany, Nigeria and the Republic of Korea. | 适用于非国际性武装冲突的一些军事手册，例如澳大利亚、哥伦比亚、厄瓜多尔、德国、尼日利亚和大韩民国的军事手册也规定禁止本质上具有滥杀滥伤作用的武器。 |
| Information available at https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule71·Fn_1_19 (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule71·Fn_1_19 (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Geneva Convention I, art. 49; | 《日内瓦第一公约》第四十九条； |
| Geneva Convention II, art. 50; | 《日内瓦第二公约》第五十条； |
| Geneva Convention III, art. 129; | 《日内瓦第三公约》第一百二十九条； |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 146. | 《日内瓦第四公约》第一百四十六条。 |
| See, for example, the amended Protocol II on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices as amended on 3 May 1996 (Protocol II, as amended on 3 May 1996) annexed to the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons which may be deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to have Indiscriminate Effects (Geneva, 3 May 1996) (hereinafter, “amended Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons”), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2048, No. 22495, p. 93. | 例如见《禁止或限制使用某些可被认为具有过分伤害力或滥杀滥伤作用的常规武器公约》所附的经1996年5月3日修正后的《禁止或限制使用地雷、诱杀装置和其他装置的第二号议定书》(《经1996年5月3日修正后的第二号议定书》) (1996年5月3日，日内瓦)(下称“《特定常规武器公约经修正后的第二号议定书》”)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2048卷，第22495号，第93页。 |
| For special agreements, see Geneva Convention I, art. 6; Geneva Convention II, art. 6; Geneva Convention III, art. 6; | 关于特别协议，见《日内瓦第一公约》第六条、《日内瓦第二公约》第六条、《日内瓦第三公约》第六条、《日内瓦第四公约》第七条。 |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 7. See also common art. 3 of the Geneva Conventions. | 另见日内瓦四公约共同的第三条。 |
| See, e.g., Slovenia, Rules of Service in the Slovenian Armed Forces, item 210; | 例如见斯洛文尼亚，《斯洛文尼亚武装部队服役规则》，第210项； |
| Paraguay, National Defence Council, Política de Defensa Nacional de la Republica de Paraguay [National Defence Policy of the Republic of Paraguay], 7 October 1999, para. I (A); | 巴拉圭国防委员会，Política de Defensa Nacional de la Republica de Paraguay [巴拉圭共和国国防政策]，1999年10月7日，第I (A)段； |
| and Netherlands, note verbale dated 20 April 2016 from the Permanent Mission of the Netherlands to the United Nations addressed to the Secretariat, para. 5. | 以及荷兰，2016年4月20日荷兰常驻联合国代表团致秘书处的普通照会，第5段。 |
| See also contributions in the Sixth Committee from Croatia (A/C.6/70/SR.24), para. 89, Cuba (ibid.), para. 10, Czech Republic (ibid., para. 45), New Zealand (A/C.6/70/SR.25), para. 102, and Palau (ibid.), para. 27. | 另见以下国家向第六委员会提供的资料：克罗地亚(A/C.6/70/SR.24, 第89段)，古巴(同上，第10段)，捷克共和国(同上，第45段)，新西兰(A/C.6/70/SR.25, 第102段)和帕劳(同上，第27段)。 |
| Examples of States that have done so include Australia, Burundi, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, the Netherlands, Republic of Korea, Switzerland, Ukraine, the United Kingdom and the United States. | 已经这样做的国家包括澳大利亚、布隆迪、喀麦隆、科特迪瓦、荷兰、大韩民国、瑞士、乌克兰、联合王国和美国。 |
| Information available at https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_rul_rule44 (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅 https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_rul_rule44 (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| For further examples, see A/CN.4/685, paras. 69–76 and A/CN.4/700, para. 52. | 更多的例子见A/CN.4/685, 第69-76段和A/CN.4/700, 第52段。 |
| See the information on the United Nations Environment Programme website regarding post-crisis environmental recovery, available at www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/disasters-conflicts/what-we-do/recovery (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 见联合国环境规划署网站上关于危机后环境恢复的信息，可查阅www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/disasters-conflicts/what-we-do/recovery (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Greening the Blue Helmets Environment, Natural Resources and UN Peacekeeping Operations (Nairobi, 2012). | 联合国环境规划署，《绿动蓝盔：环境、自然资源和联合国维持和平行动》(2012年，内罗毕)。 |
| Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1; | 《联合国人类环境会议报告》(A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1； |
| United Nations publication, Sales No. E.73.II.A.14), chap. I. | 联合国出版物，出售品编号：E.73.II.A. 14)，第一章。 |
| General Assembly resolution 37/7 of 28 October 1982, annex. | 联大1982年10月28日第37/7号决议，附件。 |
| Washington, 3 March 1975, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 993, No. 14537, p. 243. | 1975年3月3日，华盛顿，联合国，《条约汇编》，第993卷，第14537号，第243页。 |
| Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 5 June 1992), ibid., vol. 1760, No. 30619, p. 79. | 《生物多样性公约》(1992年6月5日，里约热内卢)，同上，第1760卷，第30619号，第79页。 |
| Ramsar, 2 February 1971, ibid., vol. 996, No. 14583, p. 245. | 1971年2月2日，拉姆萨尔，同上，第996卷，第14583号，第245页。 |
| United Nations, Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department of Field Support, “Environmental Guidelines for UN Field Missions”, 24 July 2009. | 联合国维持和平行动部和外勤支助部，“联合国外地特派团环境准则”，2009年7月24日。 |
| See also the Department of Field Support website, available at https://fieldsupport.un.org/en/environment (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 另见外勤支助部网站，可查阅https://fieldsupport.un.org/en/environment (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| A/CN.4/685, para. 210. | A/CN.4/685, 第210段。 |
| See Additional Protocol I, art. 60. | 见《第一附加议定书》)，第六十条。 |
| See also Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 36, p. 120. | 另见Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck, 《习惯国际人道法》 (上文脚注969), 规则36, 第120页。 |
| The ICRC study on customary law considers that this constitutes a rule under customary international law and is applicable in both international and non-international armed conflicts. | 红十字国际委员会关于习惯国际法的研究报告认为，这构成习惯国际法下的一条规则，对国际和非国际性武装冲突均适用。 |
| See e.g. Antarctic Treaty (Washington, 1 December 1959), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 402, No. 5778, p. 71, art. I. See, e.g., the definition found in M. Björklund and A. Rosas, Ålandsöarnas Demilitarisering och Neutralisering (Åbo, Åbo Academy Press, 1990). | 例如，见《南极条约》(1959年12月1日，华盛顿），联合国，《条约汇编》，第402卷，第5778号，第71页，第一条。 例如，见M. Björklund和A. Rosas著Ålandsöarnas Demilitarisering och Neutralisering (Åbo, Åbo Academy Press, 1990)中的定义。 |
| The Åland Islands are both demilitarized and neutralized. | 奥兰群岛既是非军事区，又是中立区。 |
| Björklund and Rosas list as further examples of demilitarized and neutralized areas Spitzbergen, Antarctica and the Strait of Magellan (ibid., p. 17). | Björklund和Rosas和还列举了斯匹次卑尔根、南极洲和麦哲伦海峡等中立区(见第17页)。 |
| See also L. Hannikainen, “The continued validity of the demilitarized and neutralized status of the Åland Islands”, Zeitschrift fűr ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, vol. 54 (1994), p. 614, at p. 616. | 另见L. Hannikainen, “The continued validity of the demilitarized and neutralized status of the Åland Islands”, Zeitschrift fűr ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, vol. 54 (1994), 第614页起, 见第616页。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| See A/CN.4/685, para. 225. | 见A/CN.4/685，第225段。 |
| See also C. Droege and M.-L. Tougas, “The protection of the natural environment in armed conflict – existing rules and need for further legal protection”, Nordic Journal of International Law, vol. 82 (2013), pp. 21–52, at p. 43. | C. Droege and M.-L. Tougas, “The protection of the natural environment in armed conflict – existing rules and need for further legal protection”, Nordic Journal of International Law, vol. 82 (2013), pp. 21–52, at p. 43. |
| The working group of Committee III of the Conference submitted a proposal for a draft article 48 ter providing that “publicly recognized nature reserves with adequate markings and boundaries declared as such to the adversary shall be protected and respected except when such reserves are used specifically for military purposes”. | 会议第三委员会工作组提出了一项提案，即条款草案48之三，其中规定“向对方宣布了的具有适当标记和界线的公认自然保护区应受保护和尊重，除非这种保护区被专用于军事目的”。 |
| See C. Pilloud and J. Pictet, “Article 55: Protection of the natural environment” in ICRC Commentary on the Additional Protocols …, Sandoz et al. (footnote 976 above), p. 664, paras. 2138–2139. | 见C. Pilloud and J. Pictet, “Article 55: Protection of the natural environment” in ICRC Commentary on the Additional Protocols …, Sandoz et al. (上文脚注976)，第664页，第2138–2139段。 |
| As recognized by the Permanent Court in the case concerning the Factory At Chorzów, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, p. 45 and reflected in article 34 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Vienna, 23 May 1969), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1155, No. 18232, p. 331. | 这一点在常设法院霍茹夫工厂案(常设国际法院，《A辑》，第17号，第45页)中得到承认； 并反映在《维也纳条约法公约》第三十四条(1969年5月23日，维也纳)中，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1155卷，第18232号，第331页。 |
| A/CN.4/685, para. 218. | A/CN.4/685, 第218段。 |
| Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) (Paris, 16 November 1972), ibid., vol. 1037, No. 15511, p. 151. | 《保护世界文化和自然遗产公约》(世界遗产公约)(1972年11月16日，巴黎)，同上，第1037卷，第15511号，第151页。 |
| UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention (8 July 2015) WHC.15/01, para. 77.1. | 教科文组织，《实施〈世界遗产公约〉操作指南》(2015年7月8日) WHC.15/01, 第77.1段。 |
| At present, 197 sites representing natural heritage across the world are listed on the World Heritage List. | 目前，全世界共有197处自然遗产列入了《世界遗产名录》。 |
| A number of these also feature on the List of World Heritage in Danger in accordance with article 11, para. 4, of the World Heritage Convention. | 根据《世界遗产公约》第11条第4款，其中一些遗产也列入了《濒危世界遗产名录》。 |
| Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (The Hague, 14 May 1954), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 249, No. 3511, p. 240. | 《关于发生武装冲突时保护文化财产的公约》(1954年5月14日，海牙)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第249卷，第3511号，第240页。 |
| Second Protocol to The Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1999 Second Protocol) (The Hague, 26 March 1999), ibid., vol. 2253, No. 3511, p. 172. | 《1954年关于发生武装冲突时保护文化财产的海牙公约第二议定书》(1999年第二议定书)(1999年3月26日，海牙)，同上，第2253卷，第3511号，第172页。 |
| General Assembly resolution 61/295, annex, art. 12. | 联大第61/295号决议附件，第12条。 |
| Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Resulting from Activities Dangerous to the Environment (Lugano, 21 June 1993), Council of Europe, European Treaty Series, No. 150. | 《关于危害环境的活动造成损害的民事责任公约》(1993年6月21日，卢加诺)，欧洲委员会，《欧洲条约汇编》，第150号。 |
| For more information on the applicability of multilateral environmental agreements in connection to areas of particular environmental interest, see B. Sjöstedt, Protecting the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflict: The Role of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (PhD thesis, Lund University 2016). | 欲了解有关多边环境协议对具有特别环境意义的区域的适用问题的更多情况，可参阅B. Sjöstedt, Protecting the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflict: The Role of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (PhD thesis, Lund University 2016)。 |
| Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Helsinki, 17 March 1992), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1936, No. 33207, p. 269. | 《跨界水道和国际湖泊保护和利用公约》(1992年3月17日，赫尔辛基)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1936卷，第33207号，第269页。 |
| Convention on Biological Diversity, preamble. | 《生物多样性公约》序言。 |
| International Union for Conservation of Nature, draft convention on the prohibition of hostile military activities in internationally protected areas (1996), art. 1. | 国际自然保护联盟，禁止在国际保护区开展敌对军事活动公约草案(1996年)，第1条。 |
| Japan, Law for the Protection of Cultural Property, Law No. 214, 30 May 1950. | 日本，《文化财产保护法》，第214号法，1950年5月30日。 |
| Available from www.unesco.org/culture/natlaws/media/pdf/japan/japan_lawprotectionculturalproperty_engtof.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 见www.unesco.org/culture/natlaws/ media/pdf/japan/japan_lawprotectionculturalproperty_engtof.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Australia, New South Wales Consolidated Acts, National Parks and Wildlife Act, Act 80 of 1974. | 澳大利亚，新南威尔士州综合法，《国家公园和野生生物法》，1974年第80号法。 |
| Available from www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/npawa1974247/ (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 见www. austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/npawa1974247/ (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Italy, Act No. 394 laying down the legal framework for protected areas, 6 December 1991. Available from http://faolex.fao.org. | 意大利，制定保护区的法律框架的《第394号法》，1991年12月6日，可查阅http://faolex.fao. org。 |
| See International Labour Organization (ILO), Convention concerning Indigenous and Other Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (Geneva, 27 June 1989) (Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169)), which revised the Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, 1957 (No. 107); | 见国际劳工组织(劳工组织)，《关于独立国家土著和其他部落人民的公约》(1989年6月27日，日内瓦)(1989年《土著和部落人民公约》(第169号))，该公约修订了1957年《土著和部落人口公约》(第107号)； |
| United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, General Assembly resolution 61/295 of 13 September 2007, annex, art. 26. | 《联合国土著人民权利宣言》，联大2007年9月13日第61/295号决议，附件，第26条。 |
| The reports of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples, and the Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment (formerly the Independent Expert on human rights and the environment) provide an overview of the application of the rights of indigenous peoples in connection to the environment and natural resources (see, for example, A/HRC/15/37 and A/HRC/4/32, respectively). | 土著人民权利问题特别报告员和人权与环境问题特别报告员(前人权与环境问题独立专家)的报告概述了土著人民在环境和自然资源方面的权利的落实情况(例如，分别见A/HRC/15/37和A/HRC/4/32)。 |
| See, for example, Río Negro Massacres v. Guatemala, in which the Inter-American Court of Human Rights recognized “the culture of the members of the indigenous communities corresponds to a specific way of being, seeing and acting in the world, constituted on the basis of their close relationship with their traditional lands and natural resources, not only because these are their main means of subsistence, but also because they constitute an integral component of their cosmovision, religious beliefs and, consequently, their cultural identity”. | 例如见里奥内格罗屠杀诉危地马拉案，在该案中，美洲人权法院确认“土著社区成员的文化符合他们在世界中特有的存在、观察和行动方式，并系在他们同其传统土地和自然资源的密切关系基础上构成，不仅因为传统土地和自然资源是他们主要的生存手段，而且因为这些土地和自然资源是他们的世界观和宗教信仰的组成部分，因此，也是他们的文化特性的组成部分”。 |
| Río Negro Massacres v. Guatemala, Judgment (Preliminary Objection, Merits, Reparations and Costs), Series C, Case No. 250, 4 September 2012, para. 177, footnote 266. C.f. | 里奥内格罗屠杀诉危地马拉案，判决(初步反对意见，实质问题，赔偿和费用)，C辑，第250号案件，2012年9月4日，第177段，脚注266。 |
| Case of the Yakye Axa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay, Judgment (Merits, Reparations and Costs), Series C, Case No. 125, 17 June 2005, para. 135, and Case of Chitay Nech et al. v. Guatemala, Judgment (Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations, and Costs), Series C, Case No. 212, 25 May 2010, para. 147, footnote 160. | 参照Yakye Axa土著社区诉巴拉圭案，判决(实质问题，赔偿和费用)，C辑，第125号案件，2005年6月17日，第135段，以及Chitay Nech等人诉危地马拉案，判决(初步反对意见，实质问题，赔偿和费用)，C辑，第212号案件，2010年5月25日，第147段，脚注160。 |
| See also American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted on 15 June 2016, Organization of American States, General Assembly, Report of the Forty-Sixth Regular Session, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, June 13–15, 2016, XLVI-O.2, Proceedings, vol. I, resolution AG/RES. 2888 (XLVI-O/16), art. XIX, para. 4. | 另见2016年6月15日通过的《美洲土著人民权利宣言》，美洲国家组织，大会，《第四十六届常会报告，2016年6月13日至15日，多米尼加共和国圣多明各》，XLVI-O.2, 会议录，第一卷，AG/RES. 2888 (XLVI-O/16)号决议，第十九条，第4款。 |
| See, for example, “lands or territories, or both as applicable, which they occupy or otherwise use” used in art. 13, 1, of ILO Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169), or “lands, territories and resources” used in the preamble of United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. | 例如见劳工组织1989年《土著和部落人民公约》(第169号)第十三条第1款中使用的“其所占有或使用的土地或领域――或两者都适用”，或《联合国土著人民权利宣言》序言中使用的“土地、领土和资源”。 |
| See United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, art. 30: | 见《联合国土著人民权利宣言》第30条： |
| “1. Military activities shall not take place in the lands or territories of indigenous peoples, unless justified by a relevant public interest or otherwise freely agreed with or requested by the indigenous people concerned. | “1. 不得在土著人民的土地或领土上进行军事活动，除非是基于相关公共利益有理由这样 做，或经有关的土著人民自由同意，或应其要求这样做。 |
| 2. States shall undertake effective consultations with the indigenous peoples concerned, through appropriate procedures and in particular through their representative institutions, prior to using their lands or territories for military activities.” | 2. 各国在使用土著人民的土地或领土进行军事活动前，应通过适当程序，特别是通过其代 表机构，与有关的土著人民进行有效协商。 ” |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| See the American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, art. XXX, paras. 3 and 4, which read: | 见《美洲土著人民权利宣言》，第三十条，第3和第4款，内容如下： |
| “3. Indigenous peoples have the right to protection and security in situations or periods of internal or international armed conflict, in accordance with international humanitarian law. | “3. 根据国际人道法，土著人民有权在国内或国际性武装冲突情况下或在此期间获得保护和安全。 |
| 4. States, in compliance with international agreements to which they are party, in particular those of international humanitarian law and international human rights law, including the Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, and Protocol II thereof relating to the protection of victims of non-international armed conflicts, shall, in the event of armed conflicts, take adequate measures to protect the human rights, institutions, lands, territories, and resources of indigenous peoples and their communities … | 4. 各国根据所加入的国际协定，特别是国际人道法和国际人权法，包括《关于战时保护平民之日内瓦公约》及其《关于保护非国际性武装冲突受难者的第二议定书》，应在发生武装冲突时，采取适当措施保护土著人民及其社区的人权、机构、土地、领土和资源。 |
| ”. | ” |
| According to the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, article 28, “[i]ndigenous peoples have the right to redress, by means that can include restitution or, when this is not possible, just, fair and equitable compensation, for the lands, territories and resources which they have traditionally owned or otherwise occupied or used, and which have been confiscated, taken, occupied, used or damaged without their free, prior and informed consent”. | 根据《联合国土著人民权利宣言》第28条，“土著人民传统上拥有或以其他方式占有或使用的土地、领土和资源，未事先获得他们自由知情同意而被没收、拿走、占有、使用或损坏的，有权获得补偿，方式可包括归还原物，或在不可能这样做时，获得公正、公平、合理的赔偿。 |
| Similarly, the American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, art. XXXIII, states: “Indigenous peoples and individuals have the right to effective and suitable remedies, including prompt judicial remedies, for the reparation of any violation of their collective and individual rights. | ”同样，《美洲土著人民权利宣言》第三十三条规定：“土著人民和个人有权获得有效和适当的补救，包括迅速的司法补救办法，以赔偿其集体和个人权利受到的任何侵犯。 |
| States, with full and effective participation of indigenous peoples, shall provide the necessary mechanisms for the exercise of this right.” | 各国应在土著人民充分有效的参与下，为行使这项权利提供必要的机制。 ” |
| For example, see article 13 of ILO Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169), which states that “In applying the provisions of this Part of the Convention governments shall respect the special importance for the cultures and spiritual values of the peoples concerned of their relationship with the lands or territories, or both as applicable, which they occupy or otherwise use, and in particular the collective aspects of this relationship”. | 例如见劳工组织1989年《土著和部落人民公约》(第169号)第十三条，其中规定：“在实施本公约这部分的条款时，各国政府应重视有关民族与其所占有或使用的土地或领域――或两者都适用――的关系对于该民族文化和精神价值的特殊重要性，特别是这种关系的集体方面”。 |
| Though specific to that Convention’s application, it explicitly notes the collective aspects of the relationship that indigenous peoples have with their lands or territories. | 虽然具体针对的是该公约的适用，但它明确指出了土著人民与其土地或领土间关系的集体方面。 |
| See for instance, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, art. 19. | 例如见《联合国土著人民权利宣言》第19条。 |
| The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has established safeguards requiring States to obtain the “free, prior, and informed consent [of indigenous peoples], according to their customs and traditions”. | 美洲人权法院确立了保障措施，要求各国“根据[土著人民]的习俗和传统”获得“他们自由、事先且知情的同意”。 |
| See Case of the Saramaka People v. Suriname, Judgment (Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations, and Costs), Series C, No. 172, 28 November 2007, para. 134. | 见萨拉马卡人诉苏里南案，判决(初步反对意见，实质问题，赔偿和费用)，C辑，第172号案件，2007年11月28日，第134段。 |
| The Agreement between the European Union and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia on the status of the European Union-led forces in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (Official Journal L 082, 29/03/2003 P. 0046 – 0051, annex; | 《欧洲联盟与前南斯拉夫的马其顿共和国关于欧洲联盟领导的部队在前南斯拉夫的马其顿共和国地位的协议》(官方公报L 082, 29/03/2003 P. 0046 - 0051, 附件； |
| hereinafter, “Concordia status-of-forces agreement”), art. 9, provided a duty to respect international norms regarding, inter alia, the sustainable use of natural resources. | 下称《康科迪亚部队地位协议》)第9条规定，部队有义务尊重国际规范，尤其是关于可持续利用自然资源的规范。 |
| See Agreement between the European Union and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia on the status of the European Union-led forces in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:22003A0329(01) (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 见《欧洲联盟与前南斯拉夫的马其顿共和国关于欧洲联盟领导的部队在前南斯拉夫的马其顿共和国地位的协议》，可查阅https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:22003A 0329(01) (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of Iraq on the Withdrawal of United States Forces from Iraq and the Organization of Their Activities during their Temporary Presence in Iraq (Baghdad, 17 November 2008), art. 8 (hereinafter, “United States-Iraq Agreement”). | 《美利坚合众国和伊拉克共和国关于美国部队撤出伊拉克及其在伊拉克暂时驻留期间活动的组织的协议》，(2008年11月17日，巴格达)，第8条(下称《美国－伊拉克协议》)。 |
| Available at https://www.dcaf.ch/sites/default/files/publications/documents/US-Iraqi_SOFA-en.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅https://www.dcaf.ch/sites/default/files/publications/documents/US-Iraqi_SOFA-en.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Agreement between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan on the Status of NATO Forces and NATO personnel conducting mutually agreed NATO-led activities in Afghanistan (Kabul, 30 September 2014), International Legal Materials, vol. 54 (2015), pp. 272–305, art. 5, para. 6, art. 6, para. 1, and art. 7, para. 2. | 《北大西洋公约组织和阿富汗伊斯兰共和国关于在阿富汗执行共同商定由北约主导活动的北约部队和北约人员地位的协议》(2014年9月30日，喀布尔)，《国际法律资料》，第54卷，第272-305页，第5条第6款、第6条第1款和第7条第2款。 |
| Agreement between the Member States of the European Union concerning the status of military and civilian staff seconded to the institutions of the European Union, of the headquarters and forces which may be made available to the European Union in the context of the preparation and execution of the tasks referred to in article 17, paragraph 2, of the Treaty on European Union, including exercises, and of the military and civilian staff of the Member States put at the disposal of the European Union to act in this context (EU SOFA) (Brussels, 17 November 2003). | 《欧洲联盟成员国之间关于借调给欧洲联盟和总部各机构以及部队、可在准备和执行〈欧洲联盟条约〉第17条第2款所述的任务，包括演习时供欧洲联盟使用的军事和文职人员，以及供欧洲联盟为采取这方面行动而支配的成员国军事和文职人员地位的协议》(EU SOFA)(2003年11月17日，布鲁塞尔)。 |
| Available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A42003A1231%2801%29 (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX% 3A42003A1231%2801%29 (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Agreement to Supplement the Agreement between the Parties to the North Atlantic Treaty regarding the Status of their Forces with respect to Foreign Forces stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany (Bonn, 3 August 1959), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 481, No. 6986, p. 329, amended by the Agreements of 21 October 1971 and 18 March 1993 (hereinafter, “NATO-Germany Agreement”), art. 54A. | 《补充北大西洋公约缔约国部队地位协定的关于驻德意志联邦共和国的外国军队的协议》(1959年8月3日，波恩)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第481卷，第6986号，第329页，1971年10月21日和1993年3月18日修订(下称《北约－德国协议》)，第54A条。 |
| See also Agreement between the Parties to the North Atlantic Treaty regarding the Status of their Forces of 19 June 1951, art. XV. | 另见1951年6月19日《北大西洋公约缔约国部队地位协议》，第十五条。 |
| Memorandum of Special Understandings on Environmental Protection, concluded between the United States and the Republic of Korea (Seoul, 18 January 2001) (hereinafter, “United States-Republic of Korea Memorandum”). | 美国与大韩民国缔结的《环境保护特别谅解备忘录》(2001年1月18日，首尔)(下称《美国－大韩民国备忘录》)。 |
| Available at www.usfk.mil/Portals/105/Documents/SOFA/A12_MOSU.Environmental.Protection.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.usfk.mil/Portals/105/Documents/SOFA/A12_MOSU.Environ mental.Protection.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See, e.g., Memorandum of Understanding between Finland and NATO regarding the provision of host nation support for the execution of NATO operations/exercises/similar military activity (4 September 2014). Available at www.defmin.fi/files/2898/HNS_MOU_FINLAND.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019), reference HE 82/2014. | 例如见《芬兰和北约之间关于为执行北约行动/演习/类似军事活动提供东道国支持的谅解备忘录》(2014年9月4日)，可查阅www.defmin.fi/files/2898/HNS_MOU_FINLAND.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)，参考号HE 82/2014。 |
| According to art. 5.3 (g), sending nations must follow host nation environmental regulations as well as any host nation’s regulations for the storage, movement, or disposal of hazardous materials. | 根据第5.3(g)条，派遣国必须遵守东道国环境法规以及东道国有关储存、移动或处置危险材料的规定。 |
| Agreement concerning the Status of United States Forces in Australia (Canberra, 9 May 1963), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 469, No. 6784, p. 55 (hereinafter, “United States-Australia Agreement”), art. 12, para. 7 (e) (i). | 《美国驻澳大利亚部队地位协议》(1963年5月9日，堪培拉)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第469卷，第6784号，第55页(下称《美国－澳大利亚协议》)，第12条第7 (e) (i)款。 |
| Agreement between the Philippines and the United States on enhanced defense cooperation (hereinafter, “United States-Philippines Agreement”) (Quezon City, 28 April 2014). | 《菲律宾与美国加强防务合作的协议》(2014年4月28日，奎松市)(下称《美国－菲律宾协议》)。 |
| Available at www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2014/04/29/document-enhanced-defense-cooperation-agreement/ (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2014/04/29/document-enhanced-defense-cooperation-agreement/(2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See e.g. D.L. Shelton and I. Cutting, “If you break it, do you own it? ”, Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies, vol. 6 (2015), pp. 201–246, at pp. 210–211, and J. Taylor, “Environment and security conflicts: The U.S. Military in Okinawa”, Geographical Bulletin, vol. 48 (2007), pp. 3–13, at pp. 6–7. | See e.g. D.L. Shelton and I. Cutting, “If you break it, do you own it?”, Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies, vol. 6 (2015), pp. 201–246, at pp. 210–211, and J. Taylor, “Environment and security conflicts: The U.S. Military in Okinawa”, Geographical Bulletin, vol. 48 (2007), pp. 3–13, at pp. 6–7. |
| See United States-Republic of Korea Memorandum. | 见《美国－大韩民国备忘录》。 |
| See United States-Iraq Agreement, art. 8. | 见《美国－伊拉克协议》第8条。 |
| See United States-Republic of Korea Memorandum. | 见《美国－大韩民国备忘录》。 |
| See United States-Philippines Agreement, art. IX, para. 3, and NATO-Germany Agreement, art. 54A. | 见《美国－菲律宾协议》第九条第3款和《北约－德国协定》第54A条。 |
| These assessments could identify and evaluate the environmental aspects of the operation and can be accompanied by a commitment to plan, program and budget for these requirements accordingly, as in done the United States-Republic of Korea Memorandum. | 这些评估可以确定和评估行动的环境方面，并可针对这些要求相应作出规划、计划和预算承诺，如《美国－大韩民国备忘录》所做的那样。 |
| See United States-Philippines Agreement, art. IX, para. 2. | 见《美国－菲律宾协议》第九条第2款。 |
| See NATO-Germany Agreement, art. 54A, and United States-Australia Agreement, art. 12, para. 7 (e) (i). | 见《北约－德国协议》第54A条和《美国－澳大利亚协议》第12条第7(e) (i)款。 |
| See United States-Iraq agreement, art. 8. | 见《美国－伊拉克协议》第8条。 |
| As is done in art. 9 of the Concordia status-of-forces agreement. | 如《康科迪亚部队地位协议》第9条那样。 |
| See NATO-Germany Agreement, art. 54A. | 见《北约－德国协议》第54A条。 |
| NATO-Germany Agreement, art. 41, and United States-Australia Agreement, art. 12, para. 7 (e) (i). | 《北约－德国协议》第41条和《美国－澳大利亚协议》第12条第7(e) (i)款。 |
| Report of the High-level Independent Panel on Peace Operations on uniting our strengths for peace: politics, partnership and people (contained in A/70/95-S/2015/446), para. 23. | 和平行动问题高级别独立小组关于“集中力量，促进和平：政治、伙伴关系和人民”的报告。 (载于A/70/95-S/2015/446)，第23段。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| V. Holt and G. Taylor, Protecting Civilians in the Context of UN Peacekeeping Operations: Successes, Setbacks and Remaining Challenges, independent study jointly commissioned by the Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.10.III.M.1), pp. 2–3. | V. Holt和G. Taylor著, 《在联合国维持和平行动中保护平民:成功、挫折和仍存在的挑战》维持和平行动部与人道主义事务协调厅联合委托进行的独立研究 (联合国出版物，出售品编号：E.10.III.M.1)，第2-3页。 |
| See for example the following mandates of United Nations-led missions found in Security Council resolutions: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (1289 (2000)); | 例如见安全理事会决议中联合国主导的特派团的下列任务：联合国塞拉利昂特派团(联塞特派团)(1289(2000))； |
| United Nations Observer Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1291 (2000)); | 联合国刚果民主共和国观察团(联刚观察团)(1291(2000))； |
| United Nations Mission in Liberia (1509 (2003) and 2215 (2015)); | 联合国利比里亚特派团(联利特派团)(1509(2003)和2215(2015))； |
| United Nations Operation in Burundi (1545 (2004)); | 联合国布隆迪行动(联布行动)(1545(2004))； |
| United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (1542 (2004)); | 联合国海地稳定特派团(联海稳定团)(1542(2004))； |
| United Nations Operation in Côte d’Ivoire (1528 (2004) and 2226 (2015)); | 联合国科特迪瓦行动(联科行动)(1528(2004)和2226(2015))； |
| United Nations Mission in the Sudan (1590 (2005)); | 联合国苏丹特派团(联苏特派团)(1590(2005)； |
| African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (1769 (2007)); | 非洲联盟－联合国达尔富尔混合行动(达尔富尔混合行动)(1769(2007))； |
| and United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad (1861 (2009)). | 以及联合国中非共和国和乍得特派团(中乍特派团)(1861 (2009))。 |
| See United Nations, Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department of Field Support, “DFS Environment Strategy” (2017). | 见联合国维持和平行动部和外勤支助部，“外勤部环境战略”(2017年)。 |
| Available at https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/171116_dfs_exec_summary_environment_0.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅https://peace keeping.un.org/sites/default/files/171116_dfs_exec_summary_environment_0.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| The strategy is complemented by an environmental policy and environmental guidelines on environment for United Nations field missions (see footnote 993 above). | 该战略以联合国外地特派团环境政策和环境准则作为补充(见上文脚注993)。 |
| See, e.g., European Union, “Military Concept on Environmental Protection and Energy Efficiency for EU-led military operations”, 14 September 2012, document EEAS 01574/12. | 例如见，欧洲联盟，“欧盟领导的军事行动的环境保护和能源效率军事概念”，2012年9月14日，EEAS 01574/12号文件。 |
| See, e.g., NATO, “Joint NATO doctrine for environmental protection during NATO-led military activities”, 8 March 2018, document NSO(Joint)0335(2018)EP/7141. | 例如见北约，“关于在北约领导的军事活动期间保护环境的北约联合原则”，2018年3月8日，NSO(Joint)0335(2018)EP/7141号文件。 |
| “The future of United Nations peace operations: implementation of the recommendations of the High-level Independent Panel on Peace Operations”, Report of the Secretary-General (A/70/357-S/2015/682), para. 129. | “联合国和平行动的未来：执行和平行动问题高级别独立小组的各项建议：秘书长的报告”，(A/70/357-S/2015/682)，第129段。 |
| “An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-keeping” (A/47/277-S/24111), para. 20. | “和平纲领：预防性外交、建立和平与维持和平”(A/47/277-S/24111)，第20段。 |
| See also the supplement thereto, a position paper by the Secretary-General on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations (A/50/60-S/1995/1). | 另见其补编，即秘书长在联合国五十周年提出的立场文件(A/50/60-S/1995/1)。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| Ibid., para. 56. | 同上，第56段。 |
| A/70/95-S/2015/446, para. 18. | A/70/95-S/2015/446, 第18段。 |
| See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), UNHCR Environmental Guidelines (Geneva, 2005). | 见联合国难民事务高级专员公署(难民署)，《难民署环境准则》(2005年，日内瓦)。 |
| Available at www.refworld.org/docid/4a54bbd10.html (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.refworld.org/docid/4a54bbd10.html (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Desk Study on the Environment in Liberia (United Nations Environment Programme, 2004), p. 23. | 联合国环境规划署，《利比里亚环境案头研究》(2004年，联合国环境规划署)，第23页。 |
| Available at http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/8396 (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/8396 (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment (Nairobi, 2007), p. 115. | 联合国环境规划署，《苏丹冲突后环境评估》(2007年，内罗毕)，第115页。 |
| Available at http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/22234 (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/22234 (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Rwanda: From Post-Conflict to Environmentally Sustainable Development (Nairobi, 2011), p. 74. | 联合国环境规划署，《卢旺达：从冲突后到环境可持续发展》(2011年，内罗毕)，第74页。 |
| Available at https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_Rwanda.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_Rwanda.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| As more than 2 million people moved in and out of the country, up to 800,000 people in camps along the border to the Democratic Republic of the Congo had to rely on firewood from the nearby Virunga national park. | 由于有200多万人出入该国，在刚果民主共和国边境的难民营中有多达80万人口不得不从附近的维龙加国家公园获取木柴。 |
| Ibid., pp. 65–66. | 同上，第65-66页。 |
| International Law and Policy Institute, Protection of the Natural Environment in Armed Conflict: An Empirical Study, Report 12/2014 (Oslo, 2014). | 国际法律与政策研究所，《武装冲突中的自然环境保护：实证研究》，2014年12月报告 (2014年，奥斯陆)。 |
| Ibid., p. 5. | 同上，第5页。 |
| Ibid., p. 6. | 同上，第6页。 |
| D. Jensen and S. Lonergan, “Natural resources and post-conflict assessment, remediation, restoration and reconstruction: lessons and emerging issues”, in Jensen and Lonergan (eds.), Assessing and Restoring Natural Resources in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding (Abingdon, Earthscan from Routledge, 2012), pp. 411–450, p. 414. | D. Jensen and S. Lonergan, “Natural resources and post-conflict assessment, remediation, restoration and reconstruction: lessons and emerging issues”, in Jensen and Lonergan (eds.), Assessing and Restoring Natural Resources in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding (Abingdon, Earthscan from Routledge, 2012), pp. 411–450, p. 414. |
| UNHCR Environmental Guidelines (footnote 1057 above), p. 5. | 《难民署环境准则》(上文脚注1057)，第5页。 |
| See also G. Lahn and O. Grafham, “Heat, light and power for refugees: saving lives, reducing costs” (Chatham House, 2015). | 另见G. Lahn and O. Grafham, “Heat, light and power for refugees: saving lives, reducing costs” (Chatham House, 2015)。 |
| Ibid., p. 7. | 同上，第7页。 |
| See United Nations Environment Programme, Rwanda: From Post-Conflict to Environmentally Sustainable Development (footnote 1060 above). | 见联合国环境规划署，《卢旺达：从冲突后到环境可持续发展》(上文脚注1060)。 |
| See also United Nations Environment Programme, Sudan Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment (footnote 1059 above). | 另见联合国环境规划署，《苏丹冲突后环境评估》(上文脚注1059)。 |
| See United Nations Environmental Assembly resolution 2/15 of 27 May 2016 on “Protection of the environment in areas affected by armed conflict” (UNEP/EA.2/Res.15), para. 1. | 见联合国环境大会2016年5月27日关于“受武装冲突影响地区的环境保护”的第2/15号决议(UNEP/EA.2/Res.15)，第1段。 |
| African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (Kampala, 23 October 2009), art. 9, para. 2 (j). | 《非洲联盟保护和援助非洲境内流离失所者公约》(2009年10月23日，坎帕拉)，第9条第2款(j)项。 |
| Available at https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-protection-and-assistance-internally-displaced-persons-africa. | 可查阅https://au.int/en/treaties/african-union-convention-protection-and-assistance-internally-displaced-persons-africa。 |
| The Convention entered into force on 6 December 2012. | 《公约》于2012年12月6日生效。 |
| Ibid., art. 1 (k). | 同上，第1条(k)项。 |
| Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Decision 1/CP.21 “Adoption of the Paris Agreement”, para. 49, in Report of the Conference of the Parties on its twenty-first session, held in Paris from 30 November to 13 December 2015, Addendum (FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1). | 联合国气候变化框架公约缔约方会议，1/CP.21号决定“通过《巴黎协定》”，第49段，2015年11月30日至12月13日在巴黎举行的缔约方会议第二十一届会议报告，增编(FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1)。 |
| See also the Nansen Initiative, Agenda for the Protection of Cross-Border Displaced Persons in the Context of Disasters and Climate Change, vol. 1 (2015). | 另见南森倡议，《在灾害和气候变化情况下保护跨境流离失所者议程》，第1卷(2015年)。 |
| Available at https://nanseninitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/PROTECTION-AGENDA-VOLUME-1.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅https://nanseninitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/PRO TECTION-AGENDA-VOLUME-1.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, para. 28 (adopted at the Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction and endorsed by the General Assembly in resolution 69/283 of 3 June 2015). | 《2015-2030年仙台减少灾害风险框架》，第28段(第三次联合国世界减少灾害风险大会通过，并由联大在2015年6月3日第69/283号决议中予以认可)。 |
| Available at www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/43291 (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.unisdr.org/ we/inform/publications/43291 (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| General Assembly resolution 73/195 of 19 December 2018, annex. | 联大2018年12月19日第73/195号决议，附件。 |
| UNHCR Environmental Guidelines (footnote 1057 above), p. 5. | 《难民署环境准则》(上文脚注1057)，第5页。 |
| International Organization for Migration, Compendium of Activities in Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience (Geneva, 2013), as referenced in IOM Outlook on Migration, Environment and Climate Change (Geneva, 2014), p. 82. | 国际移民组织，《减少灾害风险和抗灾能力活动简编》(2013年，日内瓦)，《移民组织移民、环境和气候变化展望》(2014年，日内瓦)中曾提及，第82页。 |
| D. Ionesco, D. Mokhnacheva, F. Gemenne, The Atlas of Environmental Migration (Abingdon, Routledge 2019). | D. Ionesco, D. Mokhnacheva, F. Gemenne, The Atlas of Environmental Migration, (Abingdon, Routledge 2019). |
| A. Christensen and N. Harild, “Forced displacement – The development challenge” (Social Development Department, The World Bank Group, Washington, D.C., 2009). | A.Christensen和N.Harild，“强迫流离失所――发展挑战”(世界银行集团社会发展部，华盛顿哥伦比亚特区，2009年)。 |
| Ibid., pp. 4 and 11. | 同上，第4和第11页。 |
| International Union for Conservation of Nature, Draft International Covenant on Environment and Development (2015), art. 40, on military and hostile activities (formerly art. 38). | 国际自然保护联盟，《国际环境和发展盟约草案》(2015年)，关于军事和敌对活动的第40条(上一版本第38条)。 |
| Available from www.iucn.org. | 可查阅www.iucn.org。 |
| Draft articles on the protection of persons in the event of disasters, Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-first session, Supplement No. 10 (A/71/10), paras. 48–49. | 发生灾害时的人员保护条款草案，《大会正式记录，第七十一届会议，补编第10号》(A/71/10)，第48-49段。 |
| Para. (9) of the commentary to draft art. 18, para. 2, ibid., at p. 73. See also draft art. 3 (a): “disaster” was defined, for the purposes of the draft articles, as “a calamitous event or series of events resulting in widespread loss of life, great human suffering and distress, mass displacement, or large-scale material or environmental damage, thereby seriously disrupting the functioning of society”. | 第18条第2款草案评注第(9)段，同上，第73页，另见第3条草案(a)：为本条款草案的目的，“灾害”是指“造成广泛的生命损失、巨大的人类痛苦和危难、大规模流离失所、或大规模的物质或环境损害，从而严重扰乱社会运转的一个灾难性事件或一系列事件”。 |
| Ibid., at p. 14. | 同上，第14页。 |
| Art. 1 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts (hereinafter, “articles on State responsibility”): “Every internationally wrongful act of a State entails the international responsibility of that State”, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 76–77, pp. 32–34. | 《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》(下称“《国家责任条款》”)第1条：“一国的每一国际不法行为引起该国的国际责任”，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第76至77段，第32至34页。 |
| This includes articles 35, paragraph 3, and 55 of Additional Protocol I and their customary counterparts, the principles of distinction, proportionality, military necessity and precautions in attack, as well as other rules concerning the conduct of hostilities, and the law of occupation, also reflected in the present draft principles. | 这些规则包括《第一附加议定书》第三十五条第三款和第五十五条及其对应的习惯规则、区分原则、相称原则、军事必要性原则和攻击中采取预防措施原则，以及关于敌对行为的其他规则和占领法，这些规则也都体现在本原则草案中。 |
| Furthermore, to the extent that international criminal law provides protection to the environment in armed conflict, the relevant international crimes may trigger State responsibility. | 此外，在国际刑法为武装冲突中的环境提供保护情况下，相关国际罪行可能触发国家责任。 |
| See art. 1 of the articles on State responsibility”, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 76–77, and para. (3) of the commentary to art. 58, ibid., at p. 142. | 见《国家责任条款》第1条，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第76至77段，第58条评注第(3)段，同上，第142页。 |
| See also Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007, p. 43, at p. 116, para. 173. | 另见《防止及惩治灭绝种族罪公约》的适用(波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那诉塞尔维亚和黑山)，判决，《2007年国际法院案例汇编》，第43页起，见第116页，第173段。 |
| Convention (IV) respecting the laws and customs of war on land (Hague Convention IV) (The Hague, 18 October 1907), J.B. Scott (ed.), The Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1899 and 1907, 3rd ed. (New York, Oxford University Press, 1915), p. 100, art. 3: “[a] belligerent party which violates the provisions of the said Regulations shall, if the case demands, be liable to pay compensation. | 《陆战法规和惯例(第四)公约》(海牙第四公约)(1907年10月18日,海牙)，J.B. Scott编，《1899年和1907年海牙公约和宣言》，第3版(牛津大学出版社，1915年，纽约)，第100页，第三条：“违反该章程规定的交战一方在需要时应负责赔偿。 |
| It shall be responsible for all acts committed by persons forming part of its armed forces. | 该方应对自己军队的组成人员做出的一切行为负责”。 |
| ” See also Additional Protocol I, art. 91. | 另见《第一附加议定书》，第九十一条。 |
| See also Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 150, p. 537: “A State responsible for violations of international humanitarian law is required to make full reparation for the loss or injury caused”. | 另见Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck, 《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969)，规则150, 第537页：“违反国际人道法的责任国必须对所造成的损失或伤害作出充分赔偿”。 |
| This special rule also applies to private acts of members of armed forces. | 这一特别规则也适用于武装部队成员的私人行为。 |
| See Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission, Decision No. 7, Guidance Regarding Jus ad Bellum Liability, 26 UNRIAA (2009), p. 631, para. 13; | 见厄立特里亚－埃塞俄比亚索偿委员会，第7号决定，关于诉诸战争权赔偿责任的指导原则，26，国际仲裁裁决汇编(2009年)，第631页，第13段； |
| ICRC commentary (1987) to Additional Protocol I, art. 91, para. 3650. | 红十字国际委员会关于《第一附加议定书》的评注(1987年)，第九十一条，第3650段。 |
| See also M. Sassòli, “State responsibility for violations of international humanitarian law”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 84 (2002), pp. 401–434; | 另见M. Sassòli, “State responsibility for violations of international humanitarian law”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 84 (2002), 第401–434页; |
| C. Greenwood, “State responsibility and civil liability for environmental damage caused by military operations”, in R.J. Grunawalt, J.E. King and R.S. McClain (eds.), “Protection of the environment during armed conflict”, International Law Studies, vol. 69 (1996), pp. 397–415, at pp. 405–406. | C. Greenwood, “State responsibility and civil liability for environmental damage caused by military operations”, in R.J. Grunawalt, J.E. King and R.S. McClain (eds.), “Protection of the environment during armed conflict”, International Law Studies, vol. 69 (1996), 第397–415页, 见第 405–406页。 |
| See Yanomami v. Brazil, Case No. 12/85, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, resolution No. 12/85, Case No. 7615, 5 March 1985; | 见亚诺玛米人诉巴西，第12/85号案件，美洲人权委员会，第12/85号决议，第7615号案件，1985年3月5日； |
| Öneryildiz v. Turkey, Application No. 48939/99, Judgment, European Court of Human Rights, 30 November 2004, ECHR 2004-XII; | Öneryildiz诉土耳其，第48939/99号申请，判决，欧洲人权法院，2004年11月30日，ECHR 2004-XII； |
| Powell and Rayner v. the United Kingdom, Application No. 9310/81, Judgment, European Court of Human Rights, 21 February 1990; | Powell和Rayner诉联合王国，第9310/81号案件，判决，欧洲人权法院，1990年2月21日； |
| López Ostra v. Spain, Application No. 16798/90, Judgment, European Court of Human Rights, 9 December 1994; | López Ostra诉西班牙，第16798/90号案件，判决，欧洲人权法院，1994年12月9日； |
| Guerra and Others v. Italy, Application No. 116/1996/735/532, Judgment, European Court of Human Rights, 19 February 1998; | Guerra等诉意大利，第116/1996/735/532号案件，判决，欧洲人权法院，1998年2月19日； |
| Fadeyeva v. Russia, Application No. 55723/00, Judgment, European Court of Human Rights, 9 June 2005. | Fadeyeva诉俄罗斯，第55723/00号案件，判决，欧洲人权法院，2005年6月9日。 |
| See also R. Pavoni, “Environmental jurisprudence of the European and Inter-American Courts of Human Rights: comparative insights”, in B. Boer, Environmental Law Dimensions of Human Rights (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2015), pp. 69–106. | 另见 R. Pavoni, “Environmental jurisprudence of the European and Inter-American Courts of Human Rights: comparative insights”, in B. Boer, Environmental Law Dimensions of Human Rights (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2015), 第69-106页。 |
| See also “Mapping human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment”, individual report of the General Assembly and the Human Rights Council, including the universal periodic review process, Report No. 6, December 2013, part III C. | 《与享有安全、清洁、健康和可持续环境有关的人权义务摸底调查，联大和人权理事会个别报告，包括普遍定期审议进程》，第6号报告，2013年12月，第3.C部分。 |
| Security Council resolution 692 (1991) of 20 May 1991. | 安全理事会1991年5月20日第692 (1991)号决议。 |
| Security Council resolution 687 (1991) of 3 April 1991, para. 16. | 安全理事会1991年4月3日第687 (1991)号决议，第16段。 |
| D.D. Caron, “The profound significance of the UNCC for the environment”, in C.R. Payne and P.H. Sand (eds.), Gulf War Reparations and the UN Compensation Commission Environmental Liability (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 265–275; | D.D. Caron, “The profound significance of the UNCC for the environment”, in C.R. Payne and P.H. Sand (eds.), Gulf War Reparations and the UN Compensation Commission Environmental Liability (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 265–275; |
| P. Gautier, “Environmental damage and the United Nations Claims Commission: new directions for future international environmental cases?”, in T.M. Ndiaye and R. Wolfrum (eds.), Law of the Sea, Environmental Law, and Settlement of Disputes. Liber Amicorum Judge Thomas A. Mensah (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2007), pp. 177–214; | P. Gautier, “Environmental damage and the United Nations Claims Commission: new directions for future international environmental cases?”, in T.M. Ndiaye and R. Wolfrum (eds.), Law of the Sea, Environmental Law, and Settlement of Disputes. Liber Amicorum Judge Thomas A. Mensah (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2007), pp. 177–214; |
| P.H. Sand, “Compensation for environmental damage from the 1991 Gulf War”, Environmental Policy and Law, vol. 35 (2005), pp. 244–249. | P.H. Sand, “Compensation for environmental damage from the 1991 Gulf War”, Environmental Policy and Law, vol. 35 (2005), pp. 244–249. |
| Decision taken by the Governing Council of the United Nations Compensation Commission during its third session, at the 18th meeting, held on 28 November 1991, as revised at the 24th meeting held on 16 March 1992 (S/AC.26/1991/7/Rev.1), para. 35. | 联合国赔偿委员会理事会在1991年11月28日第三届大会第十八次会议上作出的决定，经1992年3月16日第二十四次会议修订(S/AC.26/1991/7/Rev.1)，第35段。 |
| Para. (15) of the commentary to art. 36 of the articles on State responsibility, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 76–77, at p. 101: “environmental damage will often extend beyond that which can be readily quantified in terms of clean-up costs or property devaluation. | 《国家责任条款》第36条评注第(15)段，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第76-77段，见第101页：“环境损害往往大大超过可以容易地从清洗费用或财产贬值的角度予以定量的程度。 |
| Damage to such environmental values (biodiversity, amenity, etc. – sometimes referred to as ‘non-use values’) is, as a matter of principle, no less real and compensable than damage to property, though it may be difficult to quantify”. | 从原则上说，对于这类环境价值的损害(生物多样性、环境的舒适性等――有时称为“非使用价值”)，其真实和应该予以赔偿的程度不亚于对财产的损害，不过可能很难定量”。 |
| Para. (6) of the commentary to principle 3 of the principles on the allocation of loss in the case of transboundary harm arising out of hazardous activities, Yearbook … 2006, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 66–67, at p. 73: “it is important to emphasize that damage to environment per se could constitute damage subject to prompt and adequate compensation”. | 危险活动所致跨界损害的损失分配原则3评注第(6)段，《2006年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第66-67段，第73页：“重要的是强调：对环境本身的损害就可能构成需要及时和充分赔偿的损害”。 |
| United Nations Compensation Commission, Governing Council, Report and recommendations made by the Panel of Commissioners concerning the fifth instalment of “F4” claims (S/AC.26/2005/10), para. 58. | 联合国赔偿委员会，理事会，专员小组就第五批“F4”类索赔提出的报告和建议(S/AC.26/ 2005/10)，第58段。 |
| Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation Owed by the Republic of Nicaragua to the Republic of Costa Rica, International Court of Justice, 2 February 2018, General List No. 150, para. 41. | 尼加拉瓜在边界地区开展的某些活动(哥斯达黎加诉尼加拉瓜)案，尼加拉瓜共和国欠哥斯达黎加共和国的赔偿，国际法院，2018年2月2日，总表第150号，第41段。 |
| Ibid., Separate Opinion of Judge Donoghue, para. 3: “Damage to the environment can include not only damage to physical goods, such as plants and minerals, but also to the ‘services’ that they provide to other natural resources (for example, habitat) and to society. | 同上，见多诺霍法官的个别意见，第3段：“对环境的损害不仅可包括对实物(如植物和矿物)的损害，还可包括对这些实物为其他自然资源(例如生境)和社会提供的‘服务’的损害”。 |
| Reparation is due for such damage, if established, even though the damaged goods and services were not being traded in a market or otherwise placed in economic use. | 即使受损的货物和服务没有在市场上进行交易或以其他方式用于经济用途，如果确定存在这种损害，也应予以赔偿。 |
| Costa Rica is therefore entitled to seek compensation for ‘pure’ environmental damage, which the Court calls ‘damage caused to the environment, in and of itself’.” | 因此，哥斯达黎加有权就‘纯粹’环境损害寻求赔偿，法院将这种损害称之为‘单纯对环境本身造成的损害’”。 |
| See J.B. Ruhl and J. Salzman, “The law and policy beginnings of ecosystem services”, Journal of Land Use and Environmental Law, vol. 22 (2007), pp. 157 –172. | 见J.B. Ruhl and J. Salzman, “The law and policy beginnings of ecosystem services”, Journal of Land Use and Environmental Law, vol. 22 (2007), 第157-172页。 |
| See also Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation Owed (footnote 1096 above), para. 75. | 另见尼加拉瓜在边界地区开展的某些活动(哥斯达黎加诉尼加拉瓜)，所欠赔偿(上文脚注1096)，第75段。 |
| Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework (A/HRC/17/31, annex). | 《工商企业与人权指导原则：实施联合国“保护、尊重和补救”框架》(A/HRC/17/31，附件)。 |
| The Human Rights Council endorsed the Guiding Principles in its resolution 17/4 of 16 June 2011. | 人权理事会在2011年6月16日第17/4号决议中支持这项指导原则。 |
| So far, 21 States have published national action plans on the implementation of the Guiding Principles, 23 are in the process of preparing such a plan or have committed to preparing one. | 迄今为止已有21个国家公布了实施《指导原则》的国家行动计划，23个国家正在制定或承诺制定此类计划。 |
| In nine other States, either the national human rights institute or civil society has taken steps towards preparing a national action plan. | 另有9个国家的国家人权机构或民间社会采取措施推动制定国家行动计划。 |
| Information available at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Business/Pages/NationalActionPlans.aspx (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 相关信息可查阅www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Business/Pages/NationalActionPlans.aspx (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, principle 7. | 《工商企业与人权指导原则》，原则7。 |
| Ibid., principle 7, para. (d). | 同上，原则7，(d)段。 |
| OECD, OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. The updated guidelines and the related decision were adopted by the 42 Governments adhering thereto on 25 May 2011. | 经合组织，《经合组织跨国企业准则》，支持该准则的42国政府于2011年5月25日通过了最新版准则和相关决定。 |
| Available at www.oecd.org/corporate/mne (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.oecd.org/corporate/mne (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Ibid., chap. VI “Environment”, p. 42. | 同上，第六章“环境”，第42页。 |
| OECD, OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas, 3rd ed. (Paris, 2016). | 经合组织，《经合组织关于受冲突影响地区和高风险地区负责任矿产供应链的尽责准则》，第三版(2016年，巴黎)。 |
| Available at www.oecd.org/daf/inv/mne/mining.htm (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.oecd.org/daf/inv/mne/mining.htm(2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Ibid., p. 16. | 同上，第16页。 |
| See www.icglr-rinr.org/index.php/en/certification (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 见www.icglr-rinr.org/index.php/en/certification (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| China, Chamber of Commerce of Metals, Minerals and Chemicals Importers and Exporters, Chinese Due Diligence Guidelines for Responsible Mineral Supply Chains. | 中国五矿化工进出口商会，《中国负责任矿产供应链尽责管理指南》。 |
| The guidelines apply to all Chinese companies extracting and/or using mineral resources and their related products and come into play at any point in the supply chain of minerals. | 该指南适用于所有正在开采和/或使用矿产资源及其相关产品的中国企业，并适用于矿产供应链任何节点。 |
| Available at http://mneguidelines.oecd.org/chinese-due-diligence-guidelines-for-responsible-mineral-supply-chains.htm (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅http://mneguidelines.oecd.org/chinese-due-diligence-guidelines-for-responsible-mineral-supply-chains.htm (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| For Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, which aims at increasing transparency in the management of oil, gas, and mining revenues, see http://eiti.org; | 旨在提高石油、天然气和采矿收入管理透明度的《采掘业透明度倡议》，见http://eiti.org； |
| for Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights for extractive industry companies, see at www.voluntaryprinciples.org; | 采掘业公司《安全与人权自愿原则》，见www.voluntaryprinciples.org； |
| for the Equator Principles of the financial industry for determining, assessing and managing social and environmental risk in project financing, see www.equator-principles.com. | 金融行业旨在确定、评估和管理项目融资中的社会和环境风险的《赤道原则》，见www.equator-principles.com。 |
| An Act to promote the financial stability of the United States by improving accountability and transparency in the financial system, to end “too big to fail”, to protect the American taxpayer by ending bailouts, to protect consumers from abusive financial services practices, and for other purposes (Dodd–Frank Act), 11 July, 2010, Pub.L.111–203, 124 Stat. 1376–2223. | 该法案旨在通过改善金融体系问责制和透明度促进美国金融稳定，结束“大而不能倒”，通过终止紧急财政援助保护美国纳税人，保护消费者免遭滥用金融服务做法的侵害以及其他目的(《多德－弗兰克法》)，2010年7月11日，Pub.L.111-203, 124 Stat.1376-2223。 |
| Section 1502 of the Dodd-Frank Act on conflict minerals originating from the Democratic Republic of the Congo requires that companies registered in the United States exercise due diligence on certain minerals originating from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. | 《多德－弗兰克法》中关于原产自刚果民主共和国的冲突矿物的第1502条要求在美国注册的公司对原产自刚果民主共和国的某些矿物开展尽责调查。 |
| Protocol against the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources of the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (Nairobi, 30 November 2006), available at https://ungreatlakes.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/icglr_protocol_against_the_illegal_exploitation_of_natural_resourcess.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 大湖区问题国际会议《禁止非法开采自然资源议定书》(2006年11月30日，内罗毕)，可查阅https://ungreatlakes.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/icglr_protocol_against_the_illegal_exploitation_of_natural_resourcess.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Art. 17, para. 1, requires States parties to establish the liability of legal entities for participating in the illegal exploitation of natural resources. | 第17条第1款要求缔约国确定法律实体对参与非法开采自然资源的责任。 |
| Regulation (EU) 2017/821 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 2017 laying down supply chain due diligence obligations for Union importers of tin, tantalum and tungsten, their ores, and gold originating from conflict-affected and high-risk areas, Official Journal of the European Union, L130, p. 1 (European Union conflict minerals regulation). | 欧洲议会和欧洲理事会2017年5月17日第2017/821号(欧盟)条例规定从受冲突影响和高风险地区进口锡、钽、钨及其矿石和黄金的欧盟进口商有供应链尽责调查义务，《欧洲联盟公报》，L130号，第1页(欧洲联盟冲突矿产条例)。 |
| The regulation will enter into force on 1 January 2021. | 该条例将于2021年1月1日生效。 |
| The regulation lays down supply chain due diligence obligations for European Union importers of certain minerals originating from conflict-affected and high-risk areas. | 该条例规定从受冲突影响和高风险地区进口某些矿产的欧洲联盟进口商有供应链尽责调查义务。 |
| Regulation (EU) No. 995/2010 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 October 2010 laying down obligations of operators who place timber and timber products on the market (12 November 2010), Official Journal of the European Union, L 295, p. 23. | 欧洲议会和欧洲理事会2010年10月20日第995/2010号(欧盟)条例规定了将木材和木材产品投放市场的经营者的义务，(2010年11月12日)，《欧洲联盟公报》，L 295号，第23页。 |
| The timber regulation requires that operators exercise due diligence so as to minimize the risk of placing illegally harvested timber, or timber products containing illegally harvested timber, on the European Union market. | 木材条例要求经营者开展尽责调查，以最大限度地减少将非法采伐的木材或含有非法采伐木材的木材产品投放欧洲联盟市场的风险。 |
| OECD Due Diligence Guidance … (footnote 1105 above), p. 13. | 《经合组织…尽责调查准则》(上文脚注1105)，第13页。 |
| The Guidance explains that “Armed conflict may take a variety of forms such as a conflict of international or non-international character, which may involve two or more States, or may consist of wars of liberation, or insurgencies, civil wars, etc. | 该准则解释称，“武装冲突可能包括国际性或非国际性冲突等多种形式，可能涉及两个或两个以上国家，也可能包括解放战争、叛乱或内战等。 |
| High-risk areas may include areas of political instability or repression, institutional weakness, insecurity, collapse of civil infrastructure and widespread violence. | 高风险地区可能包括存在政治不稳定或政治压迫、体制薄弱、不安全、民用基础设施崩溃和普遍暴力等现象的地区。 |
| Such areas are often characterised by widespread human rights abuses and violations of national or international law.” | 这些地区往往经常发生普遍侵犯人权行为及违反国际法律或国际法的行为”。 |
| European Union conflict minerals regulation (footnote 1112 above), art. 2, para. (f). | 联盟冲突矿物条例(上文脚注1112)，第2条第(f)款。 |
| See para. (7) of the commentary to draft principle 13 below. | 见下文原则草案13评注第(7)段。 |
| More frequently referred to as “after an armed conflict”. | 更常被称为“武装冲突之后”。 |
| This phrase has not been defined. | 此短语尚未定义。 |
| It is nevertheless clear that it cannot, for the purpose of the protection of the environment, be limited to the immediate aftermath of an armed conflict. | 但显然，为了保护环境的目的，它不能仅限于武装冲突的直接后果。 |
| See, e.g. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (New York, 19 December, 1966), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 993, No. 14531, p. 3, art .2, para. 1, which refers explicitly to legislative measures, similarly Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul, 11 May 2011), Council of Europe, Treaty Series, No. 210, art. 5, para. 2. | 例如见《经济、社会及文化权利国际公约》(1966年12月19日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第993卷，第14531号，第3页，第二条第一款，其中明确提及立法方法； 同样，《欧洲委员会预防和打击暴力侵害妇女行为及家庭暴力公约》(2011年5月11日，伊斯坦布尔)，欧洲委员会《条约汇编》，第210号，第5条第2款。 |
| See also International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (New York, 9 December 1999), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2178, No. 38349, p. 197, art. 18, as well as United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (New York, 15 November 2000), ibid., vol. 2225, No. 39574, p. 209, art. 7, referring to “comprehensive domestic regulatory and supervisory regime… within [a State’s] competence”. | 另见《制止向恐怖主义提供资助的国际公约》(1999年12月9日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2178号卷，第38349号，第197页，第18条； 《联合国打击跨国有组织犯罪公约》(2000年11月15日，纽约)，同上，第2225卷，第39574号，第209页，第7条，提及“在[一国]力所能及的范围内，…综合性国内管理和监督制度”。 |
| Reference can in this regard also be made to the International Law Association’s work on due diligence, which expresses a clear preference for legislative measures as means to implement the human rights obligation to protect, and points out, with regard to the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea Seabed advisory opinion (Responsibilities and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons and Entities with Respect to Activities in the Area, Seabed Dispute Chamber, International Tribunal of the Law of the Sea, Case No. 17, 1 February 2011), that States’ due diligence obligations are fulfilled and proven if the State has put in place legislative and regulatory framework. | 在这方面，还可以参考国际法协会关于应尽职责的工作，其中明确表示倾向于将立法措施作为履行保护人权义务的手段，并就国际海洋法法庭的海底咨询意见(国家对区域内活动的责任和义务，国际海洋法法庭海底争端分庭，第17号案件，2011年2月1日)指出，如果国家建立了立法和监管框架，国家的应尽职责义务就得到履行和证明。 |
| ILA Study Group on Due Diligence in International Law, First Report, 7 March 2014, pp. 17 and 26. | 国际法协会国际法应尽职责问题研究小组，第一次报告，2014年3月7日，第17和第26页。 |
| Available at www.ila-hq.org/index.php/study-groups (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.ila-hq.org/index.php/study-groups (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Human Rights Council resolution 26/9 of 26 June 2014 setting up a Working Group to elaborate a legally binding instrument on transnational corporations and other business entities. | 人权理事会2014年6月26日第26/9号决议设立了一个工作组，拟订一项关于跨国公司和其他工商实体的具有法律约束力的文书。 |
| OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises (footnote 1103 above). | 《经合组织跨国企业准则》(上文脚注1103)。 |
| Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. | 《工商企业与人权指导原则》。 |
| Chinese Due Diligence Guidelines for Responsible Mineral Supply Chains (footnote 1108 above). | 《中国负责任矿产供应链尽责管理指南》(上文脚注1108)。 |
| For instance, the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights use the notion “business enterprises domiciled in their territory and/or jurisdiction”, see e.g. principle 2. | 例如，《工商企业与人权指导原则》使用了“在其领土和/或管辖范围内的工商企业”这一概念，例如见原则2。 |
| OECD Due Diligence Guidance (footnote 1105 above), p. 9; | 《经合组织尽责调查准则》(上文脚注1105)，第9页； |
| and Recommendation of the Council on the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Business Conduct (2018), pp. 92–94, available at https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0443 (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 理事会关于经合组织负责任商业行为尽责准则的建议(2018年)，第92-94页，可查阅https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/ OECD-LEGAL-0443(2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See also OECD, Implementing the OECD Due Diligence Guidance, Executive Summary (Paris, 28 May 2018), p. 6, para. 16. | 另见经合组织，《执行经合组织尽责准则，执行摘要》(2018年5月28日，巴黎)，第6页，第16段。 |
| Available at https://tuac.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/140PS_E_10_duediligence.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅https://tuac.org/wp-content/ uploads/2018/05/140PS_E_10_duediligence.pdf(2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, principle 17. | 《工商企业与人权指导原则》，原则17。 |
| See European Union conflict minerals regulation (footnote 1112 above), eleventh preambular para. See also OECD Due Diligence Guidance … (footnote 1105 above), p. 13: “Due diligence is an on-going, proactive and reactive process through which companies can ensure that they respect human rights and do not contribute to conflict”. | 见欧洲联盟冲突矿产条例(上文脚注1112)，序言部分第11段。 另见《经合组织…尽责准则》(上文脚注1105)，第13页：“尽责调查是一个持续、主动和反应性的过程，公司可以通过这一过程确保尊重人权，不会加剧冲突”。 |
| OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises (footnote 1103 above), part I, chap. VI “Environment”, pp. 42–46. | 《经合组织跨国企业准则》(上文脚注1103)，第一部分，第六章“环境”，第42-46页。 |
| See also OECD, “Environment and the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. | 另见经合组织，“环境与《经合组织跨国企业准则》。 |
| Corporate tools and approaches”. | 公司工具和方法”。 |
| Available at https://oecd.org/env/34992954.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅https://oecd. org/env/34992954.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| For instance, the following instruments refer to “human health and the environment”: Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (Geneva, 13 November 1979), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1302, No. 21623, p. 217, art. 7 (d); | 例如，以下文书提及“人员健康和环境”：《远距离越境空气污染公约》(1979年11月13日，日内瓦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1302卷，第21623号，第217页，第7(d)条； |
| Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (Vienna, 22 March 1985), ibid., vol. 1513, No. 26164, p. 293, preamble and art. 2, para. 2 (a); | 《保护臭氧层维也纳公约》(1985年3月22日，维也纳)，同上，第1513卷，第26164号，第293页，序言和第2条第2(a)款； |
| Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (Basel, 22 March 1989), ibid., vol. 1673, No. 28911, p. 57, preamble, art. 2, paras. 8 and 9, art. 4, paras. 2 (c), (d) and (f) and para. 11, art. 10, para. 2 (b), art. 13, paras. 1 and 3 (d), art. 15, para. 5 (a); | 《控制危险废物越境转移及其处置巴塞尔公约》(1989年3月22日，巴塞尔)，同上，第1673卷，第28911号，第57页，序言、第2条第8和第9款、第4条第2(c)、(d)和(f)款及第11款、第10条第2(b)款、第13条第1和第3(d)款、第15条第5(a)款； |
| Protocol on the Prevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (Izmir, 1 October 1996), ibid., vol. 2942, No. 16908, p. 155, art. 1 (j) and (k); | 《防止危险废物的越境转移及其处置造成地中海污染议定书》(1996年10月1日，伊兹密尔)，同上，第2942卷，第16908号，第155页，第1(j)和(k)条； |
| Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (Rotterdam, 10 September 1998), ibid., vol. 2244, No. 39973, p. 337, preamble, art. 1 and art. 15, para. 4; | 《关于在国际贸易中对某些危险化学品和农药采用事先知情同意程序的鹿特丹公约》(1998年9月10日，鹿特丹)，同上，第2244卷，第39973号，第337页，序言、第1条和第15条第4款； |
| Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (Stockholm, 22 May 2001), ibid., vol. 2256, No. 40214, p. 119, preamble, art. 1, art. 3, para. 2 (b) (iii) a, art. 6, para. 1, art. 11, para. 1 (d), art. 13, para. 4; | 《关于持久性有机污染物的斯德哥尔摩公约》(2001年5月22日，斯德哥尔摩)，同上，第2256卷，第40214号，第119页，序言、第1条、第3条第2(b)(iii)a款、第6条第1款、第11条第1(d)款、第13条第4款； |
| Minamata Convention on Mercury (Kumamoto, 10 October 2013), text available from https://treaties.un.org (Status of Multilateral Treaties Deposited with the Secretary General, chap. XXVII.17), preamble, art. 1, art. 3, para. 6 (b) (i), art. 12, paras. 2 and 3 (c), art. 18, para. 1 (b), art. 19, para. 1 (c); | 《关于汞的水俣公约》(2013年10月10日，熊本)，案文可查阅https://treaties.un.org(交存秘书长的多边条约状况，第二十七章，第17号)，序言、第1条、第3条第6(b)(i)款、第12条第2和3(c)款、第18条第1(b)款、第19条第1(c)款； |
| Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (Escazú, 4 March 2018) (Escazú Agreement), text available from https://treaties.un.org (Status of Multilateral Treaties Deposited with the Secretary General, chap. XXVII.18), art. 6, para. 12. | 《拉丁美洲和加勒比关于在环境问题上获得信息、公众参与和诉诸法律的区域协定》(2018年3月4日，埃斯卡苏)(埃斯卡苏协定)，案文可查阅https://treaties.un.org(交存秘书长的多边条约状况，第二十七章，第18号)，第6条第12款。 |
| For instance, the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights incorporates both the right to health and the explicit right to a healthy environment. | 例如，《非洲人权和民族权宪章》纳入了健康权，还明文纳入了健康环境权。 |
| See African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Nairobi, 27 June 1981), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1520, No. 26363, p. 217, art. 16, para. 1 (the right to health), and art. 24 (“the right to a general satisfactory environment favourable to [each person’s] development”). | 见《非洲人权和民族权宪章》(1981年6月27日，内罗毕)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1520卷，第26363号，第217页，第16条第1款(“健康权”)和第24条(“享有有利于[每个人]发展的总体令人满意的环境的权利”)。 |
| These rights were resorted to in Social and Economic Rights Action Center (SERAC) and Center for Economic and Social Rights (CESR) v. Federal Republic of Nigeria, Communication No. 155/96, Decision, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 27 May 2002, and Socio-Economic Rights and Accountability Project (SERAP) v. Nigeria, Judgment No. ECW/CCJ/JUD/18/12, Community Court of Justice, Economic Community of West African States, 14 December 2012. | 社会和经济权利行动中心及经济和社会权利中心诉尼日利亚联邦共和国(第155/96号来文，决定，非洲人权和民族权委员会，2002年5月27日)和社会经济权利和问责项目诉尼日利亚(ECW/CCJ/JUD/18/12号判决，西非国家经济共同体法院，2012年12月14日)中援引了这些权利。 |
| Similarly, the Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (San Salvador, 17 November 1988), Organization of American States, Treaty Series, No. 69, includes the right to health. | 《美洲人权公约关于经济、社会和文化权利领域的附加议定书》(1988年11月17日，圣萨尔瓦多，美洲国家组织，《条约汇编》，第69号)同样包括健康权。 |
| The regional jurisprudence acknowledges that the right to health includes an element of environmental protection, such as a pollution-free environment. | 区域判例承认健康权包括环境保护这一内容，如无污染的环境。 |
| See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Annual Report 1984–1985, chap. V “Areas in which further steps are needed to give effect to the human rights set forth in the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man and the American Convention on Human Rights”, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.66; | 见美洲人权委员会，“1984-1985年度报告”，第五章“需要采取进一步步骤以落实《美洲关于人的权利和义务宣言》和《美洲人权公约》规定的人权的领域”，OEA/Ser.L/V/II.66； |
| see also Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on the situation of human rights in Cuba, 4 October 1983, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.61, Doc. 29 rev. 1, chap. XIII “The right to health”, para. 41; | 另见美洲人权委员会，《关于古巴人权状况的报告》，1983年10月4日，OEA/Ser.L/V/II.61, Doc. 29 rev. 1, 第十三章“健康权”，第41段； |
| Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, resolution No. 12/85 in Case No. 7615, 5 March 1985; | 美洲人权委员会，第7615号案件第12/85号决议，1985年3月5日； |
| Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Indigenous Community Yakye Axa v. Paraguay (footnote 1015 above), para. 167. | 美洲人权委员会，土著社区Yakye Axa诉巴拉圭(上文脚注1015)，第167段。 |
| Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) on the right to the highest attainable standard of health (art. 12), Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, 2001, Supplement No. 2 (E/2001/22-E/C.12/2000/21), annex IV, para. 30. | 经济、社会及文化权利委员会，关于享有能达到的最高标准健康的权利(第12条)的第14号一般性意见(2000年)，《经济及社会理事会正式记录，2001年，补编第2号》(E/2001/22-E/C.12/2000/21)，附件四，第30段。 |
| See the Report of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment (A/HRC/37/59). | 见与享有安全、清洁、卫生和可持续环境有关的人权义务问题特别报告员的报告(A/HRC/ 37/59)。 |
| OECD Due Diligence Guidance (footnote 1105 above), recommendation, pp. 7–9. | 《经合组织尽责准则》(上文脚注1105)，第7-9页。 |
| Chinese Due Diligence Guidelines for Responsible Mineral Supply Chains (see footnote 1108 above), sect. 5.1. | 《中国负责任矿产供应链尽责管理指南》(见上文脚注1108)，第5.1节。 |
| Ibid., sect. 5.2. | 同上，第5.2节。 |
| European Union conflict minerals regulation (footnote 1112 above), art. 2 (d). | 《欧洲联盟冲突矿产条例》(上文脚注1112)，第2 (d)条。 |
| As well as in Iceland, Norway and Switzerland. | 还适用于冰岛、挪威和瑞士。 |
| Regulation (EC) No. 864/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 July on the law applicable to non-contractual obligations (Rome II Regulation), Official Journal of the European Union, L 199, p. 40, art. 4, para. 1. | 欧洲议会和欧洲理事会7月11日关于适用于非契约性义务的法律的第864/2007号条例(《罗马条例二》)，《欧洲联盟公报》，L 199号，第40页，第4条第1款。 |
| See also Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters (Lugano, 30 October 2007), Official Journal of the European Union, L 339, p. 3. | 另见《关于民商事司法管辖和判决执行的公约》(2007年10月30日，卢加诺)，《欧洲联盟公报》，第L 339号，第3页。 |
| Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, principle 17, para. (a). | 《工商企业与人权指导原则》，原则17, (a)段。 |
| Vedanta Resources PLC and another v Lungowe and others, Judgment, 10 April 2019, Hilary Term [2019] UKSC 20, On appeal from [2017] EWCA Civ 1528, para. 49. | Vedanta资源集团股份有限公司和另一方诉Lungowe等，判决，2019年4月10日，希拉里开庭期 [2019] UKSC 20，[2017] EWCA Civ 1528上诉，第49段。 |
| OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises (footnote 1103 above), chap. I, para. 4, p. 17. | 《经合组织跨国企业准则》(上文脚注1103)，第一章，第4段，第17页。 |
| Bowoto v. Chevron Texaco Corp., 312 F.Supp.2d 1229 (N.D. Cal. 2004). | Bowoto诉雪佛龙－德士古集团案，312 F.Supp.2d 1229 (N.D. Cal. 2004)。 |
| The case was related to Chevron-Texaco Corporation’s alleged involvement in human rights abuses in Nigeria. | 雪佛龙－德士古集团涉嫌在尼日利亚卷入侵犯人权行为。 |
| Ibid., p. 1243. | 同上，第1243页。 |
| In re South African Apartheid Litigation, 617 F. Supp.2d 228 (S.D.N.Y. 2009). | 关于南非种族隔离诉讼，617 F. Supp.2d 228 (S.D.N.Y. 2009)。 |
| In this case, South African plaintiffs sued Daimler AG and Barclays National Bank Ltd. for aiding and abetting the Government of South Africa in its apartheid policy. | 在该案中，来自南非的原告起诉戴姆勒公司和巴克莱国家银行协助和教唆南非政府推行种族隔离政策。 |
| Ibid., p. 246. | 同上，第246页。 |
| Ibid., p. 251. | 同上，第251页。 |
| Chandler v. Cape PLC, [2012] EWCA (Civ) 525 (Eng.), para. 80. | Chandler诉Cape股份有限公司, [2012] EWCA (Civ) 525 (英国)； |
| It was furthermore required that the parent company knew or ought to have known that the subsidiary or its employees relied on it for protection. | 第80段。 还要求母公司知道或应该知道子公司或其子公司的员工依靠它来提供保护。 |
| See also R. McCorquodale, “Waving not drowning: Kiobel outside the United States”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 107 (2013), pp. 846–51. | 另见R. McCorquodale, “Waving not drowning: Kiobel outside the United States”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 107 (2013), 第846-51页。 |
| See also Lubbe and others v. Cape PLC Afrika and others v. Same, 20 July 2000, 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 139, as well as P. Muchlinski, “Corporations in international litigation: problems of jurisdiction and United Kingdom Asbestos cases”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 50 (2001), pp. 1–25. | 另见Lubbe 和其他人诉Cape公司非洲子公司以及其他人诉Cape公司非洲子公司, 2000年7月20日, 1 Lloyd’s Rep. 139, 以及P. Muchlinski, “Corporations in international litigation: problems of jurisdiction and United Kingdom Asbestos cases”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 50 (2001), 第1-25页。 |
| See also Akpan v. Royal Dutch Shell PLC, The Hague District Court, case No. C/09/337050/HA ZA 09-1580 (ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2013:BY9854), 30 January 2013. | 另见Akpan诉荷兰皇家壳牌，海牙地区法院，案件号：C/09/337050/HA ZA 09-1580 (ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2013:BY9854), 2013年1月30日。 |
| Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 24 (2017) on State obligations under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in the context of business activities (E/C.12/GC/24), para. 30. | 经济、社会及文化权利委员会，关于国家在工商活动中履行《经济、社会及文化权利国际公约》规定的义务的第24号一般性意见(2017年) (E/C.12/GC/24)，第30段。 |
| The general comment links such measures to the obligation to protect Covenant rights. | 该一般性意见将这些措施与保护《公约》权利的义务联系起来。 |
| Alberta Inc. v. Katanga Mining Ltd. [2008] EWHC 2679 (Comm), 5 November 2008 (Tomlinson J.). | Alberta公司诉加丹加矿业有限公司 [2008] EWHC 2679 (Comm), 2008年11月5日 (Tomlinson J.)。 |
| Ibid., para. 19. | 同上，第19段。 |
| Ibid., para. 20. | 同上，第20段。 |
| Ibid., para. 34. | 同上，第34段。 |
| Ibid., para. 33. | 同上，第33段。 |
| Similarly, in the United States case of In re Xe Services, the District Court dismissed the private military company’s claim that Iraq would be an appropriate forum and held that it was not shown that an alternative forum existed. | 同样，在美国黑水公司一案中，区法院驳回了该私营军事公司关于伊拉克将是适当的审判法院的主张，并认为没有证据表明存在其他法院。 |
| See In re Xe Services Alien Tort Litigation, 665 F. Supp. 2d 569 (E.D. Va. 2009). | 见黑水公司外国人侵权诉讼，665 F Supp 2d 569 (ED Va 2009)。 |
| Human Rights Committee, concluding observations on the report of Germany (CCPR/C/DEU/CO/6), para. 16. | 人权事务委员会，关于德国报告的结论性意见(CCPR/C/DEU/CO/6)，第16段。 |
| Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, concluding observations on the report of the United Kingdom (CERD/C/GBR/CO/18-20), para. 29. | 消除种族歧视委员会，关于联合王国报告的结论性意见(CERD/C/GBR/CO/18-20)，第29段。 |
| “Montreux Document on pertinent legal obligations and good practices for States related to operations of private military and security companies during armed conflict” (Montreux, ICRC, 2008). | 《关于武装冲突期间各国关于私营军事和安保服务公司营业的相关国际法律义务和良好惯例的蒙特勒文件》(蒙特勒，红十字国际委员会，2008年)。 |
| Fifty-four States support the Montreux Document, and the European Union endorsed it on 27 July 2012. | 有54个国家支持《蒙特勒文件》，且欧洲联盟于2012年7月27日核可了该文件。 |
| Ibid., para. 15. | 同上，第15段。 |
| See also Federal Department of Foreign Affairs of Switzerland and Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), “Legislative guidance tool for States to regulate private military and security companies” (Geneva, 2016), which contains also examples of best practices, available at www.dcaf.ch/sites/default/files/publications/documents/Legislative-Guidance-Tool-EN_1.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 另见瑞士联邦外交部和日内瓦民主管制武装力量中心，“国家对私营军事和安保公司进行监管的立法指导工具”(2016年，日内瓦)，其中还载有最佳做法实例，可查阅www.dcaf.ch/sites/default/files/publications/documents/Legislative-Guidance-Tool-EN_1.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| For national legislation, see also the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) study, available at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Mercenaries/WGMercenaries/Pages/NationalLegislationStudies.aspx (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 关于国家立法，另见联合国人权事务高级专员办事处(人权高专办)的研究报告，可查阅www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Mercenaries/WGMercenaries/Pages/NationalLegislationStudies.aspx (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See also Al-Quraishi et al. v. Nahkla and L-3 Services, 728 F Supp 2d 702 (D Md 2010) at 35–37, 29 July 2010. | 另见Al-Quraishi等人诉Nahkla和L-3 Services案, 728 F Supp 2d 702 (D Md 2010)，第35-37页，2010年7月29日。 |
| A settlement was reached in this case, after years of litigation, in 2012. | 该案经过多年诉讼，于2012年达成和解。 |
| See footnotes 1304 and 1306 below. | 见下文脚注1304和1306。 |
| See L. Rajamani, “Public interest environmental litigation in India: exploring issues of access, participation, equity, effectiveness and sustainability”, Journal of Environmental Law, vol. 19 (2007), pp. 293–321. Available at www.researchgate.net/publication/316876795_Public_Interest_ Environmental_Litigation_in_India_Exploring_Issues_of_Access_Participation_Equity_Effectiveness_and_Sustainability (accessed on 8 July 2019). See also India Environmental Portal, Public Interest Litigation, at www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/category/1255/thesaurus/public-interest-litigation-pil (accessed on 8 July 2019). | See L. Rajamani, “Public interest environmental litigation in India: exploring issues of access, participation, equity, effectiveness and sustainability”, Journal of Environmental Law, vol. 19 (2007), pp. 293–321. Available at www.researchgate.net/publication/316876795_Public_Interest_ Environmental_Litigation_in_India_Exploring_Issues_of_Access_Participation_Equity_Effectiveness_and_Sustainability (accessed on 8 July 2019). 另见印度环境门户网站，公益诉讼，可查阅www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/category/1255/thesaurus/public-interest-litigation-pil (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See also the Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention) (Aarhus, Denmark, 25 June 1998), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2161, No. 37770, p. 447, art. 6, as well as Directive 2003/35/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 May 2003 providing for public participation in respect of the drawing up of certain plans and programmes relating to the environment and amending with regard to public participation and access to justice Council Directives 85/337/EEC and 96/61/EC. | 另见《在环境问题上获得信息、公众参与决策和诉诸法律的公约》(《奥胡斯公约》) (1998年6月25日，丹麦奥胡斯)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2161卷，第37770号，第447页，第六条； 欧洲议会和欧洲理事会2003年5月26日第2003/35/EC号指令，该指令规定公众参与某些与环境有关的计划和方案的起草，并修订关于公众参与和诉诸司法的欧洲理事会第85/337/EEC号指令和第96/61/EC号指令。 |
| Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land (The Hague, 29 July 1899), J.B. Scott (ed.), The Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1899 and 1907 (see footnote 1086 above). | 《关于陆战法规和惯例的(第二)公约》(1899年7月29日，海牙)，J.B. Scott编，《1899年和1907年海牙公约和宣言》(见上文脚注1086)。 |
| The 1899 Martens Clause reads: “Until a more complete code of the laws of war is issued, the high contracting Parties think it right to declare that in cases not included in the Regulations adopted by them, populations and belligerents remain under the protection and empire of the principles of international law, as they result from the usages established between civilized nations, from the laws of humanity, and the requirements of the public conscience. | 1899年的马顿斯条款如下：“在颁布更完整的战争法规之前，缔约各国认为应该声明，凡属它们通过的规章中未列出的情况，居民和交战者仍应受国际法原则的保护和管辖，因为这些原则源于文明国家之间的惯常做法，源于人性法规和公众良知要求”。 |
| ” For a general overview, see memorandum by the Secretariat on the effect of armed conflicts on treaties: an examination of practice and doctrine (A/CN.4/550), paras. 140–142. | 一般性概述见《武装冲突对条约的影响：对实践和理论的审查》，秘书处的备忘录(A/CN.4/550)，第140-142段。 |
| See Geneva Convention I, art. 63; | 见《日内瓦第一公约》，第六十三条； |
| Geneva Convention II, art. 62; | 《日内瓦第二公约》，第六十二条； |
| Geneva Convention III, art. 142; | 《日内瓦第三公约》，第一百四十二条； |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 158. | 《日内瓦第四公约》，第一百五十八条。 |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 1, para. 2, and Additional Protocol II, preamble, para. 4. | 《第一附加议定书》第一条第二款。 《第二附加议定书》，序言部分第四段。 |
| See also Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (Geneva, 10 October 1980), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1342, No. 22495, p. 137, preamble, para. 5. | 另见《禁止或限制使用某些可被认为具有过分伤害力或滥杀滥伤作用的常规武器公约》(1980年10月10日，日内瓦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1342卷，第22495号，第137页，序言部分第五段。 |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 1, para. 2. | 《第一附加议定书》第一条第二款。 |
| Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 226, para. 84. | 以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性，咨询意见，《1996年国际法院案例汇编》，第226页，第84段。 |
| T. Meron, “The Martens Clause, principles of humanity, and dictates of public conscience”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 94 (2000), pp. 78–89, at p. 87. | T. Meron, “The Martens Clause, principles of humanity, and dictates of public conscience”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 94 (2000), pp. 78–89, at p. 87. |
| Para. (3) of the commentary to art. 29 of the articles on the law of the non-navigational uses of international watercourses with commentaries and resolution on transboundary confined groundwater, Yearbook … | 对国际水道非航行使用法条款及其评注第29条的评注第(3)段和关于跨界封闭地下水的决议，《1994年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，见第131页； |
| 1994, vol. II (Part Two), at p. 131; para. (3) of the commentary to art. 18 of the articles on the law of transboundary aquifers, Yearbook… 2008, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 53–54, at p. 43: “In cases not covered by a specific rule, certain fundamental protections are afforded by the ‘Martens clause’”. | 跨界含水层法条款第18条评注第(3)段，《2008年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第53-54段，第43页：“在不适用特定规则的情形下，‘马顿斯条款’给了一些根本的保护。 ” |
| “Finally, the Court points to the Martens Clause, whose continuing existence and applicability is not to be doubted, as an affirmation that the principles and rules of humanitarian law apply to nuclear weapons”, Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (see footnote 1162 above), para. 87. | “最后，法院指出，《马顿斯条款》的继续存在和适用性是不容怀疑的，也肯定人道主义法的原则和规则适用于核武器”，以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性(上文脚注1162)，第87段。 |
| ICRC commentary (2016) to the Geneva Convention I, art. 63, para. 3298. | 红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第一公约》的评注(2016年)，第六十三条，第3298段。 |
| See also C. Greenwood, “Historical developments and legal basis”, in D. Fleck (ed.), The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 33–34, at p. 34: “as new weapons and launch systems continue to be developed, incorporating ever more sophisticated robotic and computer technology, the venerable Martens Clause will ensure that the technology will not outpace the law.” | 另见C. Greenwood, “Historical developments and legal basis”, in D. Fleck (ed.), The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008), 第33-34页, 见第34页：“随着不断开发新武器和新的发射系统，包含越来越复杂的机器人和计算机技术，庄严的‘马顿斯条款’将确保技术的发展速度不会超过法律的发展速度”。 |
| ICRC commentary (1987) to Additional Protocol I, art. 1, para. 2, para. 55; | 红十字国际委员会关于《第一附加议定书》的评注(1987年)，第一条第二款，第55段； |
| ICRC commentary to the Geneva Convention I (2016), para. 3297. | 红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第一公约》的评注 (2016年)，第3297段。 |
| According to the German Military Manual, “[i]f an act of war is not expressly prohibited by international agreements or customary law, this does not necessarily mean that it is actually permissible”. | 根据德国军事手册，“国际协定或习惯法没有明确禁止某种战争行为并不一定意味着这种行为实际上获得允许”。 |
| See Federal Ministry of Defence, Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts – Manual, para. 129 (ZDv 15/2, 1992). | 见联邦国防部，《武装冲突中的人道主义法――手册》，第129段(ZDv 15/2, 1992年)。 |
| Greenwood, “Historical developments and legal basis” (footnote 1166 above), p. 34. | Greenwood, “Historical developments and legal basis” (上文脚注1166)，第34页。 |
| See also the ICRC commentary 2016to the Geneva Convention I, art. 63, para. 3296, which characterizes this as the minimum content of the clause. | 另见红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第一公约》的评注(2016年)，第六十三条，第3296段，其中将其描述为该条款最低限度内容。 |
| A. Cassese, “The Martens Clause: half a loaf or simply pie in the sky? ”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 11 (2000), pp. 187–216, at pp. 212–213; | A. Cassese, “The Martens Clause: half a loaf or simply pie in the sky?”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 11 (2000), pp. 187–216, at pp. 212–213; |
| G. Distefano and E. Henry, “Final provisions, including the Martens Clause”, in A. Clapham, P. Gaeta and M. Sassóli (eds.), The 1949 Geneva Conventions: A Commentary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), pp. 155–188, at pp. 185–186. See also Prosecutor v. Kupreškić et al., Case No. IT-95-16-T, Judgment, 14 January 2000, paras. 525 and 527. | G. Distefano and E. Henry, “Final provisions, including the Martens Clause”, in A. Clapham, P. Gaeta and M. Sassóli (eds.), The 1949 Geneva Conventions: A Commentary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), pp. 155-188, at pp. 185-186. 另见检察官诉Kupreškić等人案，IT-95-16-T号案件，判决，2000年1月14日，第525和527段。 |
| Cassese, “The Martens Clause: half a loaf or simply pie in the sky?” (see previous footnote), p. 214; | Cassese, “The Martens Clause: half a loaf or simply pie in the sky?” (see previous footnote), p. 214; |
| Meron, “The Martens Clause, principles of humanity, and dictates of public conscience” (see footnote 1163 above), p. 88. | Meron, “The Martens Clause, principles of humanity, and dictates of public conscience” (see footnote 1163 above), p. 88. |
| See P. Sands et al., Principles of International Environmental Law, 4th ed. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018), p. 832: “In modern international law, there is no reason why [the dictates of public conscience] should not encompass environmental protection”. | 见P. Sands等著, 《国际环境法原则》，第四版 (剑桥，剑桥大学出版社，2018年), 第832页：“在现代国际法中，[公众良心要求]没有理由不包括环境保护”。 |
| Similarly M. Bothe et al., “International law protecting the environment during armed conflict: gaps and opportunities”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 92 (2010), pp. 569–592, at pp. 588–589; | 类似内容见 M. Bothe et al., “International law protecting the environment during armed conflict: gaps and opportunities”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 92 (2010), pp. 569–592, at pp. 588–589; |
| Droege and Tougas, “The protection of the natural environment in armed conflict: existing rules and need for further legal protection” (footnote 998 above), pp. 39–40; | Droege and Tougas, “The protection of the natural environment in armed conflict: existing rules and need for further legal protection” (footnote 998 above), pp. 39-40; |
| M. Tignino, “Water during and after armed conflicts: what protection in international law? ”, Brill Research Perspectives in International Water Law, vol. 1.4 (2016), pp. 1–111, at pp. 26, 28 and 41. | M. Tignino, “Water during and after armed conflicts: what protection in international law?”, Brill Research Perspectives in International Water Law, vol. 1.4 (2016), pp. 1–111, at pp. 26, 28 and 41。 |
| ICRC, Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed Conflict (footnote 973 above), guideline 7. | 红十字国际委员会《关于武装冲突中环境保护的军事手册和指南准则》(上文脚注973)，准则7。 |
| General Assembly resolution 49/50 of 9 December 1994, para. 11. | 联大1994年12月9日第49/50号决议，第11段。 |
| World Conservation Congress, resolution 2.97, entitled “A Martens Clause for environmental protection” (Amman, 4–11 October 2000). | 世界自然保护大会题为“环境保护的马顿斯条款”的第2.97号决议(2000年10月4日至11日，安曼)。 |
| The United States and United States agency members did not join the consensus. | 美国和美国的机构会员没有加入共识。 |
| D. Shelton and A. Kiss, “Martens Clause for environmental protection”, Environmental Policy and Law, vol. 30 (2000), pp. 285–286, at p. 286. | D. Shelton and A. Kiss, “Martens Clause for environmental protection”, Environmental Policy and Law, vol. 30 (2000), pp. 285–286, at p. 286. |
| See Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (footnote 1162 above), p. 241, para. 29. | 见以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性(上文脚注1162)，第241页，第29段。 |
| The World Charter for Nature stated that “[m]ankind is a part of nature and life depends on the uninterrupted functioning of natural systems”. | 《世界自然宪章》指出，“人类是自然的一部分，生命有赖于自然系统的功能维持不坠”。 |
| General Assembly resolution 37/7 of 28 October 1982, annex, preamble. | 联大1982年10月28日第37/7号决议，序言部分。 |
| The Special Rapporteur on human rights and the environment has furthermore linked human dignity with the environment as a “minimum standard of human dignity”: “Without a healthy environment, we are unable to fulfil our aspirations or even live at a level commensurate with minimum standards of human dignity. | 人权与环境问题特别报告员还将人的尊严与环境联系起来，将环境视为“人的尊严的最低标准”：“没有健康的环境，我们就无法实现我们的愿望，甚至无法使生活水平与人的尊严的最低标准相称”。 |
| ” See, OHCHR, “Introduction”, available at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Environment/SREnvironment/Pages/SRenvironmentIndex.aspx (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 见人权高专办，“导言”，可查阅www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Environment/SREnvironment/Pages/SRenvironmentIndex.aspx (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (footnote 1172 above), p. 14: The concept of the environment, however, encompasses “both the features and the products of the natural world and those of human civilisation. | 见Sands, 《国际环境法原则》(上文脚注1172), 第14页：但环境的概念包括“自然界和人类文明的特征和产物”。 |
| ” See also C.R. Payne, “Defining the environment: environmental integrity”, in C. Stahn, J. Iverson and J. Easterday (eds.), Environmental Protection and Transitions from Conflict to Peace: Clarifying Norms, Principles, and Practices (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017), pp. 40–70, at p. 69, calling for a consideration of “how human activities and environment function as an interactive system”, not focusing exclusively on one element. | 另见C.R. Payne, “Defining the environment: environmental integrity”, in C. Stahn, J. Iverson and J. Easterday (eds.), Environmental Protection and Transitions from Conflict to Peace: Clarifying Norms, Principles, and Practices (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017), 第40-70页，见第69页，呼吁考虑“人类活动和环境如何作为一个相互作用的系统发挥功能”，而不是仅关注某一个要素。 |
| Cassese, “The Martens Clause: half a loaf or simply pie in the sky?” (footnote 1170 above), p. 212, refers to “general standards of humanity” as deduced from international human rights standards. | Cassese, “The Martens Clause: half a loaf or simply pie in the sky?” (上文脚注1170), 第212页, 提及从人权标准中推导出的“一般人道标准”。 |
| Principles of humanity can furthermore be equated with “elementary considerations of humanity” which, according to the International Court of Justice, are “even more exacting in peace than in war”. | 人道原则还可等同于“基本的人道考虑”，根据国际法院的说法，“在和平时期比在战争中更加严格”。 |
| See Corfu Channel case, Judgment of April 9th 1949, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 4, at p. 22. | 见科孚海峡案，1949年4月9日判决，《1949年国际法院案例汇编》，第4页，见第22页。 |
| See also P.-M. Dupuy, “‘Les considérations élémentaires d’humanité’ dans la jurisprudence de la Cour internationale de Justice”, in L.-A. Sicilianos and R.-J. Dupuy (eds.), Mélanges en l’honneur de Nicolas Valticos: Droit et justice (Paris, Pedone, 1998), pp. 117–130. | 另见P.-M. Dupuy, “‘Les considérations élémentaires d’humanité’ dans la jurisprudence de la Cour internationale de Justice”, in L.-A. Sicilianos and R.-J. Dupuy (eds.), Mélanges en l’honneur de Nicolas Valticos: Droit et justice (Paris, Pedone, 1998), 第117-130页。 |
| Several courts and tribunals have explicitly recognized the interdependence between human beings and the environment by affirming that environmental harm affects the right to life. | 若干法院和法庭已明确认可人类与环境之间的相互依存关系，确认环境损害影响生命权。 |
| Socio-Economic Rights and Accountability Project (SERAP) v. Nigeria, Judgment No. ECW/CCJ/JUD/18/12, Community Court of Justice, Economic Community of West African States, 14 December 2012; | 社会经济权利和问责项目诉尼日利亚案，第ECW/CCJ/JUD/18/12号判决，共同体法院，西非国家经济共同体，2012年12月14日； |
| Öneryildiz v. Turkey, Application No. 48939/99, Judgment, European Court of Human Rights, 30 November 2004, ECHR 2004-XII, para. 71. | Öneryildiz诉土耳其案，第48939/99号申诉，判决，欧洲人权法院，2004年11月30日，ECHR 2004-XII，第71段。 |
| As the most recent such ruling, the advisory opinion of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights Medio Ambiente y Derechos Humanos established that there is an inalienable relationship between human rights and environmental protection. | 作为最近在这方面的裁决，美洲人权法院环境与人权咨询意见确认了人权与环境保护之间存在着不可分割的关系。 |
| Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Advisory Opinion No. OC 23-17, Medio Ambiente y Derechos Humanos [The environment and human rights], 15 November 2017, Series A, No. 23. | 美洲人权委员会，OC 23-17号咨询意见，环境与人权，2017年11月15日，A辑，第23号。 |
| See also the resolution of the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights in Yanomami v. Brazil, resolution No. 12/85, Case No. 7615, 5 March 1985. | 另见美洲人权委员会在亚诺玛米人诉巴西案中的决议，第12/85号决议，第7615号案件，1985年3月5日。 |
| A considerable number of instruments on the law of armed conflict, environmental law and human rights law which contain the terms “respect” and “protect”. | 关于武装冲突法、环境法和人权法的很多文书载有“尊重”和“保护”。 |
| Of most relevance is the World Charter of Nature, General Assembly resolution 37/7 of 28 October 1982, in particular the preamble and principle 1, and Additional Protocol I, art. 48, para. 1, which provides that civilian objects shall be respected and protected. | 最为相关的是《世界自然宪章》、联合国大会1982年10月28日第37/7号决议尤其是其中的序言和原则1以及《第一附加议定书》第四十八条第一款，其中规定应当尊重和保护民用物体。 |
| See also, for example, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (New York, 16 December 1964), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 999, p. 171, art. 2; | 例如，又见《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》(1964年12月16日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第999卷，第171页，第二条； |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 55, and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio Declaration), Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3–14 June 1992, vol. I, Resolutions adopted by the Conference (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.93.I.8 and corrigendum), resolution 1, annex I, principle 10. | 《第一附加议定书》第五十五条以及《里约环境与发展宣言》(《里约宣言》)，《联合国环境与发展会议的报告，1992年6月3日至14日，里约热内卢》，第一卷，《环发会议通过的决议》(联合国出版物，出售品编号：E.93.I.8和更正)，决议1，附件一，原则10。 |
| Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (footnote 1162 above), para. 30. | 以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性，(上文脚注1162)，第30段。 |
| See also ibid., p. 253, para. 63. | 另见同上，第253页，第63段。 |
| For a description of the semantics, see Y. Dinstein (ed.), The Conduct of Hostilities under the Law of International Armed Conflict, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010), at paras. 35–37 and 41–43. | 语义学说明见Y. Dinstein (ed.), The Conduct of Hostilities under the Law of International Armed Conflict, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010) , 第35-37段和第41-43段。 |
| See e.g., R. Kolb and R. Hyde, An Introduction to the International Law of Armed Conflicts (Oxford, Hart, 2008), pp. 16–17. | 例如见R. Kolb and R. Hyde, An Introduction to the International Law of Armed Conflicts (Oxford, Hart, 2008), 第16-17页。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-Sixth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/66/10), Commentary on art. 2, p. 182. | 《大会正式记录，第六十六届会议，补编第10号》(A/66/10)，关于第二条的评注，第182页。 |
| Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (see footnote 1162 above), pp. 240–242, paras. 25 and 27–30. | 以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性(见上文脚注1162)，第240-242页，第25段和第27-30段。 |
| Article 55 – Protection of the natural environment reads: | 第五十五条――对自然环境的保护： |
| “1. Care shall be taken in warfare to protect the natural environment against widespread, long-term and severe damage. | “一. 在作战中，应注意保护自然环境不受广泛、长期和严重地损害。 |
| This protection includes a prohibition of the use of methods or means of warfare which are intended or may be expected to cause such damage to the natural environment and thereby to prejudice the health or survival of the population. | 这种保护包括禁止 使用旨在或可能对自然环境造成这种损害从而伤害居民的健康和生存的作战方法或手段。 |
| 2. Attacks against the natural environment by way of reprisals are prohibited.” | 二. 作为报复对自然环境的攻击，是禁止的。 |
| Pilloud and Pictet, “Article 55: Protection of the natural environment” (see footnote 999 above), p. 663, para. 2133. See also K. Hulme, “Taking care to protect the environment against damage: a meaningless obligation?” in International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 92 (2010), pp. 675–691. | ” Pilloud and Pictet, “Article 55: Protection of the natural environment” (see footnote 999 above), p. 663, para. 2133. See also K. Hulme, “Taking care to protect the environment against damage: a meaningless obligation?” in International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 92 (2010), pp. 675–691. |
| See A/CN.4/674, paras. 69–78. Geneva Convention I; | 见A/CN.4/674, 第69-78段。 |
| Geneva Convention II; Geneva Convention III; Geneva Convention IV, common articles 2 and 3; | 《日内瓦第一公约》、《日内瓦第二公约》、《日内瓦第三公约》、《日内瓦第四公约》共同的第二条和第三条； |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 1; | 《第一附加议定书》第一条； |
| and Additional Protocol II, art. 1. | 《第二附加议定书》第一条。 |
| Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (New York, 10 December 1976), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol.1108, No. 17119, p. 151, art. 2. | 《禁止为军事或任何其他敌对目的使用改变环境的技术的公约》(《改变环境技术公约》)，(1976年12月10日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1108卷，第17119号，第151页，第二条。 |
| In the understanding relating to article I thereof, the terms “widespread”, “long-term” and “severe” are understood as follows: “‘widespread’: encompassing an area on the scale of several hundred square kilometers”; | 按照对第二条的理解，“广泛”、“长期”和“严重”这三个词的理解如下：“‘广泛’：指包括几百平方公里大小的地区”； |
| “‘long-lasting’: lasting for a period of months, or approximately a season”; | “‘长期’：指持续几个月或大约一个季节的时间”； |
| “‘severe’: involving serious or significant disruption or harm to human life, natural and economic resources or other assets” (Report of the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament, Official Records of the General Assembly, Thirty-first Session, Supplement No. 27 (A/31/27), vol. I, pp. 91–92). | “‘严重’：指人命、自然和经济资源或其他财产受到严重或重大破坏或伤害”(裁军委员会会议的报告，《大会正式记录，第三十一届会议，补编第27号》(A/31/27)，第一卷，第91-92页。 |
| See, in general, Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 7 and rule 43, pp. 25–29 and 143. | 一般性阐述见Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》(见上文脚注969)，规则7和规则43, 第25-29页和第143页。 |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 52, para. 2. | 《第一附加议定书》，第五十二条第二款。 |
| A similar definition is provided in the following protocols to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons: Protocol II on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices annexed to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (Geneva, 10 October 1980) (Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1342, No. 22495, p. 137, at p. 168; | 《特定常规武器公约》的下列议定书列有类似定义：《特定常规武器公约》所附《禁止或限制使用地雷、诱杀装置和其他装置的议定书》(1980年10月10日，日内瓦)(《特定常规武器公约第二号议定书》)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1342卷，第22495号，第137页起，见第168页； |
| amended Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons and Protocol III on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Incendiary Weapons, annexed to the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (Protocol III to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons), ibid., vol. 1342, No. 22495, p. 171 as well as the 1999 Second Protocol. | 《特定常规武器公约经修正的第二号议定书》和《禁止或限制使用某些可被认为具有过分伤害力或滥杀滥伤作用的常规武器公约》所附的《禁止或限制使用燃烧武器的第三号议定书》(《特定常规武器公约第三号议定书》)，同上，第1342卷，第22495号，第171页，以及1999年《第二议定书》。 |
| See art. 52, para. 1, of Additional Protocol I, as well as art. 2, para. 5 of the Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons; | 见《第一附加议定书》第五十二条第一款以及《特定常规武器公约第二号议定书》第二条第五款； |
| art. 2, para. 7, of the amended Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons; and art. 1, para. 4, of the Protocol III to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons. | 《特定常规武器公约经修正的第二号议定书》第二条第七款和《特定常规武器公约第三号议定书》第一条第四款。 |
| See, in general, Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 7, pp. 25–29. | 一般性阐述见Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969)，规则7, 第25-29页。 |
| The principle of distinction is codified, inter alia, in article 48 and 52, paragraph 2, of Additional Protocol I, as well as the Amended Protocol II and Protocol III to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons. | 除其他外，区别原则的编纂见《第一附加议定书》第四十八条和第五十二条第二款，以及《特定常规武器公约经修正的第二号议定书》和《第三号议定书》。 |
| It is recognized as a rule of customary international humanitarian law in both international and non-international armed conflict. | 这项原则被承认为国际和非国际性武装冲突下习惯国际人道法的一条规则。 |
| The following instruments have been cited, inter alia: art. 2, para. 4, of Protocol III to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, the Guidelines on the Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed Conflict, the Final Declaration adopted by the International Conference for the Protection of War Victims, General Assembly resolutions 49/50 and 51/157, annex, the military manuals of Australia and the United States, as well as national laws of Nicaragua and Spain. | 除其他外，引述了下列文书：《特定常规武器公约第三号议定书》第二条第四款、《武装冲突期间保护环境准则》、保护战争受难者国际会议通过的《最后宣言》、联合国大会第49/50号和第51/157号决议附件、澳大利亚和美国的军事手册以及尼加拉瓜和西班牙的国家立法。 |
| See Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 43, pp. 143–144. | 见Henckaerts 和Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969)，规则43, 第143-144页。 |
| See e.g. M. Bothe et al., “International law protecting the environment during armed conflict: gaps and opportunities” (footnote 1172 above), at p. 576; | See e.g. M. Bothe et al., “International law protecting the environment during armed conflict: gaps and opportunities” (footnote 1172 above), at p. 576; |
| R. Rayfuse, “Rethinking international law and the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict” in War and the Environment: New Approaches to Protecting the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflict, R. Rayfuse (ed.) (Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2015) p. 6; | R. Rayfuse, “Rethinking international law and the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict” in War and the Environment: New Approaches to Protecting the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflict, R. Rayfuse (ed.) (Leiden, Brill Nijhoff, 2015) p. 6; |
| see also C. Droege and M.-L. Tougas, “The protection of the natural environment in armed conflict …” (footnote 998 above), pp. 17–19; | see also C. Droege and M.-L. Tougas, “The protection of the natural environment in armed conflict …” (footnote 998 above), pp. 17–19; |
| D. Fleck, “The protection of the environment in armed conflict: legal obligations in the absence of specific rules”, ibid., pp. 47–52; | D. Fleck, “The protection of the environment in armed conflict: legal obligations in the absence of specific rules”, ibid., pp. 47–52; |
| E. Koppe, “The principle of ambiguity and the prohibition against excessive collateral damage to the environment during armed conflict”, ibid., pp. 76–82; | E. Koppe, “The principle of ambiguity and the prohibition against excessive collateral damage to the environment during armed conflict”, ibid., pp. 76–82; |
| and M. Bothe, “The ethics, principles and objectives of protection of the environment in times of armed conflict”, ibid., p. 99. | and M. Bothe, “The ethics, principles and objectives of protection of the environment in times of armed conflict”, ibid., p. 99. |
| The reference to the rule of military necessity rather than to the principle of necessity reflects the view of some States that military necessity is not a general exemption, but needs to have its basis in an international treaty provision. | 提到军事必要性规则，而不是必要性原则，因为有些国家认为，军事必要性不是一种一般性的免责，而是需要以国际条约的条款为依据。 |
| See R. Rayfuse, “Rethinking international law and the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict” (footnote 1200 above), p. 6; | 见R. Rayfuse, “Rethinking international law and the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict” (上文脚注1200), 第6页； |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Protecting the Environment During Armed Conflict: An Inventory and Analysis of International Law (Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme, 2009), pp. 12–13. | 联合国环境规划署，《武装冲突中对于环境的保护：国际法详索及分析》(内罗毕，联合国环境规划署，2009年)，第12-13页。 除其他外，其中包括《第一附加议定书》第三十五和第五十五条。 |
| These include, inter alia, arts. 35 and 55 of Additional Protocol I. Other provisions of Additional Protocol I and Additional Protocol II, as well as other instruments of the law of armed conflict which may indirectly contribute to protecting the environment such as those prohibiting attacks against works and installations containing dangerous forces (Additional Protocol I, art. 56; Additional Protocol II, art. 15), those prohibiting attacking objects indispensable to the civilian population (Additional Protocol I, art. 54; Additional Protocol II, art. 14); | 《第一附加议定书》和《第二附加议定书》以及其他武装冲突法文书中可能间接有利于保护环境的其他条款，例如禁止对含有危险力量的工程和装置实施攻击的条款(《第一附加议定书》第五十六条、《第二附加议定书》第十五条)、禁止对平民居民生存所不可缺少的物体的攻击的条款(《第一附加议定书》第五十四条、《第二附加议定书》第十四条)、禁止掠夺(《关于陆战法规和习惯的章程》(1907年10月18日，海牙)(《海牙章程》)第二十八条)、《第二附加议定书》第四条第二款第(七)项和禁止强迫平民迁移(《第二附加议定书》第十七条)。 |
| the prohibition against pillage (Regulations respecting the laws and customs of war on land (The Hague, 18 October 1907) (the Hague Regulations), art. 28); Additional Protocol II, art. 4, para. 2 (g) and the prohibition on the forced movement of civilians (Additional Protocol II, art. 17). | 另见联合国环境规划署，“利比里亚人口迁移的环境考虑：政策制定者和从业人员指南”(2006年)。 |
| See also United Nations Environment Programme, Environmental Considerations of Human Displacement in Liberia: A Guide for Decision Makers and Practitioners (2006). Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (see footnote 1162 above), para. 78; | 以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性，(见上文脚注1162)，第78段； |
| M.N. Schmitt, “Military necessity and humanity in international humanitarian law: preserving the delicate balance”, Virginia Journal of International Law, vol. 50 (2010), pp. 795–839, at p. 803. The principle of distinction is now codified in arts. 48, 51, para. 2, and 52, para. 2, of Additional Protocol I; art. 13, para. 2, of Additional Protocol II; | M.N. Schmitt, “Military necessity and humanity in international humanitarian law: preserving the delicate balance”, Virginia Journal of International Law, vol. 50 (2010), pp. 795–839, at p. 803. |
| amended Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons; Protocol III to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons; and the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (Oslo, 18 September 1997), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2056, No. 35597, p. 211. | 区分原则目前的编纂见《第一附加议定书》第四十八条、第五十一条第二款和第五十二条第二款、《第二附加议定书》第十三条第二款、《特定常规武器公约经修正的第二号议定书》、《特定常规武器公约第三号议定书》以及《关于禁止使用、储存、生产和转让杀伤人员地雷及销毁此种地雷的公约》(1997年9月18日，奥斯陆)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2056卷，第35597号，第211页。 |
| See Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 7, p. 25. | 见Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969), 规则7, 第25页。 |
| Art. 51, para. 5 (b), of Additional Protocol I. See also Y. Dinstein, “Protection of the environment in international armed conflict” Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, vol. 5 (2001), pp. 523–549, at pp. 524–525. See also L. Doswald-Beck, “International humanitarian law and the advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 37 (1997), pp. 35–55, at p. 52. | 《第一附加议定书》第五十一条第五款第二项。 See also Y. Dinstein, “Protection of the environment in international armed conflict” Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, vol. 5 (2001), pp. 523–549, at pp. 524–525. See also L. Doswald-Beck, “International humanitarian law and the advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 37 (1997), pp. 35–55, at p. 52. |
| Schmitt, “Military necessity and humanity …” (footnote 1204 above), p. 804. | Schmitt, “Military necessity and humanity …” (footnote 1204 above), p. 804. |
| Additional Protocol I, arts. 51 and 57, Additional Protocol II, and amended Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons as well as the Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 8, para. 2 (b) (iv). | 《第一附加议定书》第五十一条和《第二附加议定书》第五十七条、《特定常规武器公约经修正的第二号议定书》以及《国际刑事法院规约》第8条第2(b)(iv)款。 |
| See also Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (footnote 1162 above), at p. 242, para. 30. | 另见以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性(上文脚注1162)，第242页，第30段。 |
| Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 14, p. 46. | Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck, 《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969)，规则14, 第46页。 |
| Ibid., rule 44, p. 150; | 同上，规则44, 第150页； |
| Droege and Tougas, “The protection of the natural environment in armed conflict …” (footnote 998 above), p. 19; | Droege and Tougas, “The protection of the natural environment in armed conflict …” (上文脚注998)，第19页； |
| see also United Nations Environment Programme, Desk Study on the Environment in Liberia (footnote 1058 above) and United Nations Environment Programme, Environmental Considerations of Human Displacement in Liberia … (footnote 1203 above). | 另见联合国环境规划署，“关于利比里亚环境的案头研究”(上文脚注1058)及联合国环境规划署，“利比里亚人口迁移的环境考虑…”(上文脚注1203)。 |
| Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 44, p. 150. | Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck, 《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969)，规则44, 第150页。 |
| See also Dinstein, “Protection of the environment …” (footnote 1207 above), pp. 524–525; | 另见Dinstein, “Protection of the environment …” (上文脚注1207), 第524-525页; |
| Doswald-Beck, “International humanitarian law and the advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice …” (footnote 1207 above); | Doswald-Beck, “International humanitarian law and the advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice …” (上文脚注1207); |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Protecting the Environment During Armed Conflict … (footnote 1202 above), p. 13; | 联合国环境规划署，《武装冲突中对于环境的保护…》(上文脚注1202)，第13页； |
| Rayfuse, “Rethinking international law and the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict” (footnote 1200 above), p. 6; | Rayfuse, “Rethinking international law and the protection of the environment in relation to armed conflict” (上文脚注1200)，第6页； |
| Droege and Tougas, “The protection of the natural environment …” (footnote 998 above), pp. 19–23. | Droege and Tougas, “The protection of the natural environment …” (上文脚注998)，第19–23页。 |
| International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, para. 19. | 前那斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭：检察官向为审查北约对南斯拉夫联盟共和国的轰炸而设立的委员会提交的最后报告，第19段。 |
| Available from www.icty.org/x/file/Press/nato061300.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.icty.org/x/file/Press/nato061300.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See also Dinstein, “Protection of the environment …” (footnote 1207 above), pp. 524–525. | 另见Dinstein, “Protection of the environment …” (上文脚注1207), 第524-525页。 |
| M. Sassoli, A. Bouvier and A. Quintin, “How does law protect in war: online glossary”. Available from https://casebook.icrc.org/glossary/military-necessity (accessed on 8 July 2019). | M. Sassoli, A. Bouvier and A. Quintin, “How does law protect in war: online glossary”. Available from https://casebook.icrc.org/glossary/military-necessity (accessed on 8 July 2019). |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 35, para. 3. | 《第一附加议定书》第三十五条第三款。 |
| Ibid., art. 51, para. 5 (b). | 同上，第五十一条第五款第(二)项。 |
| The principle of precautions in attack is codified in art. 2, para. 3, of the Convention (IX) of 1907 concerning Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War (The Hague, 18 October 1907), J. B. Scott (ed.), The Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1899 and 1907 (see footnote 1086 above); art. 57, para. 1, of Additional Protocol I, as well as amended Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, and the 1999 Second Protocol. | 攻击时采取预防措施的原则已写入1907年《关于战时海军轰击的第九公约》第二条第三款(海牙，1907年10月18日)，J. B. Scott(编)，《1899年和1907年海牙公约和宣言》(见上文脚注1086)、《第一附加议定书》第五十七条第一款，以及《特定常规武器公约经修正的第二号议定书》和1999年《第二议定书》。 |
| Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 15, p. 51. | Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969), 规则15, 第51页。 |
| Ibid., rule 44, p. 147. | 同上，规则44, 第147页。 |
| Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (see footnote 1162 above), at p. 242, para. 30. | 以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性(见上文脚注1162), 第242页，第30段。 |
| See Additional Protocol I, arts. 48, 50, 51 (in particular para. 4), 52 (in particular para. 2) and 57, para. 2, and Additional Protocol II, art. 13, para. 2. | 见《第一附加议定书》第四十八、五十、五十一条(尤其是第四款)、第五十二条(尤其是第二款)、第五十七条第二款和《第二附加议定书》第十三条第二款。 |
| See Y. Dinstein, “Legitimate military objectives under the current jus in bello”, International Law Studies, vol. 78 (2002), p. 139, and L.R. Blank, “Extending positive identification from persons to places: terrorism, armed conflict, and the identification of military objectives”, Utah Law Review, No. 5 (2013), pp. 1227–1261. | 见Y. Dinstein, “Legitimate military objectives under the current jus in bello”, International Law Studies, vol. 78 (2002), p. 139, and L.R. Blank, “Extending positive identification from persons to places: terrorism, armed conflict, and the identification of military objectives”, Utah Law Review, No. 5 (2013), pp. 1227–1261。 |
| See, e.g., United Kingdom, Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004), para. 5.4; | 例如见：联合王国国防部，《武装冲突法手册》(牛津，牛津大学出版社，2004年)，第5.4段； |
| Canada, National Defence, Law of Armed Conflict at the Operational and Tactical Levels (2001) B-GJ-005-104/FP-021, pp. 405–427; | 加拿大国防部，《作战和战术层面的武装冲突法》(2001年) B-GJ-005-104/FP-021, 第405-427页； |
| United States, Department of Defense, Law of War Manual (Office of General Counsel, Washington D.C., 2015). | 美国国防部，《战争法手册》(总法律顾问办公室，华盛顿特区，2015年)。 |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 51, in particular para. 6. | 《第一附加议定书》，第五十一条，尤其是第六款。 |
| See C. Pilloud and J. Pictet, “Article 51: Protection of the civilian population” in ICRC Commentary on the Additional Protocols …, Sandoz and others (footnote 976 above), p. 615, para. 1923. | 见C. Pilloud and J. Pictet, “Article 51: Protection of the civilian population” in ICRC Commentary on the Additional Protocols …, Sandoz and others (上文脚注976)，第615页，第1923段。 |
| For a discussion on the customary law status of reprisals, see Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rules 147–149, pp. 523–530; | 关于报复的习惯法地位的讨论，见Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969)，规则147-149, 第523-530页； |
| Y. Arai-Takahashi, The Law of Occupation: Continuity and Change of International Humanitarian Law and its Interaction with International Human Rights Law (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2009), pp. 285–289; | Y. Arai-Takahashi, The Law of Occupation: Continuity and Change of International Humanitarian Law and its Interaction with International Human Rights Law (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2009), pp. 285–289; |
| M. A. Newton, “Reconsidering reprisals” Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law, vol. 20 (2010), pp. 361–388; | M. A. Newton, “Reconsidering reprisals” Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law, vol. 20 (2010), pp. 361–388; |
| S. Darcy, Collective Responsibility and Accountability under International Law (Leiden, Brill, 2007) pp. 154–156. | S. Darcy, Collective Responsibility and Accountability under International Law (Leiden, Brill, 2007) pp. 154–156. |
| There are currently 174 State parties to Additional Protocol I. See the ICRC website (www.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/470 (accessed on 8 July 2019)). | 目前《第一附加议定书》共有174个缔约国。 见红十字国际委员会网站：(www.icrc.org/ ihl/INTRO/470 (2019年7月8日访问))。 |
| For a description of declarations, statements and reservations made by States in connection with regard to, inter alia, article 55, see A/CN.4/685, paras. 129 and 130. | 关于各国就第五十五条和其他条款所做的声明、说明和保留的情况，见A/CN.4/685, 第129和130段。 |
| It should also be noted that the United Kingdom declared that: “The obligations of Articles 51 and 55 are accepted on the basis that any adverse party against which the United Kingdom might be engaged will itself scrupulously observe those obligations. | 还应指出，联合王国声明：“接受第五十一条和第五十五条的义务的基础是，联合王国可能交战的任何敌对方本身严格遵守这些义务。 |
| If an adverse party makes serious and deliberate attacks, in violation of Article 51 or Article 52 against the civilian population or civilians or against civilian objects, or, in violation of Articles 53, 54 and 55, on objects or items protected by those Articles, the United Kingdom will regard itself as entitled to take measures otherwise prohibited by the Articles in question to the extent that it considers such measures necessary for the sole purpose of compelling the adverse party to cease committing violations under those Articles, but only after formal warning to the adverse party requiring cessation of the violations has been disregarded and then only after a decision taken at the highest level of government. | 如果一敌对方违反第五十一条或第五十二条，对平民人口、平民或民用目标发动严重和蓄意的攻击，或违反第五十三、五十四和五十五条，对受这些条款保护的目标和物品发动严重和蓄意的攻击，联合王国将认为自己有权采取有关条款禁止的措施，但条件是，联合王国认为出于迫使敌对方依照这些条款停止违约行动的唯一目的，采取这种措施是必要的，而且只是在要求敌对方停止违约行动的正式警告被漠视、并由政府最高领导层做出决定之后才可采取。 |
| Any measures thus taken by the United Kingdom will not be disproportionate to the violations giving rise there to and will not involve any action prohibited by the Geneva Conventions of 1949 nor will such measures be continued after the violations have ceased. | 联合王国据此采取的措施将不会与所涉违约行动不相称，而且不会涉及1949年日内瓦四公约所禁止的任何行动，在违约行动停止后，这些措施也将停止。 |
| The United Kingdom will notify the Protecting Powers of any such formal warning given to an adverse party, and if that warning has been disregarded, of any measures taken as a result. | 联合王国将向保护国通报发给敌对方的这种正式警告，如果警告遭到漠视，将通报因此而采取的任何措施。 |
| ” The text of the reservation is available on the ICRC website www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/NORM/0A9E03F0F2EE757CC1256402003FB6D2?OpenDocument (accessed on 8 July 2019), at para. (m). | ”保留的案文可登陆红十字国际委员会网站查阅：www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/NORM/0A9E03F0F2EE757CC1256402003FB6D2?OpenDocument (2019年7月8日访问)，见(m)段。 |
| The conditions under which belligerent reprisals against the natural environment may be taken are partly described in United Kingdom, Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict … (footnote 1222 above), paras. 16.18–16.19.1. | 联合王国国防部《武装冲突法手册》中述及可以在交战中报复自然环境的部分条件(上文脚注1222)，第16.18-16.19.1段。 |
| For declarations that relate to the understanding of whether Additional Protocol I is applicable only to conventional weapons and not to nuclear weapons, see A/C.N/4/685, para. 130. | 有关《第一议定书》是否仅适用于常规武器而不适用于核武器的理解的声明，见A/C.N/4/685, 第130段。 |
| See declarations and reservations of Ireland: “Article 55: In ensuring that care shall be taken in warfare to protect the natural environment against widespread, long-term and severe damage and taking account of the prohibition of the use of methods or means of warfare which are intended or may be expected to cause such damage to the natural environment thereby prejudicing the health or survival of the population, Ireland declares that nuclear weapons, even if not directly governed by Additional Protocol I, remain subject to existing rules of international law as confirmed in 1996 by the International Court of Justice in its Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons. | 见爱尔兰的声明和保留：“第五十五条：为确保在作战中注意保护自然环境不受广泛、长期和严重的损害，并考虑到应禁止使用旨在或可能对自然环境造成这种损害从而妨害居民的健康和生存的作战方法或手段，爱尔兰声明，核武器即便不直接受《第一附加议定书》管辖，也依然受1996年国际法院关于以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性案的咨询意见中确认的现有国际法规则的制约。 |
| Ireland will interpret and apply this Article in a way which leads to the best possible protection for the civilian population. | 爱尔兰将本着能为平民居民提供最好保护的精神来解释并适用本条款。 |
| ” The declaration is available on the ICRC website at www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Notification.xsp?documentId=27BBCD34A4918BFBC1256402003FB43A&action=OpenDocument (accessed on 8 July 2019). | ”本声明可登陆红十字国际委员会网站查阅：www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Notification.xsp?documentId= 27BBCD34A4918BFBC1256402003FB43A&action=OpenDocument (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| It should also be noted that in the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (see footnote 1162 above), at p. 246, para. 46, the Court stated that: “Certain States asserted that the use of nuclear weapons in the conduct of reprisals would be lawful. | 还应指出，法院在以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性咨询意见”(见上文脚注1162，第246页，第46段)中指出，“某些国家坚称使用核武器进行报复是合法的。 |
| The Court does not have to examine, in this context, the question of armed reprisals in time of peace, which are considered to be unlawful. | 在这方面，本院不必审查和平时期进行武装报复的问题，因为这被认为是不合法的。 |
| Nor does it have to pronounce on the question of belligerent reprisals save to observe that in any case any right of recourse to such reprisals would, like self-defence, be governed inter alia by the principle of proportionality.” | 本院也不必对交战国的报复问题发表意见，只须指出，在任何情况下，任何采取这种报复的权利都像自卫一样，必须遵守相称性原则。 ” |
| France, Ireland and the United Kingdom. | 法国、爱尔兰和联合王国。 |
| See Official Records of the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts (Geneva, 1974–1977) vol. IX, available from www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/RC-dipl-conference-records.html (accessed on 8 July 2019), most notably the statements made by Canada (p. 428), Greece (p. 429), the Islamic Republic of Iran (p. 429), Iraq (p. 314), Mexico (p. 318). | 见《关于重申和发展适用于武装冲突的国际人道法律的外交会议正式记录》(1974-1977年，日内瓦)第九卷，可查阅www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/RC-dipl-conference-records.html(2019年7月8日访问)，最值得注意的是加拿大(第428页)、希腊(第429页)、伊朗伊斯兰共和国(第429页)、伊拉克(第314页)和墨西哥(第318页)的发言。 |
| See also Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 148, p. 528. | 另见Henckaerts和 Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969)，规则148, 第528页。 |
| See V. Bílková, “Belligerent reprisals in non-international armed conflicts”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 63 (2014), p. 31; | See V. Bílková, “Belligerent reprisals in non-international armed conflicts”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 63 (2014), p. 31; |
| S. Sivakumaran, The Law of Non-International Armed Conflict (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 449–457. | S. Sivakumaran, The Law of Non-International Armed Conflict (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 449–457. |
| Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić, case No. IT-94-1-A72, Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction, of 2 October 1995, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Judicial Reports 1994–1995, vol. I, p. 353, at pp. 475–478, paras. 111–112. | 检察官诉Duško Tadić，IT-94-1-A72号案，对辩方关于就管辖权问题提出中间上诉的请求所做出的裁决，1995年10月2日，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭，《1994-1995年司法案例汇编》，第一卷，第353页起，见第475-478页，第111-112段。 |
| See also in general Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), pp. 526–529. | 一般性阐述另见Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969)，第526-529页。 |
| According to the United Nations Environment Programme, 40 per cent of internal armed conflicts over the past 60 years were related to natural resources, and since 1990, at least 18 armed conflicts have been fuelled directly by natural resources. | 据联合国环境规划署称，过去60年来，40%的内部武装冲突与自然资源有关，自1990年以来，至少有18起武装冲突直接因自然资源而加剧。 |
| See Renewable Resources and Conflict: Toolkit and Guidance for Preventing and Managing Land and Natural Resources Conflicts (New York, United Nations Interagency Framework Team for Preventive Action, 2012), p. 14. Available at www.un.org/en/land-natural-resources-conflict/renewable-resources.shtml (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 见《可再生资源与冲突：预防和管理土地和自然资源冲突工具包和指导意见》(联合国机构间预防行动框架小组，纽约，2012年)，第14页，可查阅www.un.org/en/land-natural-resources-conflict/renewable-resources.shtml (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Interim report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (S/2002/565), para. 52. | 《非法开采刚果民主共和国自然资源和其他形式财富问题专家小组的临时报告》(S/2002/ 565)，第52段。 |
| See also United Nations Environment Programme, The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment. | 另见另见联合国环境规划署，《刚果民主共和国：冲突后环境评估。 |
| Synthesis Report for Policy Makers (Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme, 2011), pp. 26–28, available at http://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822 /22069 (accessed on 8 July 2019); | 决策者综合报告》(内罗毕，联合国环境规划署，2011年)，第26至28页，可查阅http://wedocs. unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/22069 (2019年7月8日访问)； |
| Report of the Panel of Experts pursuant to paragraph 25 of Security Council resolution 1478 (2003) concerning Liberia (S/2003/779), para. 14; | 《专家小组根据安全理事会关于利比里亚问题的第1478 (2003)号决议第25段的规定提交的报告》(S/2003/779)，第14段； |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Desk Study on the Environment in Liberia (footnote 1058 above), pp. 16–18 and 42–51; | 联合国环境规划署，《利比里亚环境案头研究》(上文脚注1058)，第16-18和42-51页； |
| C. Nellemann et al. (eds.), The Rise of Environmental Crime – A Growing Threat to Natural Resources Peace, Development and Security (United Nations Environment Programme–INTERPOL, 2016), p. 69. | C.Nellemann等人(编)，《环境犯罪抬头――对自然资源和平、发展和安全的与日俱增的威胁》(联合国环境署－国际刑警组织，2016年)，第69页。 |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 33, para. 2. | 《日内瓦第四公约》，第三十三条第二款。 |
| See also Geneva Convention I, art. 15, first para., according to which “At all times, and particularly after an engagement, Parties to the conflict shall, without delay, take all possible measures to search for and collect the wounded and sick, to protect them against pillage”. | 另见《日内瓦第一公约》第十五条第一款，该款规定：“无论何时，特别在每次战斗之后，冲突各方应立即采取一切可能的措施以搜寻并收集伤者、病者，加以保护借免抢劫”。 |
| Additional Protocol II, art. 4, para. 2 (g). | 《第二附加议定书》，第四条第二款第(七)项。 |
| See also African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 21, para. 2: “In case of spoliation, the dispossessed people shall have the right to the lawful recovery of its property as well as to an adequate compensation”. | 另见《非洲人权和民族权宪章》，第21条第2款：“一旦遇到掠夺，被剥夺之民族不但有权要求得到足够的补偿，而且有权合法地收回其财产”。 |
| Furthermore, the Lusaka Protocol of the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region reproduces the same provision, see Protocol Against the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources of the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region art. 3, para. 2. | 此外，《大湖区问题国际会议卢萨卡议定书》转载了同一条款，见《大湖区问题国际会议禁止非法开采自然资源议定书》，第3条第2款。 |
| Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 52, “Pillage is prohibited”, pp. 182–185. | Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969), 规则52,“禁止掠夺”，第182-185页。 |
| See, e.g., In re Krupp and Others, Judgment of 30 June 1948, Trials of War Criminals before the Nürnberg Military Tribunals, Vol. IX, p. 1337–1372; | 例如见Krupp等人案，1948年6月30日的判决，《纽伦堡军事法庭对主要战争罪犯的审判》，第九卷，第1337-1372页； |
| U.S.A. v. von Weizsäcker et al. (Ministries case), Trials of War Criminals before the Nürnberg Military Tribunals, vol. XIV, p. 741; | 美国诉von Weizsäcker等人(“部长案”)案，《纽伦堡军事法庭战犯审判》，第十四卷，第741页； |
| Prosecutor v. Goran Jelisić, Case No. IT-95-10-T, Judgment, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 14 December 1999; | 检察官诉Goran Jelisić案，第 IT-95-10-T号案件，判决，审判分庭，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭，1999年12月14日； |
| The Prosecutor v. Zejnil Delalić, Zdravko Mucić a/k/a “Pavo”, Hazim Delić and Esad Landžo a/k/a “Zenga”, Case No. IT-96-21-T, Judgement, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 16 November 1998, and Sentencing Judgement, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 9 October 2001; | 检察官诉Zejnil Delalić、Zdravko Mucić a/k/a “Pavo”、Hazim Delić和Esad Landžo a/k/a “Zenga”案，IT-96-21-T号案件，判决，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭，1998年11月16日，及量刑判决，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭，2001年10月9日； |
| Prosecutor v. Tihomir Blaškić, Case No. IT-95-14-T, Judgement (with Declaration of Judge Shahabuddeen), Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 3 March 2000, Judicial Reports 2000; | 检察官诉Tihomir Blaškić案，IT-95-14-T号案件，判决(附带Shahabuddeen法官的声明)，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭，2000年3月3日，《2000年司法案例汇编》； |
| Prosecutor v. Dario Kordić and Mario Čerkez, Case No. IT-95-14/2-T, Judgement, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 26 February 2001; | 检察官诉Dario Kordić和Mario Čerkez案，IT-95-14/2-T号案件，判决，审判分庭，前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭，2001年2月26日。 |
| Prosecutor v. Issa Hassan Sesay, Morris Kallon and Augustine Gbao, Case No. SCSL-04-15-T-1234, Judgment, Trial Chamber, Special Court for Sierra Leone, 2 March 2009; | 检察官诉Issa Hassan Sesay、Morris Kallon和Augustine Gbao案，第SCSL-04-15-T-1234号案件，判决，审判分庭，塞拉利昂问题特别法庭，2009年3月2日； |
| Prosecutor v. Charles Ghankay Taylor, Case No. SCSL-03-1-T, Judgment, 18 May 2012 (Taylor Trial Judgment); | 检察官诉 Charles Ghankay Taylor案，第SCSL-03-1-T号案件，判决，2012年5月18日(Taylor审判判决)； |
| Prosecutor against Charles Ghankay Taylor, Case No. SCSL-03-01-A, Judgment, Appeals Chamber, Special Court for Sierra Leone, 26 September 2013. | 检察官诉Charles Ghankay Taylor案，案件编号：SCSL-03-01-A，判决，上诉分庭，塞拉利昂问题特别法庭，2013年9月26日。 |
| Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Rome, 17 July 1998), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2187, No. 38544, p. 3, art. 8, para. 2 (b) (xvi) and (e) (v). | 《国际刑事法院罗马规约》(1998年7月17日，罗马)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2187卷，第38544号，第3页，第八条第(二)款2项(16)目和5项(5)目。 |
| Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above) rule 52, pp. 182–185. | Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969)规则52, 第182-185页。 |
| ICRC commentary (1987) on Additional Protocol II, art. 4, para. 2 (g), para. 4542 of the commentary. | 红十字国际委员会关于《第二附加议定书》的评注(1987年)，第四条第二款第(七)项，评注第4542页。 |
| See also ICRC commentary (1958) to Geneva Convention IV, art. 33, para. 2. | 另见红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第四公约》的评注(1958年)，第三十三条第二款。 |
| Property rules have also been widely used at the national level “for settling disputes concerning access, use and control of resources” and constitute therefore “a critical mechanism for environmental protection”. | 在国家一级，财产规则也被广泛用于“解决有关资源获取、使用和控制的争端”，因此构成了“环境保护的关键机制”。 |
| T. Hardman Reis, Compensation for Environmental Damage under International Law. The Role of the International Judge (Alphen aan den Rijn, Wolters Kluwer, 2011), p. 13. | T. Hardman Reis, Compensation for Environmental Damage under International Law. The Role of the International Judge (Alphen aan den Rijn, Wolters Kluwer, 2011), p. 13. |
| Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 168, at p. 253, para. 250. | 刚果境内的武装活动(刚果民主共和国诉乌干达)，判决，《2005年国际法院案例汇编》，第168页，见第253页，第250段。 |
| For capture of an adversary’s movable public property that can be used for military purposes, see Geneva Convention I, art. 50. | 关于缴获敌方可用于军事目的可移动公共财产，见《日内瓦第一公约》第五十条。 |
| Adversary’s property can also be lawfully destroyed or appropriated if required by imperative military necessity; | 如在迫切的军事需要所要求的情况下，敌方财产也可被合法毁坏或占用； |
| see the Hague Regulations (1907), art. 23 (g). | 见《海牙章程》(1907年)，第二十三条第(七)项。 |
| See also Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), rule 50, pp. 175–177. | 另见Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck, 《习惯国际人道法》 (上文脚注969), 规则50, 第175-177页。 |
| For the lawful use by an Occupying Power of the resources of the occupied territory for the maintenance and needs of the army of occupation, see commentary to draft principle 21 below. | 关于占领方合法使用被占领土的资源以维持和满足占领军的需要，见下文原则草案21的评注。 |
| ICRC commentary (1987) on Additional Protocol II, art. 4, para. 2 (g), para. 4542 of the commentary. | 红十字国际委员会关于《第二附加议定书》的评注(1987年)，第四条第二款第(七)项，评注第4542段。 |
| See also ICRC commentary (1958) on Geneva Convention IV, art. 33, para. 2. | 另见红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第四公约》的评注(1958年)，第三十三条第二款。 |
| ICRC commentary (2016) on Geneva Convention I, art. 15, para. 1495. | 红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第一公约》的评注(2016年)，第十五条，第1495段。 |
| Ibid., para. 1494. | 同上，第1494段。 |
| Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (see footnote 1241 above), para. 248. | 刚果境内的武装活动案(见上文脚注1241)，第248段。 |
| Art. 3 (e). | 第3(e)条。 |
| Originally adopted by Security Council resolution 827 (1993) on 25 May 1993. | 最初由1993年5月25日安全理事会第827(1993)号决议通过。 |
| The updated Statute is available at www.icty.org/x/file/Legal%20Library/Statute/statute_sept09_en.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 更新后的《规约》可查阅www.icty.org/x/file/Legal%20Library/Statute/statute_sept09_en.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 21, para. 2. | 《非洲人权和民族权宪章》，第21条第2款。 |
| J.G. Stewart, Corporate War Crimes. Prosecuting the Pillage of Natural Resources (Open Society Foundations, 2011), pp. 15–17. | J.G. Stewart, Corporate War Crimes. Prosecuting the Pillage of Natural Resources (Open Society Foundations, 2011), pp. 15–17. |
| Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal, vol. I (Washington D.C., Nürnberg Military Tribunals, 1945), p. 228. | 《国际军事法庭对主要战争罪犯的审判》，第一卷。 (华盛顿特区，纽伦堡军事法庭，1945年)，第228页。 |
| See United States v. Krauch et al. in Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals (The I.G. Farben Case), vols. VII-VIII (Washington D.C., Nürnberg Military Tribunals, 1952), p. 1081, at p. 1133. | 见美国诉Krauch及其他人，见《纽伦堡军事法庭对战犯的审判》(I.G. Farben案)，第七至八卷(华盛顿特区，纽伦堡军事法庭，1952年)，第1081页起，见第1133页。 |
| Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., Case No. IT-96-21-T, Judgment, 16 November 1998 (see footnote 1236 above), para. 591: “the offence of the unlawful appropriation of public and private property in armed conflict has varyingly been termed ‘pillage’, ‘plunder’ and ‘spoliation’. … | 检察官诉Delalić等人案，IT-96-21-T号案件，1998年11月16日(见上文脚注1236)，第591段：“在武装冲突中非法侵占公共和私人财产的罪行被不同地称为‘掠夺’、‘劫掠’和‘强夺’。 |
| The Trial Chamber reaches this conclusion on the basis of its view that [plunder], as incorporated in the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal, should be understood to embrace all forms of unlawful appropriation of property in armed conflict for which individual criminal responsibility attaches under international law, including those acts traditionally described as ‘pillage’”. | …审判分庭得出这一结论所依据的观点是，《国际刑事法庭规约》”所载的[劫掠]应被理解为包括与国际法个人刑事责任挂钩的武装冲突中所有形式的非法侵占财产行为，包括传统上被称为‘掠夺’的行为”。 |
| See also Prosecutor v. Alex Tamba Brima et al., Case No. SCSL-04-16-T, Judgment, Special Court for Sierra Leone, 20 June 2007, para. 751; | 另见检察官诉Alex Tamba Brima等人，第SCSL-04-16-T号案件，判决，塞拉利昂问题特别法庭，2007年6月20日，第751段； |
| and Prosecutor v. Blagoje Simić, Case No. IT-95-9-T, Judgment, Trial Chamber, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 17 October 2003, para. 98. | 检察官诉Blagoje Simić案，第IT-95-9-T号案件，判决，审判分庭，前南斯拉夫问题国际法庭，2003年10月17日，第98段。 |
| Arts. 28 and 47 of the 1907 Hague Regulations. | 1907年《海牙章程》第二十八和第四十七条。 |
| Art. 33, para. 2, of Geneva Convention IV. | 《日内瓦第四公约》，第三十三条第二款。 |
| Art. 4, para. 2(g), of Additional Protocol II. | 《第二附加议定书》第四条第二款第(七)项。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 8, para. 2 (b) (xvi), and art. 8, para. 2 (e) (v), referring to “pillaging”. | 《罗马规约》第八条第(二)款2项(16)目和第八条第(二)款5项(5)目，提及“掠夺”。 |
| Nürnberg Charter, art. 6 (b). | 《纽伦堡宪章》，第6 (b)条。 |
| Security Council resolution 2195 (2014) of 19 December 2014, para. 3; | 安全理事会2004年12月19日第2195(2014)号决议，第3段； |
| General Assembly resolution 69/314 of 30 July 2015, paras. 2–5. | 联大2015年7月30日第69/314号决议，第2-5段。 |
| See also Security Council resolutions 2134 (2014) of 28 January 2014 and 2136 (2014) of 30 January 2014 on the Security Council’s sanctions against persons and entities involved in wildlife poaching and trade. | 另见关于安全理事会对参与野生动植物偷猎和贸易的个人和实体实施制裁安全理事会2014年1月28日第2134(2014)号和2014年1月30日第2136(2014)号决议。 |
| See also United Nations Environmental Assembly resolution 2/15 of 27 May 2016 on “Protection of the environment in areas affected by armed conflict” (UNEP/EA.2/Res.15), para. 4, and resolution 3/1 of 6 December 2017 on “Pollution mitigation and control in areas affected by armed conflict or terrorism”, paras. 2–3. | 另见联合国环境大会2016年5月27日关于“受武装冲突影响地区的环境保护”的第2/15号决议(UNEP/EA.2/Res.15)，第4段，以及2017年12月6日关于“减轻和控制受武装冲突或恐怖主义影响地区污染”的第3/1号决议，第2-3段。 |
| Corruption has been identified as the most important enabling factor behind illegal trade in wildlife and timber. | 腐败被认定为野生生物和木材非法贸易背后最重要的促成因素。 |
| See Nellemann et al., The Rise of Environmental Crime … (footnote 1232 above), p. 25: transnational environmental crime thrives in permissive environments. | 见C.Nellemann等人(编)，《环境犯罪抬头…》(上文脚注1232)，第25页：跨国环境犯罪在宽松的环境中猖獗发展。 |
| See also C. Cheng and D. Zaum, “Corruption and the role of natural resources in post-conflict transitions”, in C. Bruch, C. Muffett, and S.S. Nichols (eds.), Governance, Natural Resources, and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding (Abingdon, Earthscan from Routledge, 2016), pp. 461–480. | 另见C. Cheng and D. Zaum, “Corruption and the role of natural resources in post-conflict transitions”, in C. Bruch, C. Muffett, and S.S. Nichols (eds.), Governance, Natural Resources, and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding (Abingdon, Earthscan from Routledge, 2016), 第461-480页。 |
| See, e.g., Security Council resolution 1457 (2003) of 24 January 2003, para. 2, in which the Council “[s]trongly condemns the illegal exploitation of the natural resources of the Democratic Republic of the Congo”. | 例如，见安全理事会2003年1月24日第1457(2003)号决议第2段，其中安理会“强烈谴责非法开采刚果民主共和国自然资源的行动”。 |
| The term “illegal exploitation of natural resources” appears in Lusaka Protocol of the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region, art. 17, para. 1, but has not been defined. | “非法开采自然资源”一词出现于《大湖区问题国际会议的卢萨卡议定书》。 第17条第1款，但尚未定义。 |
| Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (New York, 10 December 1976), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1108, No. 17119, p. 151. | 《禁止为军事或任何其他敌对目的使用改变环境的技术的公约》(1976年12月10日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1108卷，第17119号，第151页。 |
| Ibid., art. I, para. 1. | 同上，第一条第1款。 |
| Ibid., art. II. | 同上，第二条。 |
| Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (see footnote 969 above), p. 156. | Henckaerts 和Doswald-Beck, 《习惯国际人道法》 (见上文脚注969), 第156页。 |
| ICRC, Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed Conflict (see footnote 973 above), guideline 12. | 红十字国际委员会《关于武装冲突中环境保护的军事手册和指南准则》(上文脚注973)，准则12。 |
| Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (see footnote 969 above) rule 44, commentary, p. 148: “it can be argued that the obligation to pay due regard to the environment also applies in non-international armed conflicts if there are effects in another State. | Henckaerts 和Doswald-Beck,《习惯国际人道法》(见上文脚注969)规则44, 评注，第148页：“可以认为，如果给另一国造成影响，适当注意环境的义务也适用于非国际性武装冲突”。 |
| ” See also Y. Dinstein, The Conduct of Hostilities under the Law of International Armed Conflict, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 243, referring to cross-border damage caused by environmental modification techniques. | 另见Y. Dinstein, The Conduct of Hostilities under the Law of International Armed Conflict, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010), 第243页, 提及改变环境的技术造成的跨境损害。 |
| See also T. Meron, “Comment: protection of the environment during non-international armed conflicts”, in J.R. Grunawalt, J.E. King and R.S. McClain (eds.), International Law Studies, vol. 69, Protection of the Environment during Armed Conflicts (Newport, Rhode Island, Naval War College, 1996), pp. 353–358, stating, at p. 354, that the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques “is applicable in all circumstances”. | 另见T. Meron, “Comment: protection of the environment during non-international armed conflicts”, in J.R. Grunawalt, J.E. King and R.S. McClain (eds.), International Law Studies, vol. 69, Protection of the Environment during Armed Conflicts (Newport, Rhode Island, Naval War College, 1996), 第353-358页，在第354页指出“《禁止为军事或任何其他敌对目的使用改变环境的技术的公约》适用于所有情形”。 |
| Understanding relating to article II, Official Records of the General Assembly, Thirty-first Session, Supplement No. 27 (A/31/27), p. 92. | “与第二条有关的理解”，《大会正式记录，第三十一届会议，补编第27号》(A/31/27)，第92页。 |
| Henckaerts and Doswald-Beck, Customary International Humanitarian Law … (footnote 969 above), explanation of rule 45, p. 151. | Henckaerts和Doswald-Beck, 《习惯国际人道法》(上文脚注969)，规则45的解释，第151页。 |
| See also Part 2 of the ICRC Customary International Humanitarian Law Study (available at https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_rul_rule45) and related practice. | 另见红十字国际委员会关于习惯国际人道法的研究报告第2部分(可查阅https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_rul_rule45)和相关实践。 |
| It is worth recalling in this context that the end of an international armed conflict is determined by the general close of military operations or, in the case of occupation, the termination of the occupation. | 在这方面值得回顾的是，国际性武装冲突结束的标志是军事行动全面结束，或如果存在占领，则是占领终止。 |
| See Geneva Convention IV, art. 6, and Additional Protocol I, art. 3 (b). | 见《日内瓦第四公约》第六条，《第一附加议定书》第三条第二项。 |
| See also United Kingdom, Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict … (footnote 1222 above), p. 277, para. 11.8, and R. Kolb and S. Vité, Le droit de l’occupation militaire. Perspectives historiques et enjeux juridiques actuels (Brussels, Bruylant, 2009), p. 166. | 另见联合王国国防部，《武装冲突法手册》(上文脚注1222), 第277页, 第11.8段； R. Kolb and S. Vité, Le droit de l'occupation militaire. Perspectives historiques et enjeux juridiques actuels (Brussels, Bruylant, 2009), p. 166. |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 2. | 《日内瓦第四公约》第二条。 |
| A. Roberts, “Prolonged military occupation: the Israeli-occupied territories since 1967”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 84 (1990), pp. 44–103, p. 47. | A. Roberts, “Prolonged military occupation: the Israeli-occupied territories since 1967”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 84 (1990), 第44-103页，见第47页。 |
| The article mentions several cases of occupations lasting more than five years in the period since the Second World War. | 文中提及自第二次世界大战以来时间持续五年以上的若干占领案例。 |
| ICRC commentary (2016) to Geneva Convention I, art. 2, para. 302. | 红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第一公约》的评注(2016年)，第二条，第302段。 |
| See, similarly, United Kingdom, Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict … (footnote 1222 above), p. 277, para. 11.7.1. | 同样见联合王国国防部，《武装冲突法手册》(上文脚注1222), 第277页, 第11.7.1段。 |
| Hague Regulations, art. 42. | 《海牙章程》第四十二条。 |
| The definition contained in art. 42 has been confirmed by the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, which have referred to it as the exclusive standard for determining the existence of a situation of occupation under the law of armed conflict. | 国际法院和前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭确认了第四十二条所载定义，称之为确定是否存在武装冲突法规定的占领局势的唯一标准。 |
| See, respectively, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 136, at p. 167, para. 78, and Prosecutor v. Mladen Naletilić, aka “TUTA” and Vinko Martinović, aka “ŠTELA”, Case No. IT-98-34-T, Judgment of 31 March 2003, Trial Chamber, para. 215. | 分别见在巴勒斯坦被占领土修建隔离墙的法律后果，咨询意见，《2004年国际法院案例汇编》，第136页，见第167页，第78段； 检察官诉Mladen Naletilić, aka “TUTA”和Vinko Martinović, aka “ŠTELA”案，IT-98-34-T号案件，2003年3月31日的判决，审判分庭，第215段。 |
| See also ICRC commentary (2016) to Geneva Convention I, art. 2, para. 298. | 另见红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第一公约》的评注(2016年)，第二条，第298段。 |
| Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (see footnote 1241 above), para. 173; | 刚果境内的武装活动(见上文脚注1241)，第173段； |
| see also United Kingdom, Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict … (footnote 1222 above), p. 275, para. 11.3. | 另见联合王国国防部，《武装冲突法手册》(上文脚注1222)，第275页，第11.3段。 |
| United States, Department of Defence, Law of War Manual (see footnote 1222 above), sect. 11.4, pp. 772–774. | 美国国防部，《战争法手册》(见上文脚注1222), 第11.4节, 第772-774页。 |
| See also H.-P. Gasser and K. Dörmann, “Protection of the civilian population”, in D. Fleck (ed.), The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law (footnote 1165 above), pp. 231–320, at p. 274, para. 529. | See also H.-P. Gasser and K. Dörmann, “Protection of the civilian population”, in D. Fleck (ed.), The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law (footnote 1165 above), pp. 231–320, at p. 274, para. 529. |
| Manual of the Laws of Naval War (Oxford, 9 August 1913), sect. VI, art. 88. Available from https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/265?OpenDocument (accessed on 8 July 2019). See also Y. Dinstein, The International Law of Belligerent Occupation (Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 47; | Manual of the Laws of Naval War (Oxford, 9 August 1913), sect. VI, art. 88. Available from https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/265?OpenDocument (accessed on 8 July 2019). See also Y. Dinstein, The International Law of Belligerent Occupation (Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 47; |
| E. Benvenisti, The International Law of Occupation, 2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 55, referring to the practice of several occupants, and M. Sassòli, “The concept and the beginning of occupation”, in A. Clapham, P. Gaeta and M. Sassòli (eds.), The 1949 Geneva Conventions: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2015), pp. 1389–1419, at p. 1396. | E. Benvenisti, The International Law of Occupation, 2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 55, referring to the practice of several occupants, and M. Sassòli, “The concept and the beginning of occupation”, in A. Clapham, P. Gaeta and M. Sassòli (eds.), The 1949 Geneva Conventions: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2015), pp. 1389–1419, at p. 1396. |
| Roberts, “Prolonged military occupation …” (see footnote 1272 above), p. 95; | Roberts, “Prolonged military occupation …” (see footnote 1272 above), p. 95; |
| Gasser and Dörmann, “Protection of the civilian population” (see footnote 1276 above), p. 272. | Gasser and Dörmann, “Protection of the civilian population” (see footnote 1276 above), p. 272. |
| Benvenisti, The International Law of Occupation (see footnote 1277 above), pp. 61–62. Similarly, ICRC, “Occupation and other forms of administration of foreign territory”, Report of an expert meeting (2012), pp. 10 and 23 (the theory of “indirect effective control” was met with approval). | Benvenisti, The International Law of Occupation (see footnote 1277 above), pp. 61-62. 同样，红十字国际委员会，“占领和以其他形式管理外国领土”，专家会议报告(2012年)，第10和第23页(同意了“间接有效控制”理论)。 |
| See also United Kingdom, Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict … (footnote 1222 above), p. 276, para. 11.3.1 (“likely to be applicable”). | 另见联合王国国防部，《武装冲突法手册》(上文脚注1222), 第276页，第11.3.1段 (“可能适用”)。 |
| See also Kolb and Vité, Le droit de l’occupation militaire … (footnote 1270 above), p. 181, as well as ICRC commentary (2016) to Geneva Convention I, art. 2, paras. 328–332. | 另见Kolb and Vité, Le droit de l'occupation militaire … (上文脚注1270), 第181页和红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第一公约》的评注(2016年)，第二条，第328-332段。 |
| See Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić, Case No. IT-94-1-T, Trial Judgment, 7 May 1997, Judicial Reports 1997, para. 584, which refers to circumstances, in which “the foreign Power ‘occupies’ or operates in certain territory solely through the acts of local de facto organs or agents”. | 见检察官诉Duško Tadić，IT-94-1-A号案件，1997年5月7日的审判判决，《1997年司法案例汇编》，第584段，其中提及“外国仅通过当地事实上的机关或代理人的行为‘占领’某领土或在该领土内活动”的一些情形。 |
| See also Prosecutor v. Tihomir Blaskić, Case No. IT-95-14-T, Judgment, 3 March, 2000, Judicial Reports 2000, paras. 149–150. | 另见检察官诉Tihomir Blaskić，IT-95-14-T号案件，2000年3月3日的判决，《2000年司法案例汇编》，第149-150段。 |
| The Court seems to have accepted in the Armed Activities case that Uganda would have been an occupying power in the areas controlled and administered by Congolese rebel movements, had these non-State armed groups been “under the control” of Uganda. | 国际法院在武装活动案中似乎也已认为，若刚果反叛运动处于乌干达“控制之下”，则乌干达便是这些非国家武装团体控制和管理的地区的占领国。 |
| See Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (footnote 1241 above), p. 231, para. 177. | 见刚果境内的武装活动案(上文脚注1241)，第231页，第177段。 |
| See also the separate opinion of Judge Kooijmans, ibid., p. 317, para. 41. | 另见科艾曼斯法官的个别意见，同上，第317页，第41段。 |
| The European Court of Human Rights has confirmed that the obligation of a State party to the European Convention on Human Rights to secure the rights and freedoms set out in the Convention in an area outside its national territory, over which it exercises effective control, “derives from the fact of such control whether it be exercised directly, through its armed forces, or through a subordinate local administration”, see Loizidou v. Turkey, Judgment (Merits), 18 December 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-VI, para. 52. | 欧洲人权法院确认，《欧洲人权公约》缔约国在其国家领土以外有效控制的地区维护《公约》规定的权利与自由这项义务“源于控制这一事实，无论这种控制是直接进行，通过其武装部队进行，还是通过一个附属的地方行政当局进行”。 见Loizidou诉土耳其，判决(案情)，1996年12月18日，《判决和决定汇编》1996年第六辑，第52段。 |
| The Hostages Trial: Trial of Wilhelm List and Others, Case No. 47, United States Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, Law Reports of Trial of War Criminals, vol. VIII (London, United Nations War Crimes Commission, 1949, London), p. 55: “[w]hether an invasion has developed into an occupation is a question of fact”. | 人质审判：Wilhelm List等人的审判，第47号案件，纽伦堡美国军事法庭，《战犯审判法律报告》，第八卷(伦敦，联合国战争罪行委员会，1949年，伦敦)，第55页：“入侵是否发展成占领是一个事实问题”。 |
| See also Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (footnote 1241 above), p. 230, para. 173; | 另见刚果境内的武装活动(上文脚注1241)，第230页，第173段； |
| Naletilić and Martinović (footnote 1274 above), para. 211; | Naletilić和Martinović 案(上文脚注1274)，第221页； |
| and ICRC commentary (2016) to Geneva Convention I, art. 2, para. 300. | 红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第一公约》的评注(2016年)，第二条，第300段。 |
| Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall (see footnote 1274 above), pp. 174–175, para. 95. | 修建隔离墙的法律后果(见上文脚注1274)，第174-175页，第95段。 |
| See ICRC, “Occupation and other forms of administration of foreign territory” (footnote 1279 above), Foreword by K. Dörmann, p. 4. | 见红十字国际委员会，“占领和以其他形式管理外国领土”(上文脚注1279)，K. Dörmann所作的序，第4页。 |
| Similarly, the war crime trials after the Second World War relied on and interpreted the Hague Regulations and customary law. | 同样，第二次世界大战后的战争罪审判依靠并解释了《海牙章程》和习惯法。 |
| M. Sassòli, “Legislation and maintenance of public order and civil life by Occupying Powers”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 16 (2005), pp. 661–694, at p. 688; | M. Sassòli, “Legislation and maintenance of public order and civil life by Occupying Powers”, European Journal of International Law, vol. 16 (2005), pp. 661–694, at p. 688; |
| T. Ferraro, “The applicability of the law of occupation to peace forces”, ICRC and International Institute of Humanitarian Law, International Humanitarian Law, Human Rights and Peace Operations, G.L. Beruto (ed.), 31st Round Table on Current Problems of International Humanitarian Law, San Remo, 4–6 September 2008, Proceedings, pp. 133–156; | T. Ferraro, “The applicability of the law of occupation to peace forces”, ICRC and International Institute of Humanitarian Law, International Humanitarian Law, Human Rights and Peace Operations, G.L. Beruto (ed.), 31st Round Table on Current Problems of International Humanitarian Law, San Remo, 4–6 September 2008, Proceedings, pp. 133–156; |
| D. Shraga, “The applicability of international humanitarian law to peace operations, from rejection to acceptance”, ibid. pp. 90–99; | D. Shraga, “The applicability of international humanitarian law to peace operations, from rejection to acceptance”, ibid. pp. 90–99; |
| S. Wills, “Occupation law and multi-national operations: problems and perspectives”, British Yearbook of International Law, vol. 77 (2006), pp. 256–332, Benvenisti, The International Law of Occupation (see footnote 1277 above), p. 66; | S. Wills, “Occupation law and multi-national operations: problems and perspectives”, British Yearbook of International Law, vol. 77 (2006), pp. 256–332, Benvenisti, The International Law of Occupation (see footnote 1277 above), p. 66; |
| See also ICRC, “Occupation and other forms of administration of foreign territory” (footnote 1279 above), pp. 33–34. | 另见红十字国际委员会，“占领和以其他形式管理外国领土”(上文脚注1279)，第33-34页。 |
| See, however, also Dinstein, The International Law of Belligerent Occupation (footnote 1277 above), p. 37 for a more reserved view. | 然而，更具保留的意见，见Dinstein, The International Law of Belligerent Occupation (上文脚注1277)，第37页。 |
| Gasser and Dörmann, “Protection of the civilian population” (see footnote 1276 above), p. 267; | Gasser and Dörmann, “Protection of the civilian population” (see footnote 1276 above), p. 267; |
| Arai-Takahashi, The Law of Occupation … (see footnote 1224 above), p. 605; | Arai-Takahashi, The Law of Occupation… (see footnote 1224 above), p. 605; |
| M. Zwanenburg, “Substantial relevance of the law of occupation for peace operations”, ICRC and International Institute of Humanitarian Law, International Humanitarian Law, Human Rights and Peace Operations (see previous footnote), pp. 157–167. | M. Zwanenburg, “Substantial relevance of the law of occupation for peace operations”, ICRC and International Institute of Humanitarian Law, International Humanitarian Law, Human Rights and Peace Operations (see previous footnote), pp. 157–167. |
| ICRC commentary (2016) to Geneva Convention I, art. 2, para. 322. | 红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第一公约》的评注(2016年)，第二条，第322段。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| Hague Regulations, art. 43: “The authority of the legitimate power having actually passed into the hands of the occupant, the latter shall take all steps in his power to re-establish and insure, as far as possible, public order and safety, while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the country. | 《海牙章程》第四十三条规定，“合法政府的权力实际上既已落入占领者手中，占领者应尽力采取一切措施，在可能范围内恢复和确保公共秩序和安全并除非万不得已，应尊重当地现行的法律”。 |
| ” The authentic French text of article 43 uses the expression “l’ordre et la vie publics”, and the provision has been accordingly interpreted to refer not only to physical safety but also to the “‘social functions and ordinary transactions which constitute daily life’, in other words, to the entire social and economic life of the occupied region”, see M. S. McDougal and F.P. Feliciano, Law and Minimum World Public Order: the Legal Regulation of International Coercion (New Haven, Yale University, 1961), p. 746. | 第四十三条的法文作准文本所用表述是“公共秩序和公共生活”，因此，该条款被解释为不仅指人身安全，而且还指“构成日常生活内容的社会功能和一般事务，换言之，是指被占领地区的整个社会和经济生活”，见M. S. McDougal and F.P. Feliciano, Law and Minimum World Public Order: the Legal Regulation of International Coercion (New Haven, Yale University, 1961), p. 746。 |
| See also Dinstein, The International Law of Belligerent Occupation (footnote 1277 above), p. 89, and Sassòli, “Legislation and maintenance of public order…” (footnote 1286 above). | 另见Dinstein, The International Law of Belligerent Occupation (footnote 1277 above), p. 89, and Sassòli, “Legislation and maintenance of public order…” (footnote 1286 above)。 |
| This interpretation is also supported by the travaux préparatoires: in the Brussels Conference of 1874, the term “vie publique” was interpreted as referring to “des fonctions sociales, des transactions ordinaires, qui constituent la vie de tous les jours”. | 这一解释得到准备工作材料的进一步支持。 在1874年布鲁塞尔会议期间，“公共生活”一词被解释为“构成日常生活内容的社会功能和一般事务”。 比利时代表的这种解释得到相关委员会的认可。 |
| See Belgium, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Actes de la Conférence de Bruxelles de 1874 sur le projet d’une convention internationale concernant la guerre, p. 23. | 见比利时外交部， Actes de la Conférence de Bruxelles de 1874 sur le projet d’une convention internationale concernant la guerre, 第23页。 |
| Available from https://babel.hathitrust.org/. | 可查阅 https://babel. hathitrust.org/。 |
| T. Ferraro, “The law of occupation and human rights law: some selected issues”, in R. Kolb and G. Gaggioli (eds.), Research Handbook on Human Rights and Humanitarian Law (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2013), pp. 273–293, p. 279. | T. Ferraro, “The law of occupation and human rights law: some selected issues”, in R. Kolb and G. Gaggioli (eds.), Research Handbook on Human Rights and Humanitarian Law (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2013), pp. 273–293, p. 279. |
| Gabčíkovo–Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 7, para. 53. | 加布奇科沃－大毛罗斯项目(匈牙利诉斯洛伐克)案，判决，《1997年国际法院案例汇编》，第7页，第53段。 |
| Reference can furthermore be made to the Rio Declaration, which states that “[t]he environment and natural resources of people under oppression, domination and occupation shall be protected”. | 还可参考《里约宣言》，其中指出：“受压迫、遭统治和被占领的人民，其环境和自然资源应予保护”。 |
| See the Rio Declaration, principle 23. | 见《里约宣言》，原则23。 |
| Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (see footnote 1241 above), p. 231, para. 178. | 刚果境内的武装活动案(见上文脚注1241)，第231页，第178段。 |
| See also p. 243, para. 216, in which the Court confirms that international human rights arguments are applicable in respect of acts done by a State in the exercise of its jurisdiction outside its own territory, “particularly in occupied territories”. | 另见，第243页，第216段，其中国际法院确认，国际人权文书适用于一国对其领土以外地区、“特别是被占领土”进行管辖时作出的行为。 |
| See also Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall (footnote 1274 above), pp. 177–181, paras. 102–113. | 另见修建隔离墙的法律后果 (见上文脚注1274)，第177-181页，第102-113段。 |
| The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, likewise, has stated that the distinction between a phase of hostilities and a situation of occupation “imposes more onerous duties on an occupying power than on a party to an international armed conflict”, see Naletilić, and Martinović (footnote 1274 above), para. 214. | 前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭同样表示，把敌对阶段和占领局势区别对待，“加诸于占领国的义务比加诸于国际武装冲突当事方的义务更为繁苛”。 见Naletilić和Martinović案(见上文脚注1274)，第214段。 |
| See also the European Court of Human Rights: Loizidou v. Turkey (Preliminary Objections), Judgment, 23 March 1995, Series A, No. 310, para. 62, and Judgment (Merits), 18 December 1996 (footnote 1282 above), para. 52; | 另见欧洲人权法院，Loizidou诉土耳其(初步反对意见)，1995年3月23日的判决，A辑，第310号，第62段，判决(案情)，1996年12月18日，(上文脚注1282)，第52段； |
| and Al-Skeini and others v. United Kingdom [Grand Chamber], Application No. 55721/07, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 2011, para. 94, in which reference was made to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights case Mapiripán Massacre v. Colombia, Judgment, 15 September 2005, Series C, No. 134, in support of the duty to investigate alleged violations of the right to life in situations of armed conflict and occupation. | Al-Skeini等诉联合王国[大审判庭], 55721/07号申诉，《2011年判决和决定汇编》，第94段，其中提到美洲人权法院的案件，即Mapiripán屠杀诉哥伦比亚案, 2005年9月15日判决，C辑，第134号，支持说明调查关于在武装冲突和占领局势下侵犯生命权的指控之义务。 |
| The applicability of human rights during occupation has been further recognized by the Human Rights Committee, see, general comment No. 26 (1997) on continuity of obligations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-third Session, Supplement No. 40, vol. I (A/53/40 (Vol. I)), annex VII, para. 4; | 人权在占领期间适用，这已进一步得到人权事务委员会的承认，见第26号一般性意见(1997年)：义务的延续性，《大会正式记录，第五十三届会议，补编第40号》，第一卷((A/53/40 (Vol. I))，附件七，第4段； |
| general comment No. 29 (2001) on derogation during a state of emergency, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 40, vol. I (A/56/40 (Vol. I)), annex VI, para. 3; | 第29号一般性意见(2001年)：紧急状态期间的克减问题，《大会正式记录，第五十六届会议，补编第40号》，第一卷(A/56/40 (Vol. I))，附件六，第3段； |
| general comment No. 31 (2004) on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the Covenant, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 40, vol. I (A/59/40 (Vol. I)), annex III, para. 10. | 第31号一般性意见(2004年)：《公约》缔约国的一般法律义务的性质，《大会正式记录，第五十九届会议，补编第40号》，第一卷(A/59/40 (Vol. I))，附件三，第10段。 |
| See also Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, concluding observations: Israel, E/C.12/1/Add.69, 31 August 2001; | 另见经济、社会及文化权利委员会，结论性意见：以色列，E/C.12/1/Add.69, 2001年8月31日； |
| and concluding observation: Israel, E/C.12/ISR/CO/3, 16 December 2011, as well as the report on the situation of human rights in Kuwait under Iraqi occupation, prepared by Mr. Walter Kälin, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, in accordance with Commission resolution 1991/67, E/CN.4/1992/26, 16 June 1992. | 结论性意见：以色列，E/C.12/ISR/CO/3, 2011年12月16日； 人权委员会特别报告员瓦尔特·凯林先生根据委员会第1991/67号决议编写的关于伊拉克占领下的科威特的人权情况的报告，E/CN.4/1992/26, 1992年6月16日。 |
| Such applicability has also been widely endorsed in scholarly writings: see, for example, Dinstein, The International Law of Belligerent Occupation (footnote 1277 above), pp. 69–71; | 这种适用在很大程度上受到学术著作的支持。 例如见Dinstein, The International Law of Belligerent Occupation (footnote 1277 above), pp. 69–71; |
| Kolb and Vité, Le droit de l’occupation militaire … (footnote 1270 above), pp. 299–332; | Kolb and Vité, Le droit de l'occupation militaire … (footnote 1270 above), pp. 299–332; |
| A. Roberts, “Transformative military occupation: applying the laws of war and human rights”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 100 (2006), pp. 580–622; | A. Roberts, “Transformative military occupation: applying the laws of war and human rights”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 100 (2006), pp. 580–622; |
| J. Cerone, “Human dignity in the line of fire: the application of international human rights law during armed conflict, occupation, and peace operations”, Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, vol. 39 (2006), pp. 1447–1510; | J. Cerone, “Human dignity in the line of fire: the application of international human rights law during armed conflict, occupation, and peace operations”, Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, vol. 39 (2006), pp. 1447–1510; |
| Benvenisti, The International Law of Occupation (see footnote 1277 above), pp. 12–16; | Benvenisti, The International Law of Occupation (see footnote 1277 above), pp. 12–16; |
| Arai-Takahashi, The Law of Occupation … (footnote 1224 above); | Arai-Takahashi, The Law of Occupation … (footnote 1224 above); |
| N. Lubell, “Human rights obligations in military occupation”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 94 (2012), pp. 317–337; | N. Lubell, “Human rights obligations in military occupation”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 94 (2012), pp. 317–337; |
| Ferraro, “The law of occupation and human rights law …” (footnote 1291 above), pp. 273–293; | Ferraro, “The law of occupation and human rights law …” (footnote 1291 above), pp. 273–293; |
| and M. Bothe, “The administration of occupied territory”, in Clapham, Gaeta and Sassòli (eds.), The 1949 Geneva Conventions: A Commentary (see footnote 1277 above), pp. 1455–1484. See, differently, M.J. Dennis, “Application of human rights treaties extraterritorially in times of armed conflict and military occupation”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 99 (2005), pp. 119–141. | and M. Bothe, “The administration of occupied territory”, in Clapham, Gaeta and Sassòli (eds.), The 1949 Geneva Conventions: A Commentary (see footnote 1277 above), pp. 1455–1484. 不同观点见M.J. Dennis, “Application of human rights treaties extraterritorially in times of armed conflict and military occupation”, American Journal of International Law, vol. 99 (2005), pp. 119–141。 |
| Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (see footnote 1162 above), at pp. 241–243, paras. 27–33. | 以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性案(见上文脚注1162)，见第241-243页，第27-33段。 |
| Draft articles on the effects of armed conflicts on treaties, Yearbook … 2011, vol. II (Part Two), pp. 106–130, paras. 100–101. | 武装冲突对条约影响条款草案，《2011年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第106-130页，第100-101段。 |
| See also ICRC, Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed Conflict (footnote 973 above), guideline 5, which states that “[i]nternational environmental agreements and relevant rules of customary law may continue to be applicable in times of armed conflict to the extent that they are not inconsistent with the applicable law of armed conflict. | 另见，红十字国际委员会，《关于武装冲突中环境保护的军事手册和指南准则》(上文脚注973)，准则5, 其中指出，“国际环境协定及习惯法相关规则在武装冲突期间可继续适用，只要它们不与适用的武装冲突法相抵触。 |
| Obligations concerning the protection of the environment that are binding on States not party to an armed conflict (e.g. neighbouring States) and that relate to areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction (e.g. the high seas) are not affected by the existence of the armed conflict to the extent that those obligations are not inconsistent with the applicable law of armed conflict”. | 对非武装冲突当事国(如邻国)具有约束力以及涉及国家管辖范围以外地区(如公海)的保护环境义务不受武装冲突存在的影响，只要这些义务不与适用的武装冲突法相抵触”。 |
| K. Bannelier-Christakis, “International Law Commission and protection of the environment in times of armed conflict: a possibility for adjudication? ”, Journal of International Cooperation Studies, vol. 20 (2013), pp. 129 –145, at pp. 140–141; | K. Bannelier-Christakis, “International Law Commission and protection of the environment in times of armed conflict: a possibility for adjudication?”, Journal of International Cooperation Studies, vol. 20 (2013), pp. 129 –145, at pp. 140–141; |
| D. Dam-de Jong, International Law and Governance of Natural Resources in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2015), pp. 110–111. | D. Dam-de Jong, International Law and Governance of Natural Resources in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2015), pp. 110–111. |
| In the sense of art. 48, para. 1 (a), of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, the relevant commentary, para. (7), mentions environmental treaties in this context. | 从关于国家责任的条款第48条第1款(a)项的意义上讲，相关评注第(7段)提到这方面的环境条约。 |
| See Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 76–77, pp. 26–143, at p. 126. | 见《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第76-77段，第26-143页，第126页。 |
| Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (see footnote 1162 above), at p. 243, para. 33. | 以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性(见上文脚注1162)，第243页，第33段。 |
| Award in the Arbitration regarding the Iron Rhine (“Ijzeren Rijn”) Railway between the Kingdom of Belgium and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, 24 May 2005, Reports of International Arbitral Awards (UNRIAA), vol. XXVII, pp. 35–131 (Iron Rhine), at paras. 222–223. | 比利时王国与荷兰王国莱茵铁路仲裁裁决，2005年5月24日，《国际仲裁裁决汇编》，第二十七卷，第35-131页(莱茵铁路)，第222-223段。 |
| See also Final Award regarding the Indus Waters Kishenganga Arbitration between Pakistan and India, 20 December 2013, UNRIAA, vol. XXXI, pp. 1–358, e.g. at paras. 101, 104 and 105. Available at https://pca-cpa.org/en/cases/20/ (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 另见巴基斯坦与印度关于印度河基申甘加工程仲裁的最终裁决，2013年12月20日，《国际仲裁裁决汇编》，第三十一卷，第1-358页，例如见第101、第104和第105段，可查阅https://pca-cpa.org/en/cases/20/ (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See, however, United States, Department of Defense, Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (2005), p. 186: “Environmental considerations: The spectrum of environmental media, resources, or programs that may impact on, or are affected by, the planning and execution of military operations. | 然而，见美国国防部，《军事及相关术语词典》(2005年)，第186页：“环境因素：可能影响军事行动计划和执行或受军事行动计划和执行影响的各种环境媒体、资源或方案。 |
| Factors may include, but are not limited to, environmental compliance, pollution prevention, conservation, protection of historical and cultural sites, and protection of flora and fauna”. | 因素可包括但不限于环境合规、污染预防、保护、历史和文化遗址保护以及动植物群保护”。 |
| Available from www.jcs.mil/Doctrine/Joint-Doctrine-Pubs/Reference-Series/ (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.jcs.mil/Doctrine/Joint-Doctrine-Pubs/Reference-Series/ (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| For practical examples of environmental considerations in the context of an armed conflicts, see D.E. Mosher et al., Green Warriors: Army Environmental Considerations for Contingency Operations from Planning Through Post-Conflict (RAND Corporation, 2008), pp. 71–72: “given the importance placed on military expedience during combat, a unit’s environmental responsibilities are fairly limited. | 武装冲突背景下环境因素的实际例子，见D.E. Mosher et al., Green Warriors: Army Environmental Considerations for Contingency Operations from Planning Through Post-Conflict (RAND Corporation, 2008), 第71-72页：“鉴于战斗期间军事便利的重要性，部队的环境责任相当有限。 |
| Experience in recent contingency operations has shown that environmental considerations are significantly more important in other areas, including base camps, stability and reconstruction, and the movement of forces and materiel”; | 最近应急行动的经验表明，环境因素在其他领域更为重要，包括营地、稳定和重建以及部队和物资的流动”； |
| p. 75: “The movement of forces and materiel … can involve significant environmental considerations”; | 第75页：“部队和物资的流动…可能涉及重大的环境因素”； |
| p. 121: “Balancing environmental considerations with other factors that contribute to mission success is a constant undertaking and requires better awareness, training, information, doctrine, and guidelines”; | 第121页：“使环境因素与有助于任务成功的其他因素保持平衡是一项持续的任务，需要更好的认识、培训、信息、理论和准则”； |
| p. 126: “For example, experience in Iraq … points to the need for high-quality information about environmental conditions and infrastructure before an operation is initiated”. | 第126页：“例如，伊拉克的经验…表明在行动开始前需要关于环境条件和基础设施的高质量信息”。 |
| See also UNHCR Environmental Guidelines (footnote 1057 above), p. 5: “Environmental considerations need to be taken into account in almost all aspects of UNHCR’s work with refugees and returnees. | 另见《难民署环境准则》(上文脚注1057)，第5页：“在难民署难民和回返者方面的工作的几乎所有方面都需要考虑到环境因素”。 |
| ” See furthermore European Commission, “Integrating environmental considerations into other policy areas – a stocktaking of the Cardiff process”, document COM(2004) 394 final. | 另见欧洲联盟委员会，“将环境因素纳入其他政策领域――加的夫进程评价”，COM (2004) 394 final号文件。 |
| See para. (5) of the commentary to draft principle 15 above. | 见上文原则草案15评注第(5)段。 |
| See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 6, para. 1. | 见《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第六条第一款。 |
| See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 36 (2018), para. 26 [this general comment has not yet been published so citations and paragraph numbers may be subject to change in the final version], in which the Committee lists “degradation of the environment” among general conditions in society that may give rise to direct threats to life or prevent individuals from enjoying their right to life with dignity. | 另见人权事务委员会，第36号一般性意见(2018年)，第26段。 [本一般性意见尚未发表，因此引文和段落编号可能在最终版中有所变化]，其中委员会将“环境退化”列为可能对生命造成直接威胁或妨碍个人有尊严地享有生命权的社会一般条件之一。 |
| See also Human Rights Committee, concluding observations: Israel (CCPR/C/ISR/CO/3), para. 18. | 另见人权事务委员会，结论性意见：以色列(CCPR/C/ISR/CO/3), 第18段。 |
| See also Convention on the Rights of the Child (New York, 20 November 1989), United Nations, Treaty Series vol. 1577, No. 27531, p. 3, art. 6, para. 1, which provides that “States Parties recognize that every child has the inherent right to life”. | 另见《儿童权利公约》(1989年11月20日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1577卷，第27531号，第3页，第6条第1款。 其中规定“缔约国确认每个儿童均有固有的生命权”。 |
| In general comment No. 16, the Committee on the Rights of the Child has related the child’s right to life with environmental degradation and contamination resulting from business activities, see general comment No. 16 (2013) on State obligations regarding the impact of the business sector on children’s rights (CRC/C/GC/16), para. 19. | 儿童权利委员会在其第16号一般性意见中将儿童的生命权与商业活动造成的环境恶化和污染联系起来，见关于商业部门对儿童权利的影响方面国家义务的第16号一般性意见(2013年) (CRC/C/GC/16), 第19段。 |
| See further African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Nairobi, 27 June 1981), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1520, No. 26363, p. 217, art. 4 which stipulates i.e. that human beings are entitled to respect for their life. | 进一步见《非洲人权和民族权宪章》(1981年6月27日，内罗毕)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1520卷，第26363号，第217页，第4条，其中规定，人有权要求其生活受到尊重。 |
| In SERAP v. Nigeria case, the Community Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States affirmed that that “[t]he quality of human life depends on the quality of the environment”. | 在社会经济权利和问责项目诉尼日利亚案中，西非国家经济共同体法院申明“人类生活的质量取决于环境的质量”。 |
| See Socio-Economic Rights and Accountability Project (SERAP) v. Nigeria, Judgment No. ECW/CCJ/JUD/18/12, 14 December 2012, para. 100. | 见社会经济权利和问责项目诉尼日利亚案，ECW/CCJ/JUD/18/12号判决，2012年12月14日，第100段。 |
| See also American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, O.A.S. Res. XXX, 2 May 1948, reprinted in Basic Documents Pertaining to Human Rights in the Inter-American System, OAS/Ser.L/V/I.4 Rev. 9 (2003), art. 1; | 另见《美洲关于人的权利和义务宣言》，美洲国家组织第三十号决议，1948年5月2日，转载于《美洲体系中与人权有关的基本文件》，OAS/Ser.L/V/I.4 Rev. 9 (2003), 第1条； |
| American Convention on Human Rights (San José, 22 November 1969), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1144, No. 17955, art. 4, para. 1, as well as Yanomami v. Brazil, Case No. 7615, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, resolution No. 12/85, 5 March 1985, which acknowledged that a healthy environment and the right to life are interlinked. | 《美洲人权公约》(1969年11月22日，圣何塞)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1144卷，第17955号，第4条第1款以及亚诺玛米人诉巴西案，7615号案件，美洲人权委员会，第12/85号决议，1985年3月5日, 其中确认，健康的环境与生命权相互联系。 |
| See also Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Medio Ambiente y Derechos Humanos (footnote 1182 above), paras. 55 and 59. | 另见美洲人权法院，环境与人权(上文脚注1182), 第55和第59段。 |
| See Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 25, para. 1; | 见《世界人权宣言》第二十五条第一款； |
| International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 12. | 《经济、社会及文化权利国际公约》第十二条。 |
| See also Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) on the right to the highest attainable standard of health (art. 12), Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, 2001, Supplement No. 2 (E/2001/22-E/C.12/2000/21), annex IV, para. 4. | 另见经济、社会和文化权利委员会，关于享有能达到的最高标准健康的权利(第12条)的第14号一般性意见(2000年)，《经济及社会理事会正式记录，2001年，补编第2号》(E/2001/22-E/C.12/2000/21)，附件四，第4段。 |
| See also Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 15 (2013) on the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health (CRC/C/GC/15), paras. 49–50. | 另见儿童权利委员会，关于儿童享有可达到的最高标准健康的权利问题的第15号一般性意见(2013) (CRC/C/GC/15)，第49-50段。 |
| Similarly, the Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Protocol of San Salvador) includes the right to health, and the regional jurisprudence acknowledges the connection between the right to health and environmental protection in the context of the universal periodic reviews. | 《美洲人权公约关于经济、社会和文化权利领域的附加议定书》(《圣萨尔瓦多议定书》)同样纳入了健康权，区域判例在普遍定期审议中承认健康权与环境保护之间的联系。 |
| See Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Mapping human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment: individual report on the General Assembly and the Human Rights Council, including the universal periodic review process”, Report No. 6, December 2013, part III C. See also the Report of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment (A/HRC/37/59). | 见《美洲人权公约关于经济、社会和文化权利领域的附加议定书》，以及联合国人权事务高级专员办事处，《与享有安全、清洁、卫生和可持续环境有关的人权义务问题摸底，联大和人权理事会个别报告，包括普遍定期审议进程》，第6号报告，2013年12月，第3.C部分。 另见与享有安全、清洁、卫生和可持续环境有关的人权义务问题特别报告员的报告(A/HRC/37/59)。 |
| See International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 11. | 见《经济、社会及文化权利国际公约》第十一条。 |
| See also Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 12 (1999) on the right to adequate food (art. 11), Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, 2001, Supplement No. 2 (E/C.12/2000/22-E/C.12/1999/11), annex V, para. 7, which determines that the concept of adequacy is interlinked with the notion of sustainability, meaning that food must also be available for the future generations. | 另见经济、社会及文化权利委员会，关于适当食物权的第12号一般性意见(1999年)(第十一条)，《经济及社会理事会正式记录，2001年》，补编第2号(E/C.12/2000/22-E/C.12/1999/11)，附件五，第7段，其中确定了适当性概念与可持续性概念是相互关联的，这意味着子孙后代也必须能够获得食物。 |
| See also paras. 8 and 10, which require that available food must be free from adverse substances. | 另见第8和第10段，其中要求可用食物必须不含有害物质。 |
| Moreover, the right to food has been related to the depletion of natural resources traditionally possessed by indigenous communities. | 此外，食物权还涉及土著社区传统拥有的自然资源枯竭问题。 |
| Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, 2001, Supplement No. 2 (E/2000/22-E/C.12/1999/11), para. 337; | 《经济及社会理事会正式记录，2001年，补编第2号》(E/2000/22-E/C.12/1999/11)，第337段； |
| ibid., 2010, Supplement No. 2 (E/2010/22-E/C.12/2009/3), para. 372; | 同上，《2010年，补编第2号》(E/2010/22-E/C.12/2009/3)，第372段； |
| ibid., 2012, Supplement No. 2 (E/2012/22-E/C.12/2011/3), para. 268; | 同上，《2012年，补编第2号》(E/2012/22-E/C.12/2011/3)，第268段； |
| ibid., 2008, Supplement No. 2 (E/2008/22-E/C.12/2007/3), para. 436. | 同上，《2008年，补编第2号》(E/2008/22-E/C.12/2007/3)，第436段。 |
| See, for example, World Health Organization, “Our planet, our health, our future: human health and the Rio Conventions: Biological Diversity, Climate Change and Desertification”, discussion paper, 2012, p. 2, acknowledging the role of biodiversity as the “foundation for human health”. | 例如见，世界卫生组织，“我们的地球、我们的健康、我们的未来：人类健康与里约各公约：生物多样性、气候变化和荒漠化”，讨论文件，2012年，第2页，其中确认生物多样性所发挥的“人类健康的基础”的作用。 |
| Available at www.who.int/globalchange/publications/reports/health_rioconventions.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.who.int/globalchange/publications/reports/ health_rioconventions.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See Additional Protocol I, art. 55, para. 1: “Care shall be taken in warfare to protect the natural environment against widespread, long-term and severe damage. | 见《第一附加议定书》，第五十五条，第一款：“在作战中，应注意保护自然环境不受广泛、长期和严重的损害。 |
| This protection includes a prohibition of the use of methods or means of warfare which are intended or may be expected to cause such damage to the natural environment and thereby to prejudice the health or survival of the population.” | 这种保护包括禁止使用旨在或可能对自然环境造成这种损害从而妨害居民的健康和生存的作战方法或手段”。 |
| According to the Constitution of the World Health Organization, “[h]ealth is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. | 《世界卫生组织组织法》指出，“健康不仅为疾病或羸弱之消除，而系体格，精神与社会之完全健康状态”。 |
| The Constitution was adopted by the International Health Conference held in New York from 19 June to 22 July 1946, and has been amended in 1977, 1984, 1994 and 2005, the consolidated text is available at www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 《组织法》于1946年6月19日至7月22日在纽约举行的国际卫生会议上获得通过，并于1977年、1984年、1994年和2005年进行了修订，综合案文见www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Stockholm Declaration, principle 1. | 《斯德哥尔摩宣言》，原则1。 |
| See also UNHCR Environmental Guidelines (footnote 1057 above), p. 5: “The state of the environment … will have a direct bearing on the welfare and well-being of people living in that vicinity”. | 另见《难民署环境准则》(上文脚注1057)，第5页：“环境状况…将对生活在附近的人们的福利和福祉产生直接影响”。 |
| Paras. (1)–(7) of the commentary to draft art. 2 of draft articles on prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 97–98, at pp. 152–153. | 预防危险活动的跨界损害条款草案第2条草案评注第(1)-(7)段，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第97-98页，见第152-153段。 |
| Paras. (1)–(3) of the commentary to principle 2 of the principles on the allocation of loss in the case of transboundary harm arising out of hazardous activities Yearbook … 2006, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 66–67, at pp. 64–65. | 关于危险活动所致跨界损害的损失分配原则2评注第(1)-(3)段，《2006年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第66-67页，见第64-65段。 |
| Para. (4) of the commentary to draft art. 2 of the draft articles on prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 97–98, at p. 152 (emphasis removed). | 预防危险活动的跨界损害条款草案第2条草案评注第(4)段，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第97-98页，见第152段(取消强调)。 |
| Para. (3) of the commentary to principle 2 of the principles on the allocation of loss in the case of transboundary harm arising out of hazardous activities, Yearbook … 2006, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 66–67, at p. 65. | 关于危险活动所致跨界损害的损失分配原则草案原则2评注第(3)段，《2006年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第66-67页，见第65段。 |
| In the context of the Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses ((New York, 21 May 1997), Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-first Session, Supplement No. 49 (A/51/49), vol. III, resolution 51/229, annex), “significant harm” has been similarly defined as “the real impairment of a use, established by objective evidence. | 与此相似，在《国际水道非航行使用法公约》(1997年5月21日，纽约)，《大会正式记录，第五十一届会议，补编第49号》(A/51/49)，第三卷，第51/229号决议，附件）中，“重大损害”也被定义为“根据客观证据确定的对使用的实际损害。 |
| For harm to be qualified as significant it must not be trivial in nature but it need not rise to the level of being substantial; | 要将损害定性为重大损害，这种损害必须不具琐细性质，但也不必达到实质性的水平； |
| this is to be determined on a case by case basis”. | 这将视具体情况而定”。 |
| See “No significant harm rule”, User’s Guide Fact Sheet, No. 5. | 见“无重大损害规则”，用户指南概况介绍，第5号。 |
| Available at www.unwatercoursesconvention.org/documents/UNWC-Fact-Sheet-5-No-Significant-Harm-Rule.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.unwatercoursesconvention.org/documents/UNWC-Fact-Sheet-5-No-Significant-Harm-Rule.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| ICRC commentary (1987) to Additional Protocol 1, art. 55, para. 1, p. 663, para. 2134. | 红十字国际委员会关于《第一附加议定书》的评注(1987年) ，第五十五条第一款，第663页，第2134段。 |
| See also Payne, “Defining the environment: environmental integrity” (footnote 1180 above), p. 58: “the word ‘population’ was used without its usual qualifier of ‘civilian’ because the future survival or health of the population in general, whether or not combatants, might be at stake” and “[t]he population might be that of today or that of tomorrow, in the sense that both short-term and long-term survival was contemplated”. | 另见Payne, “Defining the environment: environmental integrity” (上文脚注1180), 第58页：“使用‘居民’一词时没有附加通常的限定词‘平民’，因为无论是否是战斗人员，所有居民的未来生存和健康都可能面临危险”，而且“就短期和长期生存而言，居民可能是现在的居民，也可能是未来的居民”。 |
| See Health 2020, Health and well-being – a common purpose, a shared responsibility (World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, 2012), p. 1. | 见《健康2020，健康和福祉――共同目标，分担责任》(2012年，世界卫生组织欧洲区域办事处)，第1页。 |
| Environmental rights have been recognized at national level in the constitutions of more than a hundred States. | 在国家层面，一百多个国家的宪法承认环境权利。 |
| There are nevertheless considerable variations in how the respective rights and duties are conceived. | 但是，在如何看待各自的权利和义务方面仍有极大差异。 |
| See P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (footnote 1172 above), p. 816. | 见P. Sands, 《国际环境法原则》(上文脚注1172), 第816页。 |
| A list of relevant constitutions is available in Earthjustice, Environmental Rights Report 2008, at http://earthjustice.org/sites/default/files/library/reports/2008-environmental-rights-report.pdf, Appendix (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 相关宪法清单可查阅：地球正义，《2008年环境权利报告》，http://earthjustice.org/ sites/default/files/library/ reports/2008-environmental-rights-report.pdf, Appendix (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Major multilateral environmental agreements have attracted a high number of ratifications. | 大量国家批准了主要的多边环境协定。 |
| See https://research.un.org/en/docs/environment/treaties. | 见https://research.un.org/en/docs/environment/treaties。 |
| Art. 64 of Geneva Convention IV reads as follows: | 《日内瓦第四公约》第六十四条内容如下： |
| “The penal laws of the occupied territory shall remain in force, with the exception that they may be repealed or suspended by the Occupying Power in cases where they constitute a threat to its security or an obstacle to the application of the present Convention. | “占领地之刑事法规应继续有效，但遇该项法规构成对占领国安全之威胁或对本公约实行之障碍时，占领国得予以废除或停止。 |
| Subject to the latter consideration and to the necessity for ensuring the effective administration of justice, the tribunals of the occupied territory shall continue to function in respect of all offences covered by the said laws. | 在后者之考虑及保证有效的司法之需要之限制下，占领地之法庭对于上述法规涉及之一切罪行，应继续执行职务。 |
| “The Occupying Power may, however, subject the population of the occupied territory to provisions which are essential to enable the Occupying Power to fulfil its obligations under the present Convention, to maintain the orderly government of the territory, and to ensure the security of the Occupying Power, of the members and property of the occupying forces or administration, and likewise of the establishments and lines of communication used by them. | 但占领国得使占领地居民服从该国为执行其在本公约下所负之义务，维持该地有秩序之统治，与保证占领国、占领军、与行政机关之人员及财产，以及其所使用之设置与交通线之安全所必要之规定。 |
| ” The ICRC commentary points out that, in spite of the reference to penal law, occupation authorities are bound to respect the whole of the law in the occupied territory, see ICRC commentary (1958) to Geneva Convention IV, art. 64, p. 335; | ”红十字国际委员会的评注指出，虽然提到了刑法，但占领当局有义务尊重被占领土的全部法律，见红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第四公约》第六十四条的评注(1958年)，第335页； |
| see also Sassòli, Legislation and maintenance of public order …” (footnote 1286 above), p. 669; | 另见“Sassòli, Legislation and maintenance of public order …” (上文脚注1286)，第669页； |
| similarly, Dinstein, The International Law of Belligerent Occupation (footnote 1277 above), p. 111; | 同样见Dinstein, The International Law of Belligerent Occupation (上文脚注1277)，第111页； |
| Benvenisti, The International Law of Occupation (footnote 1277 above), p. 101; | Benvenisti, The International Law of Occupation (上文脚注1277), 第101页； |
| Kolb and Vité, Le droit de l’occupation militaire … (footnote 1270 above), pp. 192–194. | Kolb and Vité, Le droit de l'occupation militaire … (上文脚注1270)，第192-194页。 |
| Sassòli, “Legislation and maintenance of public order…” (see footnote 1286 above), p. 663. | Sassòli, “Legislation and maintenance of public order…” (见上文脚注1286)，第663页。 |
| See also United Kingdom, Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict … (footnote 1222 above), p. 284, para. 11.25, acknowledging that new legislation may be necessitated by the exigencies of armed conflict, the maintenance of order, or the welfare of the population. | 另见联合王国国防部 ，《武装冲突法手册》(上文脚注1222)，第284页，第11.25段承认由于武装冲突的紧急情况、维持秩序或人民的福利，可能需要新的立法。 |
| Similarly, McDougal and Feliciano, Law and Minimum World Public Order … (footnote 1290 above), p. 757. | 同样，见McDougal and Feliciano, Law and Minimum World Public Order … (上文脚注1290)，第757页。 |
| ICRC commentary (1958) to Geneva Convention IV, art. 47, p. 274. | 红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第四公约》的评注(1958年)，第四十七条，第274页。 |
| Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 16, at p. 31, para. 53. | 南非不顾安全理事会第276(1970)号决议继续留驻纳米比亚(西南非洲)对各国的法律后果，咨询意见，《1971年国际法院案例汇编》，第16页起，见第31页，第53段。 |
| Similarly Aegean Sea Continental Shelf, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1978, p. 3, at p. 32, para. 77, in which the Court stated that the meaning of certain generic terms was “intended to follow the evolution of the law and to correspond with the meaning attached to the expression by the law in force at any given time”. | 同样见爱琴海大陆架案，判决，《1978年国际法院案例汇编》，第3页起，见第32页，第77段； 其中法院指出，某些通用术语的含义“旨在遵循法律的演变，与特定时期所施行法律赋予该表述的含义相符”。 |
| See also World Trade Organization, United States-Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, WT/DS58/AB/R (Appellate Body Report), 6 November 1998, Dispute Settlement Reports, vol. VII (1998), p. 2755, at para. 129, according to which the expression “exhaustible natural resources” had to be interpreted in the light of contemporary concerns about the protection and conservation of the environment. | 另见世贸组织，美国－禁止进口某些虾类和虾制品案，WT/DS58/AB/R(上诉机构报告)，1998年11月6日通过，《争端解决报告》，第七卷(1998年)，第2755页，第129段，其中认为，必须根据有关环境保护和养护的当代关切来对“可耗尽自然资源”进行解释。 |
| Available at https://docs.wto.org; | 可查阅https://docs.wto.org； |
| Permanent Court of Arbitration, Award in the Arbitration regarding the Iron Rhine (footnote 1300 above), at paras. 79–81. | 常设仲裁法院，莱茵铁路仲裁裁决(上文脚注1300)，第79-81段。 |
| See also the Commission’s work on subsequent agreements and subsequent practice, commentary to draft conclusion 3 (Interpretation of treaty terms as capable of evolving over time), Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-eighth session, Supplement No. 10 (A/68/10), para. 39, at pp. 24–30. | 另见委员会关于“嗣后协定和嗣后惯例”的工作，结论草案3(“能够随时间演变的条约用语的解释”)评注，《大会正式记录，第六十八届会议，补编第10号》(A/68/10), 第39段，第24-30页。 |
| E.H. Feilchenfeld, The International Economic Law of Belligerent Occupation (Washington, D.C., Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1942), p. 49, who pointed to the need to modify tax legislation in an occupation that lasts through several years, noting that “[a] complete disregard of these realities may well interfere with the welfare of the country and ultimately with ‘public order and safety’ as understood in Article 43”. | E.H. Feilchenfeld, The International Economic Law of Belligerent Occupation (Washington, D.C., Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1942), 第49页，作者指出，在占领持续数年的情况下，有必要修改税法，并指出“完全无视这些现实很可能对国家福祉造成影响，并最终影响第43条含义所指的‘公共秩序和安全’”。 |
| Similarly, McDougal and Feliciano, Law and Minimum World Public Order … (footnote 1290 above), p. 746. | 与此相似，见McDougal and Feliciano, Law and Minimum World Public Order … (上文脚注1290)，第746页。 |
| See also ICRC, “Occupation and other forms of administration of foreign territory” (footnote 1279 above), p. 58, stressing the ability of the occupant to legislate to fulfil its obligations under Geneva Convention IV or to enhance civil life in the occupied territory. | 另见红十字国际委员会，“占领和以其他形式管理外国领土”(上文脚注1279)，第58页，其中强调了占领国为履行其根据《日内瓦第四公约》所承担的义务或改善被占领土境内公民生活而制定法律的能力。 |
| Sassòli, “Legislation and maintenance of public order…” (see footnote 1286 above), p. 676, nevertheless holds that the occupant should “introduce only as many changes as is absolutely necessary under its human rights obligations”. | 但是，Sassòli, “Legislation and maintenance of public order…” (见上文脚注1286)，第676页，认为占领国应“仅实行根据其人权义务规定绝对必要的那些改变”。 |
| See Jensen and Lonergan, “Natural resources and post-conflict assessment, remediation, restoration and reconstruction: lessons and emerging issues” (footnote 1065 above), p. 415. See also K. Conca and J. Wallace, “Environment and peacebuilding in war-torn societies: lessons from the UN Environment Programme’s experience with post-conflict assessment” in Assessing and Restoring Natural Resources in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding (footnote 1065 above), pp. 63–84. | See Jensen and Lonergan, “Natural resources and post-conflict assessment, remediation, restoration and reconstruction: lessons and emerging issues” (footnote 1065 above), p. 415. See also K. Conca and J. Wallace, “Environment and peacebuilding in war-torn societies: lessons from the UN Environment Programme’s experience with post-conflict assessment” in Assessing and Restoring Natural Resources in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding (footnote 1065 above), pp. 63–84. |
| See the Rio Declaration, principle 10: “Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. | 见《里约宣言》，原则10：“环境问题最好是在全体有关市民的参与下，在有关级别上加以处理。 |
| At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. | 在国家一级，每一个人都应能适当地获得公共当局所持有的关于环境的资料，包括关于在其社区内的危险物质和活动的资料，并应有机会参与各项决策进程。 |
| States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely available. | 各国应通过广泛提供资料来便利及鼓励公众的认识和参与。 |
| Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be provided. | 应让人人都能有效地使用司法和行政程序，包括补偿和补救程序”。 |
| ” See also Framework principles on human rights and the environment (A/HRC/37/59, annex), principle 9: “States should provide for and facilitate public participation in decision-making related to the environment and take the views of the public into account in the decision-making process. | 另见人权与环境框架原则(A/HRC/37/59，附件)，原则9：“各国应允许和便利公众参与环境相关决策，并在决策进程中考虑公众的意见”。 |
| ” See further Aarhus Convention. | 又见《奥胡斯公约》。 |
| Feilchenfeld, The International Economic Law of Belligerent Occupation (footnote 1323 above), p. 89. | Feilchenfeld, The International Economic Law of Belligerent Occupation (上文脚注1323)，第89页。 |
| See also Ferraro, “The law of occupation and human rights law …” (footnote 1291 above), pp. 273–293; | 另见Ferraro, “The law of occupation and human rights law …” (上文脚注1291)，第273-293页； |
| see similarly the Supreme Court of Israel: H.C. 351/80, The Jerusalem District Electricity Company Ltd. v. (a) Minister of Energy and Infrastructure, (b) Commander of the Judea and Samaria Region 35(23), Piskei Din 673, partly reprinted in Israel Yearbook on Human Rights (1981), pp. 354–358. | 同样见，以色列最高法院：H.C.351/80，耶路撒冷地区电力公司诉(a) 能源和基础设施部长，(b) 朱迪亚-撒马利亚区指挥官35 (23)，Piskei Din 673，部分转载于《以色列人权年鉴》(1981年)，第354-358页。 |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 64. | 《日内瓦第四公约》第六十四条。 |
| See Hague Regulations, art. 55: “The occupying State shall be regarded only as administrator and usufructuary of public buildings, real estate, forests, and agricultural estates belonging to the hostile State, and situated in the occupied country. | 见《海牙章程》第五十五条：“占领国对其占领地内属于敌国的公共建筑、不动产、森林和农庄，只是被视为管理者和收益的享用者。 |
| It must safeguard the capital of these properties, and administer them in accordance with the rules of usufruct.” | 占领国必须维护这些产业并按照享用收益的规章加以管理”。 |
| J. Stone, Legal Controls of International Conflict: A Treatise on the Dynamics of Disputes- and War-Law (London, Stevens and Sons Limited, 1954), p. 714. | J. Stone, Legal Controls of International Conflict: A Treatise on the Dynamics of Disputes- and War-Law (London, Stevens and Sons Limited, 1954), p. 714. |
| See also G. von Glahn, The Occupation of Enemy Territory: A Commentary on the Law and Practice of Belligerent Occupation (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1957), p. 177, who emphasizes that the Occupying Power “is not permitted to exploit immovable property beyond normal use, and may not cut more timber than was done in pre-occupation days” and | 另见G. von Glahn, The Occupation of Enemy Territory: A Commentary on the Law and Practice of Belligerent Occupation (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1957), 第177页，作者强调，占领方“不得在超过正常使用范围的情况下利用不动产，而且木材不能比占领前砍伐得更多”； |
| L. Oppenheim, International Law: A Treatise, vol. II, War and Neutrality, 2nd ed. (London, Longmans, Green and Co., 1912), p. 175, pointing out that the Occupying Power “is … prohibited from exercising his right in a wasteful or negligent way that would decrease the value of the stock and plant” and “must not cut down a whole forest unless the necessities of war compel him”. | L. Oppenheim, International Law: A Treatise, vol. II, War and Neutrality, 2nd ed. (London, Longmans, Green and Co., 1912), 第175页指出，占领方“不得以浪费或疏忽方式行使其权利，这会降低存量和植物的价值”，并且“除非战争需要所迫，不得砍伐整个森林”。 |
| Singapore, Court of Appeal, N.V. de Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Others v. The War Damage Commission, 13 April 1956, Reports: 1956 Singapore Law Reports, p. 65; | 新加坡，上诉法院，N.V. de Bataafsche Petroleum和他人诉战争损害赔偿委员会，1956年4月13日，《报告：1956年新加坡法律报告》，第65页； |
| reprint in International Law Reports, vol. 23 (1960), pp. 810–849, p. 822 (Singapore Oil Stocks case); | 转载于《国际法报告》，第23卷(1960年)，第810-849页，见第822页(新加坡石油储备案)； |
| In re Krupp and Others, Judgment of 30 June 1948, Trials of War Criminals before the Nürnberg Military Tribunals, vol. IX, p. 1340. | Krupp等人案，1948年6月30日的判决，《纽伦堡军事法庭对主要战争罪犯的审判》，第九卷，第1340页。 |
| The United States of America and Others v. Goering and Others, Judgment of 1 October 1946, in Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal, vol. I (Nuremberg, 1947), p. 239. | 美利坚合众国和其他人诉Goering等人案，1946年10月1日的判决，《国际军事法庭对主要战争罪犯的审判》，第一卷(1947年，纽伦堡)，第239页。 |
| As summarized by the Institute of International Law, “the occupying power can only dispose of the resources of the occupied territory to the extent necessary for the current administration of the territory and to meet the essential needs of the population”. | 正如国际法学会总结的那样，“占领国只能在当前领土管理和满足人们基本需要所需的范围内处置被占领土的资源”。 |
| See Institute of International Law, Yearbook, vol. 70, Part II, Session of Bruges (2003), pp. 285 et seq.; | 国际法学会，《年鉴》，第70卷，第二部分，布鲁日会议(2003年)，第285页起； |
| available from www.idi-iil.org, Declarations, at p. 288. | 可查阅www.idi-iil.org, Declarations, 第288页。 |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 4. | 《日内瓦第四公约》，第四条。 |
| See also ICRC commentary (1958) to Geneva Convention IV, art. 4, p. 45, according to which there are two main classes of civilians whose “protection against arbitrary action on the part of the enemy was essential in time of war – on the one hand, persons of enemy nationality living in the territory of a belligerent State, and on the other, the inhabitants of occupied territories.” | 另见红十字国际委员会关于《日内瓦第四公约》的评注(1958年) ，第四条，第45页，其中指出，有两大类平民，“在战争时期，保护他们免受敌人任意行动的伤害至关重要――一类是居住在交战国领土上的敌国国民，另一类是被占领土上的居民”。 |
| Art. 23 (g) and art. 53 of the Hague Regulations, and art. 53 of Geneva Convention IV. | 《海牙章程》第二十三条第(七)项和第五十三条以及《日内瓦第四公约》第五十三条。 |
| See draft principle 18 and the commentary thereto above. | 见上文原则草案18及其评注。 |
| Rome Statute, art. 8, para. 2 (a) (iv) and (b) (xiii). | 《罗马规约》，第八条第(二)款第1项(4)目和第2项(13)目。 |
| International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 1, para. 2; | 《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》第一条第2款； |
| International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 1, para. 2. | 和《经济、社会及文化权利国际公约》第一条第二款； |
| See also General Assembly resolutions 1803 (XVII) of 14 December 1962; 3201 (S-VI) of 1 May 1974 (Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order); 3281 (XXIX) of 12 December 1974 (Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States). | 另见联大1962年12月14日第1803(XVII)号、1974年5月1日第3201(S.VI)号(建立新的国际经济秩序宣言)和1974年12月12日第3281(XXIX)号决议(各国经济权利和义务宪章)。 |
| Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (footnote 1241 above), at p. 251, para. 244. | 刚果境内的武装活动(见上文脚注1241)，第251页，第244段。 |
| In the Wall Advisory Opinion, the International Court of Justice stated that the construction of the wall, as well as other measures by the occupying State, “severely impedes the exercise by the Palestinian people of its right to self-determination”: Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall (see footnote 1274 above), at p. 184, para. 122. | 国际法院在对在隔离墙案咨询意见中指出，修建隔离墙以及占领国采取的其他措施“严重妨碍巴勒斯坦人民行使自决权”。 修建隔离墙的法律后果(见上文脚注1274)，第184页，第122段。 |
| The right to self-determination was also referred to in the Namibia, Advisory Opinion (see footnote 1322 above), p. 31, paras. 52–53, in Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1975, p. 12, at pp. 32–33, paras. 56–59, as well as in the East Timor case, in which the Court affirmed the erga omnes nature of the principle, see East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 90, at p. 102, para. 29. | 国际法院在关于纳米比亚案咨询意见(见上文脚注1322)第31页第52-53段、西撒哈拉咨询意见(《1975年国际法院案例汇编》，第12页起，见第32-33页，第56-59段)和东帝汶案中也提及自决权，法院在东帝汶案中确认了这项原则的普遍适用性，见东帝汶(葡萄牙诉澳大利亚)，判决，《1995年国际法院案例汇编》，第90页，见第102页，第29段。 |
| Feilchenfeld, The International Economic Law of Belligerent Occupation (see footnote 1323 above), p. 55. See also Oppenheim, International Law … (footnote 1329 above), p. 175, and Von Glahn, The Occupation of Enemy Territory … (footnote 1329 above), p. 177. Similarly, United Kingdom, Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict … (footnote 1222 above), p. 303, para. 11.86. | Feilchenfeld, The International Economic Law of Belligerent Occupation (see footnote 1323 above), p. 55. See also Oppenheim, International Law … (footnote 1329 above), p. 175, and Von Glahn, The Occupation of Enemy Territory … (footnote 1329 above), p. 177. 同样见，联合王国国防部，《武装冲突法手册》(上文脚注1222)，第303页，第11.86段。 |
| Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros (see footnote 1292 above), pp. 67–68, para. 112. | 加布奇科沃－大毛罗斯案(见上文脚注1292)，第67-68页，第112段。 |
| See also p. 78, para. 140, in which the Court rules that, whenever necessary for the application of a treaty, “new norms have to be taken into consideration, and … new standards given proper weight. | 另见第78页第140段，在该案中，法院判决，在适用条约时，只要有必要，“必须考虑到这些新规范，并给予新标准适当的重视”。 |
| ” Further, see Permanent Court of Arbitration, Award in the Arbitration regarding the Iron Rhine (footnote 1300 above), in which the Court applied concepts of customary international environmental law to treaties dating back to the mid-nineteenth century. | 此外，见常设仲裁法院，莱茵铁路仲裁裁决(上文脚注1300)，其中法院将习惯国际环境法概念适用于十九世纪中叶的条约。 |
| Indus Waters Kishenganga (see footnote 1300 above), para. 452, in which the Court held that: “It is established that principles of international environmental law must be taken into account even when … interpreting treaties concluded before the development of that body of law … It is therefore incumbent upon this Court to interpret and apply this 1960 Treaty in light of the customary international principles for the protection of the environment in force today”. | 印度河基申甘加工程(见上文脚注1300)，第452段，其中法院指出，“已经确定，即使在…解释国际环境法制定之前缔结的条约时…也必须考虑到该法的原则…因此，本法院有责任结合现在生效的保护环境的习惯国际原则解释和适用这项1960年的条约”。 |
| Furthermore, the International Law Association has suggested that treaties and rules of customary international law should be interpreted in the light of the principles of sustainable development unless doing so would conflict with a clear treaty provision or be otherwise inappropriate: “[I]nterpretations which might seem to undermine the goal of sustainable development should only take precedence where to do otherwise would be to undermine … fundamental aspects of the global legal order, would otherwise infringe the express wording of a treaty or would breach a rule of jus cogens. | 此外，国际法协会建议，应根据可持续发展原则解释条约和习惯国际法规则，除非这样做会与条约的某项明确规定冲突，或者在其他方面不适当：“可能看起来破坏…可持续发展目标的解释应仅在作出其他解释会损害全球法律秩序的基本方面、违背某项公约的确切措词或违反强行法规则的情况下才会优先”。 |
| ” See International Law Association, Committee on International Law on Sustainable Development, Resolution No. 7 (2012), annex (Sofia Guiding Statement), para. 2. | 见国际法协会，可持续发展问题国际法委员会，第7(2012)号决议，附件(《索非亚指导声明》)，第2段。 |
| The Law of War on Land Being Part III of the Manual of Military Law (Great Britain, War Office, 1958), sect. 610. | 《军事法手册第三部分陆战法》(大不列颠，陆军部，1958年)，第610节。 |
| Similarly, United Kingdom, Ministry of Defence, The Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict … (footnote 1222 above), p. 303, para. 11.86. | 同样见，联合王国国防部，《武装冲突法手册》(上文脚注1222), 第303页，第11.86段。 |
| Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons (see footnote 1162 above), pp. 241–242, para. 29. | 以核武器进行威胁或使用核武器的合法性(见上文脚注1162)，第241-242页，第29段。 |
| The principle is also contained in contained in principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration and principle 2 of the Rio Declaration: see Stockholm Declaration, principle 21: “States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law … the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. | 《斯德哥尔摩宣言》原则二十一和《里约宣言》原则2也载有该原则：见《斯德哥尔摩宣言》原则二十一：“依照联合国宪章和国际法原则，各国…同时亦负有责任，确保在它管辖或控制范围内的话动，不致对其他国家的环境或其本国管辖范围以外地区的环境引起损害”。 |
| ” See furthermore Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (footnote 1172 above), p. 206, as well as U. Beyerlin, “Different types of norms in international environmental law: policies, principles and rules”, in D. Bodansky, J. Brunnée and E. Hey (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental Law (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 425–448, p. 439. | 另见Sands,《国际环境法原则》(上文脚注1172)，第206页，以及 U. Beyerlin, “Different types of norms in international environmental law: policies, principles and rules”, in D. Bodansky, J. Brunnée and E. Hey (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental Law (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 425–448, p. 439. |
| Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses (New York, 21 May 1997), text available from https://treaties.un.org (Status of Multilateral Treaties Deposited with the Secretary-General, chap. XXVII), art.7; | 《国际水道非航行使用法公约》(1997年5月21日，纽约)，案文可查阅https://treaties.un.org(交存秘书长的多边条约状况，第二十七章)，第7条； |
| Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Helsinki, 17 March 1992), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1936, No. 33207, p. 269, art. 2; | 《跨界水道和国际湖泊保护和利用公约》(1992年3月17日，赫尔辛基)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1936卷，第33207号，第269页，第2条； |
| United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay, 10 December 1982), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1833, p. 397, art. 194, para. 2. | 《联合国海洋法公约》(1982年12月10日，蒙特哥湾)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1833卷，第397页，第一九四条第2款。 |
| See, e.g., Convention on the Protection of the Rhine (1999), Agreement on the Action Plan for the Environmentally Sound Management of the Common Zambezi River System (1987); Agreement on Co-operation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin (1995), all available at www.ecolex.org; | 例如，见《保护莱茵河公约》(1999年)、《关于共有赞比西河系环境友好型管理的行动计划协定》(1987年)以及《湄公河流域可持续发展合作协定》(1995年)，均可查阅www.ecolex.org； |
| Revised Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (United States, Canada, 2012), available at https://ijc.org. | 经修订的《大湖水质协定》(2012年，美国、加拿大)，可查阅https://ijc.org。 |
| Several of the cases in which the International Court of Justice has clarified environmental obligations have been related to the use and protection of water resources such as wetlands or river; e.g., the Construction of a Road (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) and Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015, p. 665) and Pulp Mills (Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010, p. 14) cases, as well as the case of Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros (see footnote 1292 above). | 国际法院澄清环境义务的数个案件与利用和保护湿地、河流等水资源有关； 如修建道路案(尼加拉瓜在边界地区开展的某些活动(哥斯达黎加诉尼加拉瓜)和哥斯达黎加沿圣胡安河修建道路(尼加拉瓜诉哥斯达黎加)，判决，《2015年国际法院案例汇编》，第665页)； 纸浆厂案(乌拉圭河纸浆厂(阿根廷诉乌拉圭)，判决，《2010年国际法院案例汇编》，第14页)以及加布奇科沃－大毛罗斯案(见上文脚注1292)。 |
| See also Indus Waters Kishenganga (see footnote 1300 above), paras. 449–450. | 另见印度河基申甘加工程仲裁(见上文脚注1300)，第449-450段。 |
| Regional jurisprudence is widely available at www.ecolex.org. | 各种区域判例可查阅www.ecolex.org。 |
| Art. 3 of the articles on prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 97–98, at p. 146: “The State of origin shall take all appropriate measures to prevent significant transboundary harm or at any event to minimize the risk thereof”. | 关于预防危险活动所致跨界损害的条款，第3条，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第97-98段，见第146页：“起源国应采取一切适当措施，以预防重大的跨界损害或随时尽量减少这种危险”。 |
| Para. (8) of the commentary to art. 3, ibid., at p. 154. | 第3条评注第(8)段，同上，第154页。 |
| Namibia, Advisory Opinion (see footnote 1322 above), p. 54, para. 118. | 纳米比亚案，咨询意见(见上文脚注1322)，第54页，第118段。 |
| Pulp Mills (see footnote 1347 above), pp. 55–56, para. 101. | 纸浆厂案(见上文脚注1347)，第55-56页，第101段。 |
| See footnote 1347 above. | 见上文脚注1347。 |
| Para. (10) of the commentary to art. 2 (use of terms) of the articles on prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 97–98, at p. 153. | 关于预防危险活动所致跨界损害的条款，第2条(用语)评注第(10)段，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第97-98段，见第153页。 |
| Para. (12) of the commentary to art. 1, ibid., at p. 151. | 第1条评注第(12)段，同上，第151页。 |
| See, for instance, K. Hulme, War Torn Environment: Interpreting the Legal Threshold (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2004), p. 68, pointing out that in case of environmental harm, it is common to use the standard of “significant” damage. | 例如见 K. Hulme, War Torn Environment: Interpreting the Legal Threshold (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2004), 第68页，其中指出，在环境损害的情况下，通常使用“重大”损害标准。 |
| See similarly T. Koivurova, “Due diligence”, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, p. 241, para. 23. | 同样见，T. Koivurova, “Due diligence”, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, 第241页, 第23段。 |
| Available from www.mpepil.com. | 可查阅 www.mpepil.com。 |
| Second report of the International Law Association, Study Group on Due Diligence in International Law, July 2016, p. 8. | 国际法协会国际法应尽职责问题研究小组第二次报告，2016年7月，第8页。 |
| See para. (5) of the commentary to para. 2 of draft principle 20 above. | 见上文原则草案20评注关于原则草案20第2段的第(5)段。 |
| “[T]ransitional justice … comprises the full range of processes and mechanisms associated with a society’s attempts to come to terms with a legacy of large-scale past abuses, in order to ensure accountability, serve justice and achieve reconciliation. | “过渡期司法…包含与一个社会为抚平过去的大规模虐害行为所遗留的伤痛，确保究问责任、声张正义、实现和解而进行的努力的所有相关进程和机制。 |
| These may include both judicial and non-judicial mechanisms, with differing levels of international involvement (or none at all) and individual prosecutions, reparations, truth-seeking, institutional reform, vetting and dismissals, or a combination thereof”, Report of the Secretary-General on “The rule of law and transitional justice in conflict and post-conflict societies” (S/2004/616), para. 8; | 这些进程和机制可以包括国际社会参与程度各有不同(或根本不参与)的司法和非司法机制、起诉个人、补偿、真相调查、制度改革、审查和革职办法，或其中任何一些的组合”。 秘书长关于“冲突中和冲突后社会的法治和过渡期司法”的报告(S/2004/616)，第8段； |
| numerous countries affected by post-conflict crises have adopted transitional justice mechanisms to enhance their environmental protection and restoration, some under assistance of the United Nations Environment Programme: see, for instance, United Nations Environment Programme, “Reporting on the state of the environment in Afghanistan: workshop report” (2019); | 许多受冲突后危机影响的国家采用了过渡期司法机制，以加强环境保护和恢复，有些国家得到了联合国环境规划署的援助：例如见联合国环境规划署，“阿富汗环境状况报告：研讨会报告”(2019年)； |
| United Nations Environment Programme, South Sudan: First State of the Environment and Outlook Report 2018 (Nairobi, 2018); | 联合国环境规划署，《南苏丹：2018年第一份环境状况和展望报告》(2018年，内罗毕)； |
| A. Salazar et al., “The ecology of peace: preparing Colombia for new political and planetary climates”, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment (September 2018), available at http://www.researchgate.net/publication/327605932_ The_ecology_of_peace_preparing_Colombia_for_new_political_and_planetary_climates/download (accessed on 8 July 2019); | A. Salazar et al., “The ecology of peace: preparing Colombia for new political and planetary climates”, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment (September 2018), available at www.researchgate.net/publication/327605932_ The_ecology_of_peace_preparing_Colombia_for_new_political_and_planetary_climates/download (accessed on 8 July 2019); |
| United Nations Environment Programme, “Addressing the role of natural resources in conflict and peacebuilding” (Nairobi, 2015); | 联合国环境规划署，“处理自然资源在冲突和建设和平中的作用”(2015年，内罗毕)； |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Rwanda: From Post-Conflict to Environmentally Sustainable Development (footnote 1060 above); | 联合国环境规划署，《卢旺达：从冲突后到环境可持续发展》(上文脚注1060)； |
| United Nations Environment Programme, “Sierra Leone: environment, conflict and peacebuilding assessment” (Geneva, 2010); | 联合国环境规划署，“塞拉利昂：环境、冲突与建设和平评估”(2010年，日内瓦)； |
| Cambodia, Ministry of Environment, “Cambodia environment outlook” (2009); | 柬埔寨环境部，“柬埔寨环境展望”(2009年)； |
| Sierra Leone, An Agenda for Change (2008); | 塞拉利昂，《改革议程》(2008年)； |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Environmental assessment of the Gaza Strip following the escalation of hostilities in December 2008–January 2009 (Nairobi, 2009). | 联合国环境规划署，《2008年12月至2009年1月敌对行动升级后加沙地带的环境评估》(2009年，内罗毕)。 |
| The United Nations peace agreements database, a “reference tool providing peacemaking professionals with close to 800 documents that can be understood broadly as peace agreements and related material”, contains a huge variety of documents, such as “formal peace agreements and sub-agreements, as well as more informal agreements and documents such as declarations, communiqués, joint public statements resulting from informal talks, agreed accounts of meetings between parties, exchanges of letters and key outcome documents of some international or regional conferences … The database also contains selected legislation, acts and decrees that constitute an agreement between parties and/or were the outcome of peace negotiations”. | 联合国和平协议数据库是一个“参考工具，为建立和平专业人员提供近800份可广泛理解为和平协定和相关材料的文件”，其中包含各种文件，如“正式和平协议和子协议，以及更加非正式的协议和文件，例如声明、公报、非正式会谈产生的联合公开声明、各方会议的商定报告、换文和一些国际或区域会议的主要成果文件…该数据库还包含构成各方之间协议和/或和平谈判结果的部分立法、法律和法令”。 |
| Selected resolutions of the Security Council are also included. | 还包括安全理事会的部分决议。 |
| The database is available at http://peacemaker.un.org/document-search. | 该数据库可查阅http://peacemaker.un.org/document-search。 |
| For example, the intensity and duration of the conflict as well as the weapons used can all influence how much environmental damage is caused in a particular armed conflict. | 例如，冲突的强度和持续时间以及使用的武器都可能影响到某一特定武装冲突会造成多大的环境损害。 |
| Well-known examples of environmental damage caused in armed conflict is the damage caused by the United States Armed Forces’ use of Agent Orange in the Viet Nam War and the burning of Kuwaiti oil wells by Iraqi troops in the Gulf War, which are well documented. | 在武装冲突中造成环境损害的著名例子包括美国武装部队在越南战争中使用橙剂造成的损害以及伊拉克军队在海湾战争中烧毁科威特油井的事件，这些都有详细记录。 |
| Instances of environmental damage, which range in severity, have also been documented in other armed conflicts, such as the conflicts in Colombia, as well as in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Iraq and Syria. | 其他武装冲突，如哥伦比亚、刚果民主共和国、伊拉克和叙利亚的冲突也记录了对环境造成的不同程度的损害。 |
| See United Nations Environment Programme Colombia, “UN Environment will support environmental recovery and peacebuilding for post-conflict development in Colombia”, available at www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/un-environment-will-support-environmental-recovery-and-peacebuilding-post (accessed on 8 July 2019); | 见联合国环境规划署驻哥伦比亚办事处，可查阅 www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/un-environment-will-support-environmental-recovery-and-peacebuilding-post (2019年7月8日访问)； |
| United Nations Environment Programme, “Post-conflict environmental assessment of the Democratic Republic of the Congo”, available at https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_DRC_PCEA_EN.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019); | 联合国环境规划署，“刚果民主共和国冲突后环境评估”，可查阅 https:// postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_DRC_PCEA_EN.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)； |
| United Nations Environment Programme, “Post-conflict environmental assessment, clean-up and reconstruction in Iraq”, available at https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/17462/UNEP_Iraq.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed on 8 July 2019); | 联合国环境规划署，“伊拉克冲突后环境评估、清理和重建”，可查阅https://wedocs.unep.org/ bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/17462/UNEP_Iraq.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (2019年7月8日访问)； |
| “Lebanon Environmental Assessment of the Syrian Conflict” (supported by UNDP and EU), available at www.undp.org/content/dam/lebanon/docs/Energy%20and%20Environment/Publications/EASC-WEB.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | “叙利亚冲突下的黎巴嫩环境评估”(由开发署和欧盟提供支持)，可查阅www. undp.org/content/dam/lebanon/docs/Energy%20and%20Environment/Publications/EASC-WEB.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See also International Law and Policy Institute, “Protection of the natural environment in armed conflict: an empirical study” (Oslo, 2014), pp. 34–40. | 另见国际法和政策研究所，“武装冲突中的自然环境保护：一项实证研究”(奥斯陆，2014年)，第34-40页。 |
| See C. Bell, “Women and peace processes, negotiations, and agreements: operational opportunities and challenges”, Norwegian Peacebuilding Resource Centre, Policy Brief, March 2013, available at http://noref.no under “Publications”, p. 1. | See C. Bell, “Women and peace processes, negotiations, and agreements: operational opportunities and challenges”, Norwegian Peacebuilding Resource Centre, Policy Brief, March 2013, available at http://noref.no under “Publications”, p. 1. |
| Such instruments are predominantly concluded in non-international armed conflicts, between a State and a non-State actor and include the following: Final Agreement to End the Armed Conflict and Build a Stable and Lasting Peace between the National Government of Colombia and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia – People’s Army (FARC-EP), (Bogotá, 24 November 2016), available at http://www.altocomisionadoparalapaz.gov.co/procesos-y-conversaciones/Documentos%20compartidos/24-11-2016NuevoAcuerdoFinal.pdf (in Spanish) and at http://especiales.presidencia.gov.co/Documents/20170620-dejacion-armas/acuerdos/acuerdo-final-ingles.pdf (in English) (accessed on 5 August, 2019); | 这些文书主要是在非国际性武装冲突中、在国家和非国家行为体之间订立的，其中包括：哥伦比亚国家政府与哥伦比亚革命武装力量－人民军《关于结束武装冲突和建立稳定持久和平的最后协定》(2016年11月24日，波哥大)，可查阅http://www.altocomisionadoparalapaz.gov.co/procesos-y-conversaciones/Documentos%20compartidos/24-11-2016NuevoAcuerdoFinal.pdf (西班牙文本)和http://especiales.presidencia.gov.co/Documents/20170620-dejacion-armas/acuerdos/acuerdo-final-ingles.pdf (英文本) (2019年8月5日访问)； |
| Agreement on Comprehensive Solutions between the Government of the Republic of Uganda and Lord’s Resistance Army/Movement (Juba, 2 May 2007), available from https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/UG_070502_AgreementComprehensiveSolutions.pdf (accessed on 5 August 2019), para. 14.6; | 乌干达共和国政府与上帝抵抗军/运动签署的《全面解决办法协定》(2007年5月2日，朱巴)，可查阅https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/UG_070502_AgreementComprehensiveSolutions.pdf (2019年8月5日访问)，第14.6款； |
| Darfur Peace Agreement (Abuja, 5 May 2006), available from http://peacemaker.un.org/node/535 (accessed on 5 August 2019), chap. 2, at p. 21, art. 17, para. 107 (g) and (h), and at p. 30, art. 20; | 《达尔富尔和平协定》(2006年5月5日，阿布贾)，可查阅http://peacemaker.un.org/node/535 (2019年8月5日访问)，第2章，第21页，第17条，第107(g)和(h)款以及第30页，第20条； |
| Final Act of the Inter-Congolese Political Negotiations (Sun City, 2 April 2003), available from http://peacemaker.un.org/drc-suncity-agreement2003 (accessed on 5 August 2019), resolution No. DIC/CEF/03, pp. 40–41, and resolution No. DIC/CHSC/03, pp. 62–65; | 《刚果人政治谈判最后文件》(2003年4月2日，太阳城)，可查阅http://peacemaker.un.org/drc-suncity-agreement2003 (2019年8月5日访问), DIC/CEF/03号决议第40-41页和第DIC/CHSC/03号决议第62-65页； |
| Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the Government of the Republic of the Sudan and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Sudan People’s Liberation Army (Machakos, 20 July 2002), available from http://peacemaker.un.org/node/1369 (accessed on 5 August 2019), chap. V, p. 71 and chap. III, p. 45, which set out as guiding principles that “the best known practices in the sustainable utilization and control of natural resources shall be followed” (para. 1.10) – further regulations further regulations on oil resources are found in paras. 3.1.1 and 4; | 苏丹共和国政府与苏丹人民解放运动/苏丹人民解放军签署的《全面和平协定》(2002年7月20日，马查科斯)，可查阅http://peacemaker.un.org/node/1369 (2019年8月5日访问)，第五章，第71页和第三章，第45页，其中规定的指导原则是：“应遵循可持续利用和管理自然资源方面的最著名做法”(第1.10段) ――有关石油资源的进一步规定见第3.1.1段和第4段； |
| Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement for Burundi (Arusha, 28 August 2000), available from http://peacemaker.un.org/node/1207 (accessed on 5 August 2019), Additional Protocol III, at p. 62, art. 12, para. 3 (e), and Additional Protocol IV, at p. 81, art. 8 (h); | 《阿鲁沙布隆迪和平与和解协定》(2000年8月28日，阿鲁沙)，可查阅http://peacemaker.un.org/node/1207 (2019年8月5日访问)，第三议定书，第62页，第12条第3(e)款和第四议定书，第81页，第8(h)条； |
| Peace Agreement between the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone (Lomé, 7 July 1999), available from https://peacemaker.un.org/sierraleone-lome-agreement99 (accessed on 5 August 2019), S/1999/777, annex, art. VII; | 《塞拉利昂政府和塞拉利昂革命联合阵线和平协定》(1999年7月7日，洛美)，可查阅https://peacemaker.un.org/sierraleone-lome-agreement99 (2019年8月5日访问)，S/1999/777, 附件，第七条； |
| Interim Agreement for Peace and Self-Government in Kosovo (Rambouillet Accords) (Paris, 18 March 1999), S/1999/648, annex; | 《科索沃和平与自治临时协定》(《朗布依埃协定》)，(1999年3月18日，巴黎)，S/1999/648, 附件； |
| Peace Agreement between the Government of El Salvador and the Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional (Chapultepec Agreement) (Mexico City, 16 January 1992), A/46/864, annex, chap. II. | 《萨尔瓦多政府和法拉本多·马蒂民族解放阵线之间的和平协定》(《查普尔特佩克协定》)(1992年1月16日，墨西哥城)，A/46/864, 附件，第二章。 |
| Chapultepec Agreement, chap. II. | 《查普尔特佩克协定》，第二章。 |
| Further regulations are found in art. 13 contained in annex II to the Peace Agreement; | 进一步的规定见《和平协定》附件二所载的第13条； |
| they prescribe that it is the role of the Environment Division of the National Civil Police to “be responsible for preventing and combating crimes and misdemeanours against the environment”. | 其中规定，国家民警局环境司应“负责防止和打击破坏环境的犯罪和过失行为”。 |
| The Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement for Burundi, Protocol III, at p. 62, art. 12, para. 3 (e), and at p. 81, art. 8 (h), contains several references to the protection of the environment, one of which prescribes that one of the missions of the intelligence services is “[t]o detect as early as possible any threat to the country’s ecological environment”. | 《阿鲁沙布隆迪和平与和解协定》，第三议定书，第62页，第12条第3(e)款和第81页，第8(h)条，有几处提到保护环境，其中一条规定情报部门的任务之一是“尽早发现任何威胁国家生态环境的因素”。 |
| Furthermore, it states that “[t]he policy of distribution or allocation of new lands shall take account of the need for environmental protection and management of the country’s water system through protection of forests”. | 此外，该协定指出，“分配或划拨新土地的政策应考虑到需要通过保护森林来保护环境和管理国家水系”。 |
| The United Nations has acted as a facilitator in numerous armed conflicts, inter alia the armed conflicts in Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Libya and Mozambique. | 联合国在许多武装冲突，特别是安哥拉、刚果民主共和国、利比亚和莫桑比克的武装冲突中担任调解人。 |
| Regional organizations have also played a facilitating role in the peace processes across the world. | 区域组织也在全世界的和平进程中发挥了促进作用。 |
| For example, the African Union has been involved in aspects of the peace processes in, inter alia, Comoros, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia and Somalia. | 例如，非洲联盟参与了和平进程的各个方面，尤其是在科摩罗、科特迪瓦、几内亚比绍、利比里亚和索马里。 |
| See Chatham House, Africa Programme, “The African Union’s role in promoting peace, security and stability: from reaction to prevention?”, meeting summary, available from www.chathamhouse.org, p. 3. | 见Chatham House, Africa Programme, “The African Union’s role in promoting peace, security and stability: from reaction to prevention?” , 会议纪要，可查阅 www.chathamhouse.org, 第3页。 |
| The Organization of American States was involved in the peace process in, inter alia, the Plurinational State of Bolivia and Colombia. | 美洲国家组织参与了多民族玻利维亚国和哥伦比亚等国的和平进程。 |
| See P.J. Meyer, “Organization of American States: background and issues for Congress” (Congressional Research Service, 2014), available at www.fas.org, p. 8. | 见P.J. Meyer, “Organization of American States: background and issues for Congress” (Congressional Research Service, 2014) , 可查阅 www.fas.org, 第8页。 |
| See also African Union and Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Managing Peace Processes: Towards more inclusive processes, vol. 3 (2013), p. 106. The European Union has been involved in the peace processes in armed conflicts in, inter alia, the Middle East and Northern Ireland. | 另见非洲联盟和人道主义对话中心，Managing Peace Processes: Towards more inclusive processes, vol. 3 (2013), p. 106. 欧洲联盟除其他外参与了中东和北爱尔兰武装冲突的和平进程。 |
| See also Switzerland, Federal Department of International Affairs, “Mediation and facilitation in today’s peace processes: centrality of commitment, coordination and context”, presentation by Thomas Greminger, a retreat of the International Organization of la Francophonie, 15–17 February 2007, available from www.swisspeace.ch, under “Publications”. | 另见瑞士联邦外交事务部， “Mediation and facilitation in today’s peace processes: centrality of commitment, coordination and context”, Thomas Greminger, 的发言，法语国家国际组织务虚会，2007年2月15至17日, 可查阅www.swisspeace.ch的“Publications”部分。 |
| Cf. e.g. UNHCR, Policy on the Protection of Personal Data of Persons of Concern to UNHCR (2015), available at www.refworld.org/pdfid/55643c1d4.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 例如参见难民署，《保护难民署关注对象个人资料的政策》(2015年)，可查阅www.refworld. org/pdfid/55643c1d4.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Additional Protocol I, art. 33; | 《第一附加议定书》第三十三条； |
| Geneva Convention I, art. 16; | 《日内瓦第一公约》第十六条； |
| Geneva Convention II, arts. 19 and 42; | 《日内瓦第二公约》第十九和第四十二条； |
| Geneva Convention III, art. 23; | 《日内瓦第三公约》第二十三条； |
| Geneva Convention IV, art. 137. | 《日内瓦第四公约》第一百三十七条。 |
| See Aarhus Convention, art. 4, para. 4 (b); | 见《奥胡斯公约》第四条第4款(b)项； |
| Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (Paris, 22 September 1992), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2354, No. 42279, p. 67, art. 9, para. 3 (g). | 《保护东北大西洋海洋环境公约》(1992年9月22日，巴黎)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2354卷，第42279号，第67页，第9条第3款(g)项。 |
| See also the Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (Escazú Agreement), article 5, paragraph 6 (b). | 另见《拉丁美洲和加勒比地区关于在环境事务方面获取信息、公众参与和诉诸司法的区域协定》(《埃斯卡苏协定》)，第5条第6 (b)款。 |
| General Assembly resolution 217 (III) A of 10 December 1948. | 联大1948年12月10日第217 (III) A号决议。 |
| New York, 16 December 1966, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 993, No. 14531, p. 3. | 1966年12月16日，纽约，联合国，《条约汇编》，第993卷，第14531号，第3页。 |
| Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on article 19 (freedoms of opinion and expression), Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 40, vol. I (A/66/40 (Vol. I), annex V, para. 18. | 人权事务委员会关于第十九条(见解自由和言论自由)的第34号一般性意见(2011年)，《大会正式记录，第六十六届会议，补编第40号》，第一卷(A/66/40 (Vol. I)，附件五，第18段。 |
| Guerra and Others v. Italy, 19 February 1998, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1998-I. | Guerra等人诉意大利案，1998年2月19日，《判决和决定汇编》1998年第一辑。 |
| Directive 2003/4/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on public access to environmental information; | 欧洲议会和欧洲委员会关于公众获取环境信息的第2003/4/EC号指令； |
| Office of Communications v. Information Commissioner, case C-71/10, judgment of 28 July 2011. | 通信办公室诉信息专员案，C-71/10号案件，2011年7月28日的判决。 |
| Case of Claude-Reyes et al. v. Chile, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Judgement of 19 September 2006 (merits, reparations and costs), Series C, No. 151 (2006). | Claude-Reyes等人诉智利案，美洲人权法院，2006年9月19日的判决(实质问题、赔偿和费用)，C辑，第151 (2006)号。 |
| General Assembly resolution 70/1 of 25 September 2015. | 联大2015年9月25日第70/1号决议。 |
| Aarhus Convention, art. 2. | 《奥胡斯公约》，第二条。 |
| United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (New York, 9 May 1992), ibid., vol. 1771, No. 30882, p. 107. | 《联合国气候变化框架公约》(1992年5月9日，纽约)，同上，第1771卷，第30882号，第107页。 |
| Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity, art. 23. | 《生物多样性公约卡塔赫纳生物安全议定书》，第23条。 |
| Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, art. 15. | 《关于在国际贸易中对某些危险化学品和农药采用事先知情同意程序的鹿特丹公约》，第15条。 |
| Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, art. 10. | 《关于持久性有机污染物的斯德哥尔摩公约》，第10条。 |
| Text available from https://treaties.un.org (Status of Multilateral Treaties Deposited with the Secretary-General, chap. XXVII.17). | 案文可查阅https://treaties.un.org (交存秘书长的多边条约状况，第二十七章，17号)。 |
| Report of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change on its twenty-first session, held in Paris from 30 November to 13 December 2015, addendum: decisions adopted by the Conference of the Parties (FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1), decision 1/CP.21, annex. | 《2015年11月30日至12月13日在巴黎举行的〈联合国气候变化框架公约〉，缔约方会议第二十一届会议报告增编：缔约方会议通过的决定》(FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1)，第1/CP.21号决定，附件。 |
| United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in Africa (Paris, 14 October 1994), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1954, No. 33480, p. 3, art. 16, also art. 19. | 《联合国关于在发生严重干旱和/或荒漠化的国家特别是在非洲防治荒漠化的公约》(1994年10月14日在巴黎开放供签署)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1954卷，第33480号，第3页，第16条，另见第19条。 |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Guidelines for the development of national legislation on access to information, public participation and access to justice in environmental matters, adopted by the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme in decision SS.XI/5, part A, of 26 February 2010. | 联合国环境规划署，联合国环境规划署理事会在2010年2月26日SS.XI/5号决定A部分通过的《关于为在环境问题上获得信息、公众参与和诉诸法律而制定国家立法的准则》。 |
| Available from www.unep.org, under “Resources”. | 可查阅www.unep.org的“资源”部分。 |
| Art. 4, para. 6 (h). | 第四条第六款第(八)项。 |
| Art. 7 (transparency measures), para. 1 (e). | 第七条(透明度措施)，第一款第(五)项。 |
| Art. 5. | 第五条。 |
| IMAS 10.70, 1 October 2007, “Safety and occupational health, protection of the environment”, para. 12.1 (a). | 《国际地雷行动标准》第10.70条，2007年10月1日，《安全和职业健康：保护环境》，第12.1 (a)段。 |
| Available from www.mineactionstandards.org. | 可查阅www.mineactionstandards.org。 |
| United Nations, Department of Peacekeeping Operations and Department of Field Support, “Environmental Policy for UN Field Missions”, 2009, para. 23.5. | 联合国维持和平行动部和外勤支助部，《联合国外地特派团环境政策》，2009年，第23.5段。 |
| See ICRC, Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Times of Armed Conflict (footnote 973 above), guideline 19, referring to Geneva Convention IV, art. 63, para. 2, and Additional Protocol I, arts. 61–67. | 见红十字国际委员会《关于武装冲突中环境保护的军事手册和指南准则》(上文脚注973)，准则19, 其中提及《日内瓦第四公约》第六十三条第二款和《第一附加议定书》第六十一至第六十七条。 |
| It should be noted that guideline 19 refers to pursuant to special agreements between the parties concerned or permission granted by one of them. | 应当指出的是，准则19提及根据有关各方之间的特别协定或其中一方的许可。 |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Guidance Note, Integrating Environment in Post-Conflict Needs Assessments (Geneva, 2009), available from http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/environment_toolkit.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019) (as referenced in para. 144 and footnote 237 of A/CN.4/700). | 联合国环境规划署，指导说明，《将环境纳入冲突后需求评估》(2009年，日内瓦)，可查阅http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/environment_toolkit.pdf (2019年7月8日访问) (A/CN.4/ 700第144段和脚注237曾提及)。 |
| Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, arts. 9, 11, 12, 14–16, 19, 30, 31 and 33, para. 7. | 《国际水道非航行使用法公约》，第9、第11、第12、第14-16、第19、第30、第31条和第33条第7款。 |
| Art. 14, para. 1 (c). | 第十四条第1款(c)项。 |
| General Assembly resolution 55/153 of 12 December 2000, annex, art. 18. The draft articles and the commentaries thereto are reproduced in Yearbook … 1999, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 47–48. | 联大2000年12月12日第55/153号决议，附件，第18条，条款草案及其评注载录于《1999年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第47-48段。 |
| Arts. 8, 12–14 and 17. | 第8、第12-14和17条。 |
| General Assembly resolution 61/36 of 4 December 2006, annex, principle 5. | 联大2006年12月4日第61/36号决议，附件，原则5。 |
| The draft principles and the commentaries thereto are reproduced in Yearbook … 2006, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 66–67. | 原则草案及其评注载录于《2006年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第66-67段。 |
| General Assembly resolution 63/124 of 11 December 2008, annex, arts. 8, 13, 15, 17 and 19. | 联大2008年12月11日第63/124号决议，附件，第8、13、15、17和19条。 |
| The draft articles adopted by the Commission and commentaries thereto are reproduced in Yearbook … 2008, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 53–54. | 委员会通过的条款草案及其评注载录于《2008年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第53-54段。 |
| Art. 14. | 第14条。 |
| Art. 19. | 第19条。 |
| See, for instance, Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo, 25 February 1991), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1989, No. 34028, p. 309. | 例如见《越境环境影响评估公约》(1991年2月25日，埃斯波)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1989卷，第34028号，第309页。 |
| Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment to the Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, available at www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/ eia/documents/legaltexts/protocolenglish.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 《越境环境影响评估公约战略环境评估议定书》，可查阅www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/ env/eia/documents/legaltexts/protocolenglish.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Post-crisis environmental assessment, available at www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/disasters-conflicts/what-we-do/preparedness-and-response/post-crisis-environmental (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 危机后环境评估，可查阅www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/disasters-conflicts/what-we-do/preparedness-and-response/post-crisis-environmental (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| D. Jensen, “Evaluating the impact of UNEP’s post conflict environmental assessments”, Assessing and Restoring Natural Resources in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding, Jensen and S. Lonergan (eds.). Available at https://environmentalpeacebuilding.org/assets/Documents/ LibraryItem_000_Doc_061.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019), p. 18. | D. Jensen, “Evaluating the impact of UNEP’s post conflict environmental assessments”, Assessing and Restoring Natural Resources in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding, Jensen and S. Lonergan (eds.). Available at https://environmentalpeacebuilding.org/assets/Documents/ LibraryItem_000_Doc_061.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019), p. 18. |
| A needs assessment and desk study can be done during or after a conflict, based on a collection pre-existing secondary information on environmental trends and natural resource management, challenges from international and national sources. | 需求评估和案头研究可在冲突期间或冲突后进行，并以收集已有的关于环境趋势和自然资源管理、国际和国家挑战的二手资料为基础。 |
| Such information, with limited verification field visits, is then compiled into a desk study report that attempts to identify and prioritize environmental needs. | 然后在进行有限的实地验证访问情况下，将这些资料汇编成案头研究报告，尝试确定环境需求并排定其优先顺序。 |
| Ibid., pp. 18–19. | 同上，第18-19页。 |
| A quantitative risk assessment, involving field visits, laboratory analysis and satellite imagery, focuses on the direct environmental impact of conflicts caused by bombing and destruction of buildings, industrial sites, and public infrastructure. | 定量风险评估包括实地访问、实验室分析和卫星图像，侧重于冲突中的轰炸以及破坏建筑物、工业用地和公共基础设施的行为对环境造成的直接影响。 |
| Ibid., pp. 19–20. | 同上，第19-20页。 |
| A strategic assessment evaluates the indirect impact of the survival and coping strategies of local people and the institutional problems caused by the breakdown of governance and capacity. | 战略评估对当地居民生存和应对策略的间接影响以及治理和能力崩溃造成的体制问题进行评价。 |
| These tend to be longer in duration. | 这往往需要更长时间。 |
| Ibid., p. 20. | 同上，第20页。 |
| A comprehensive assessment seeks to provide a detailed picture of each natural resource sector and the environmental trends, governance challenges, and capacity needs. | 综合评估力求提供关于每个自然资源部门和环境趋势、治理挑战和能力需求的详细情况。 |
| Based on national consultations with stakeholders, comprehensive assessments attempt to identify priorities and cost the required interventions over the short, medium, and long term. | 根据与利益攸关方进行的全国磋商，综合评估试图确定优先事项和所需短期、中期和长期干预措施的费用。 |
| Ibid., p. 20. | 同上，第20页。 |
| DAC Network on Environment and Development Cooperation (ENVIRONET), “Strategic environment assessment and post-conflict development SEA toolkit” (2010), p. 4, available at http://content-ext.undp.org/aplaws_publications/2078176/Strategic%20Environment%20 Assessment%20and%20Post%20Conflict%20Development%20full%20version.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | DAC Network on Environment and Development Cooperation (ENVIRONET), “Strategic environment assessment and post-conflict development SEA toolkit” (2010), p. 4, available at http://content-ext.undp.org/aplaws_publications/2078176/Strategic%20Environment%20 Assessment%20and%20Post%20Conflict%20Development%20full%20version.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). |
| Ibid. | Ibid. |
| United Nations Environment Programme, “Disasters and Conflicts Programme”, p. 3. | 联合国环境规划署，“灾害和冲突方案”，第3页。 |
| Available at www.un.org/en/events/environmentconflictday/pdf/UNEP_conflict_and_disaster_brochure.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.un.org/en/events/environment conflictday/pdf/UNEP_conflict_and_disaster_brochure.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| “First, the distance separating the source from the place of damage may be dozens or even hundreds of miles, creating doubts about the causal link even where polluting activities can be identified.”; | “首先，污染源与损害地点之间的距离可能有几十英里甚至数百英里，即使在能够确认污染活动的地方，也会产生对因果关系的怀疑”； |
| “Second, the noxious effects of a pollutant may not be felt until years or decades after the act.”; | “第二，一种污染物的有害影响可能要到行为发生后数年或几十年后才能感受到”； |
| “Third, some types of damage occur only if the pollution continues over time”; | “第三，某些类型的损害只在污染持续一段时间后才会发生”； |
| and “Fourth, the same pollutant does not always produce the same detrimental effects due to important variations in physical circumstances. | “第四，由于物理环境中的重要变化，同样的污染物不总是产生相同的有害影响”。 |
| A.C. Kiss and D. Shelton, Guide to International Environmental Law (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2007), pp. 20–21. | A.C. Kiss and D. Shelton, Guide to International Environmental Law (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2007), pp. 20–21. |
| See also P.-M. Dupuy, “L’État et la réparation des dommages catastrophiques”, in F. Francioni and T. Scovazzi (eds.), International Responsibility for Environmental Harm (Boston, Graham and Trotman, 1991), pp. 125–147, p. 141, who describes the inherent characteristics of ecological damage as follows: “au-delà de ses incidences immédiates et souvent spectaculaires, il pourra aussi être diffus, parfois différé, cumulatif, indirect” [beyond its immediate and often spectacular consequences, it could also be pervasive, sometimes deferred, cumulative, indirect]. | See also P.-M. Dupuy, “L’État et la réparation des dommages catastrophiques”, in F. Francioni and T. Scovazzi (eds.), International Responsibility for Environmental Harm (Boston, Graham and Trotman, 1991), 第125–147页, 见第141页, 对生态损害的内在特征描写如下： “au-delà de ses incidences immédiates et souvent spectaculaires, il pourra aussi être diffus, parfois différé, cumulatif, indirect” [除了其往往引起注意的直接后果之外，它还可能具有普遍性，有时会延迟、累积并且是间接的]. |
| See also C.R. Payne, “Developments in the law of environmental reparations. A case study of the UN Compensation Commission”, in C. Stahn, J. Iverson, and J.S. Easterday (eds.), Environmental Protection and Transitions from Conflict to Peace (footnote 1180 above), pp. 329–366, p. 353. | See also C.R. Payne, “Developments in the law of environmental reparations. A case study of the UN Compensation Commission”, in C. Stahn, J. Iverson, and J.S. Easterday (eds.), Environmental Protection and Transitions from Conflict to Peace (footnote 1180 above), pp. 329–366, p. 353. |
| For the definition of environmental harm, see Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (footnote 1172 above), pp. 741–748. | 关于环境损害的定义，见Sands, 《国际环境法原则》(上文脚注1172)，第741-748页。 |
| See ICRC, “International humanitarian law and the challenges of contemporary armed conflicts”, document prepared for the 32nd International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent (2015), International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 97 (2015), pp. 1427–1502, at pp. 1431–1432. This would arguably be the case with most environmental harm in conflict, given that the specific prohibitions in the law of armed conflict “do not address normal operational damage to the environment that is left after hostilities cease, from sources such as the use of tracked vehicles on fragile desert surfaces; | 见红十字国际委员会，为第三十二届红十字会与红新月会国际大会(2015年)编写的“国际人道法与当代武装冲突的挑战”，《国际红十字评论》，第97(2015)卷，第1427-1502页，见第1431-1432页。 |
| disposal of solid, toxic, and medical waste; depletion of scarce water resources; and incomplete recovery of ordnance”, as pointed out by C.R. Payne, “The norm of environmental integrity in post-conflict legal regimes”, in C. Stahn, J.S. Easterday and J. Iverson (eds.), Jus Post Bellum: Mapping the Normative Foundation (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014), pp. 502–518, at p. 511. | 可以说，冲突中的大多数环境损害都属于这种情况，因为武装冲突法中的具体禁令“不处理敌对行动停止后正常行动对环境造成的损害，包括由在脆弱的沙漠表面使用履带车辆，处置固体、有毒和医疗废物，大量消耗稀缺水资源，以及未完全回收弹药造成的损害”，C.R. Payne, “The norm of environmental integrity in post-conflict legal regimes”, in C. Stahn, J.S. Easterday and J. Iverson (eds.), Jus Post Bellum: Mapping the Normative Foundation (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014)，第502-518页, 见第511页。 |
| See draft principle 14 and para. (8) of the commentary thereto above. | 见上文原则草案14及其评注第(8)段。 |
| For the history of wartime reparations, see P. d’Argent, Les réparations de guerre en droit international public. La responsabilité internationale des États à l’épreuve de la guerre (Brussels, Bruylant, 2002). | 关于战时赔偿的历史，见P. d’Argent, Les réparations de guerre en droit international public. La responsabilité internationale des États à l’épreuve de la guerre (Brussels, Bruylant, 2002)。 |
| See also ICRC commentary (1987) to Additional Protocol I, art. 91, para. 3651: “On the conclusion of a peace treaty, the Parties can in principle deal with the problems relating to war damage in general and those relating to the responsibility for starting the war, as they see fit. | 另见红十字国际委员会关于《第一附加议定书》第九十一条的评注 (1987年)，第3651段：“在缔结一项和平条约时，缔约方原则上可以在其认为适当的情况下，处理与一般战争损害有关的问题，以及与发动战争的责任有关的问题”。 |
| ” The United Nations Compensation Commission’s experience was groundbreaking in the area of reparations for wartime environmental harm (see footnote 1091 above). | 联合国赔偿委员会的经验在战时环境损害赔偿方面具有开创性意义。 (见上文脚注1091)。 |
| The other relevant international instances of either addressing wartime environmental damage or having the potential to do so include: the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission that was established in 2000 (see Agreement on Cessation of Hostilities between the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Government of the State of Eritrea (Algiers, 18 June 2000), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2138, No. 37273, p. 85, and Agreement between the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the Government of the State of Eritrea for the resettlement of displaced persons, as well as rehabilitation and peacebuilding in both countries (Algiers, 12 December 2000), ibid., No. 37274, p. 93); | 处理战时环境损害或有可能这样做的其他相关国际实例包括：2000年设立的厄立特里亚－埃塞俄比亚索偿委员会(见埃塞俄比亚联邦民主共和国政府与厄立特里亚国政府关于停止敌对行动的协定(2000年6月18日，阿尔及尔)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2138卷，第37273号，第85页，以及埃塞俄比亚联邦民主共和国政府与厄立特里亚国政府关于重新安置流离失所者以及在两国重建和建设和平的协定(2000年12月12日，阿尔及尔)，同上，第37274号，第93页)； |
| and the 2004 Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice concerning the construction of a wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, see Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall (footnote 1274 above), p. 189, para. 131, and p. 192, para. 136. | 2004年国际法院关于在巴勒斯坦被占领土上修建隔离墙的咨询意见。 见修建隔离墙的法律后果，(上文脚注1274)，第189页第131段和第192页第136段。 |
| See also Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (footnote 1241 above), p. 257, para. 259. | 另见刚果境内的武装活动(见上文脚注1241)，第257页，第259段。 |
| University of Amsterdam and Center for Civilians in Conflict, “Monetary payments for civilian harm in international and national practice” (2015). | 阿姆斯特丹大学和保护冲突中平民组织，“国际和国内实践中对平民伤害的货币偿付”(2015年)。 |
| See also United States, Government Accountability Office, “Military operations. | 另见美国政府问责局，“军事行动。 |
| The Department of Defense’s use of solatia and condolence payments in Iraq and Afghanistan”, Report, May 2007; | 国防部在伊拉克和阿富汗使用赔偿物和抚恤金的情况”，报告，2007年5月； |
| and W.M. Reisman, “Compensating collateral damage in elective international conflict”, Intercultural Human Rights Law Review, vol. 8 (2013), pp. 1–18. | W.M. Reisman, “Compensating collateral damage in elective international conflict”, Intercultural Human Rights Law Review, vol. 8 (2013), pp. 1–18. |
| See, e.g., Handicap International, “Victim Assistance in the context of mines and explosive remnants of war”, Handicap International (July 2014). Available at https://handicap-international.ch/files/documents/files/assistance-victimes-mines-reg_anglais.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 例如见，Handicap International, “Victim Assistance in the context of mines and explosive remnants of war”, Handicap International (July 2014). Available at https://handicap-international.ch/files/documents/files/assistance-victimes-mines-reg_anglais.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019)。 |
| See also International Human Rights Clinic, Harvard Law School, “Environmental remediation under the treaty on the prohibition of nuclear weapons” (April 2018). Available at http://hrp.law.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Environmental-Remediation-short-5-17-18-final.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 另见International Human Rights Clinic, Harvard Law School, “Environmental remediation under the treaty on the prohibition of nuclear weapons” (April 2018). Available at http://hrp.law.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Environmental-Remediation-short-5-17-18-final.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019)。 |
| See also Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, General Assembly resolution 60/147 of 16 December 2005, annex. | 另见《严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为受害人获得补救和赔偿的权利基本原则和导则》，联大2005年12月16日第60/147号决议，附件。 |
| Principle 9 states that “[a] person shall be considered a victim regardless of whether the perpetrator of the violation is identified, apprehended, prosecuted, or convicted”. | 原则9指出，“受害人的身份不取决于实施违法行为的人是否已被确认、逮捕、起诉或定罪”。 |
| United Nations Environment Programme, Lebanon Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment (2007), pp. 42–45. | 联合国环境规划署，《黎巴嫩冲突后环境评估》(2007年)，第42-45页。 |
| Available at https://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_Lebanon.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅https:// postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_Lebanon.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See also Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “Environmental emergency response to the Lebanon crisis”. | 另见人道主义事务协调厅，“对黎巴嫩危机的环境应急措施”。 |
| Available at www.unocha.org/sites/dms/Documents/Report_on_response_to_the_Lebanon_Crisis.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅www.unocha.org/sites/dms/Documents/ Report_on_response_to_the_Lebanon_Crisis.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Protocol concerning Cooperation in Preventing Pollution from ships and, in cases of emergency, combating pollution of the Mediterranean Sea (Valetta, 25 January 2002), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2942, annex A, No. 16908, p. 87. | 《地中海防止船舶污染并在紧急情况下治理污染合作议定书》(2002年1月25日，瓦莱塔)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2942卷，附件A，第16908号，第87页。 |
| See United States, Congressional Research Service, “U.S. Agent Orange/Dioxin Assistance to Vietnam” (updated on 21 February 2019). | 见美国，国会研究事务处，“美国对越南的橙色剂/二恶英援助”(2019年2月21日更新)。 |
| Available at https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R44268.pdf (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 可查阅https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R44268.pdf (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| Art. 34 and commentary thereto of the articles on State responsibility, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 76–77, at pp. 95–96. | 关于国家责任的条款第34条及其评注，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第76-77段，第95-96页。 |
| Draft principle 26 has been modelled after article 12 on “Collective reparation” of the Institute of International Law resolution on responsibility and liability under international law for environmental damage from 1997 reading as follows: “Should the source of environmental damage be unidentified or compensation be unavailable from the entity liable or other back-up sources, environmental regimes should ensure that the damage does not remain uncompensated and may consider the intervention of special compensation funds or other mechanisms of collective reparation, or the establishment of such mechanisms where necessary”. | 原则草案26以国际法学会1997年《关于国际法下环境损害的责任和赔偿责任》的决议中关于“集体赔偿”的第12条为范本，该条内容如下：“如果环境损害的来源不明或责任实体或其他后备来源无法提供补偿，环境制度应确保损害不会持续得不到补偿，并可考虑特别补偿基金或其他集体赔偿机制的干预，或在必要时设立这种机制”。 |
| International Law Institute, resolution on “Responsibility and liability under international law for environmental damage”, Yearbook, vol. 67, Part II, Session of Strasbourg (1997), p. 486, at p. 499. | 国际法学会，关于“国际法规定的对环境损害的责任和赔偿责任”的决议，《年鉴》，第67卷，第二部分，斯特拉斯堡会议(1997年)，第486页，第499页。 |
| See para. (3) of the commentary to draft principle 2 above. | 见上文原则草案2评注第(3)段。 |
| See also para. (6) of the commentary to draft principle 25 above. | 另见上文原则草案25评注第(6)段。 |
| See further S. Hanamoto, “Mitigation and remediation of environmental damage”, in Y. Aguila and J. Vinuales (eds.), A Global Pact for the Environment – Legal Foundations (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2019), p. 79: “Mitigation and remediation of environmental damage aim at ‘avoid[ing], reduc[ing] and, if possible, remedy[ing] significant adverse effects’ (Article 5(3)(b), Directive 2011/92/EU on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment to the environment). | 另见S. Hanamoto, “Mitigation and remediation of environmental damage”, in Y. Aguila and J. Vinuales (eds.), A Global Pact for the Environment – Legal Foundations (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2019), 第79页：“减缓和补救环境损害的目的是‘避免、减少，并在可能的情况下补救重大不利影响’(第5(3)(b)条，关于评估某些公共和私人环境项目对环境影响的2011/92/EU号指令)。 |
| More precisely, ‘[m]itigation is the use of practice, procedure or technology to minimise or to prevent impacts associated with proposed activities’ and ‘[r]emediation consists of the steps taken after impacts have occurred to promote, as much as possible, the return of the environment to its original condition’ (Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, Revised Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment in Antarctica, 3.5, 2016).” | 更确切地说，‘减缓是使用做法、程序或技术尽可能最小化或预防与拟议活动相关的影响’，而‘补救包括在影响发生后采取的举措，以尽可能地促进环境恢复原状’(南极条约协商会议，《南极环境影响评估修正准则》，3.5，2016年)”。 |
| For example, this is often the case with chemical weapons that have been dumped at sea. | 例如，在海上倾倒的化学武器通常就是这种情况。 |
| See T.A. Mensah, “Environmental damages under the Law of the Sea Convention”, The Environmental Consequences of War: Legal, Economic, and Scientific Perspectives, J.E. Austin and C.E. Bruch (eds.) (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 226–249. | 见T.A. Mensah, “Environmental damages under the Law of the Sea Convention”, The Environmental Consequences of War: Legal, Economic, and Scientific Perspectives, J.E. Austin and C.E. Bruch (eds.) (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 226-249。 |
| The Chemical Munitions Search and Assessment (CHEMSEA) is an example of a project of cooperation among the Baltic States, which is partly financed by the European Union. | 化学弹药搜索和评估项目是波罗的海国家之间的一个合作项目的实例，该项目由欧洲联盟提供部分资助。 |
| Information on the CHEMSEA project can be found at http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/projects/finland/chemsea-tackles-problem-of-chemical-munitions-in-the-baltic-sea (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 关于该项目的信息，见http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/ en/projects/finland/ chemsea-tackles-problem-of-chemical-munitions-in-the-baltic-sea (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See also the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (Helsinki Commission) website at www.helcom.fi/baltic-sea-trends/hazardous-substances/sea-dumped-chemical-munitions (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 另见波罗的海海洋环境保护委员会(赫尔辛基委员会)网站www.helcom.fi/baltic-sea-trends/hazardous-substances/sea-dumped-chemical-munitions (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| See, for more information, ICRC, “Strengthening legal protection for victims of armed conflicts”, report prepared for the Thirty-first International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent in 2011, No. 31IC/11/5.1.1 3, p. 18. | 更多信息见红十字国际委员会，“加强对武装冲突受害者的法律保护”，为2011年第三十一届红十字与红新月国际大会编写的报告，第31IC/11/5.1.13号，第18页。 |
| See M. Ghalaieny, “Toxic harm: humanitarian and environmental concerns from military-origin contamination”, discussion paper (Toxic Remnants of War project, 2013), p. 2. | 见M. Ghalaieny, “Toxic harm: humanitarian and environmental concerns from military-origin contamination”, discussion paper (Toxic Remnants of War project, 2013), p. 2。 |
| See also www.toxicremnantsofwar.info/new-trw-publication-toxic-harm-humanitarian-and-environmental-concerns-from-military-origin-contamination/ (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 另见www.toxicremnantsofwar.info/new-trw-publication-toxic-harm-humanitarian-and-environmental-concerns-from-military-origin-contamination/ (accessed on 8 July 2019)。 |
| For more information on toxic remnants of war, see also the Geneva Academy, Weapons Law Encyclopedia, available at www.weaponslaw.org under “Glossary”, which cites ICRC, “Strengthening legal protection for victims of armed conflicts”, p. 18. | 关于有毒的战争遗留物的更多信息，另见日内瓦学院，《武器法百科全书》，可查阅www.weaponslaw.org的“词汇表”项，其中援引了红十字国际委员会“加强对武装冲突受难者的法律保护”，第18页。 |
| See the statements delivered by Austria, Costa Rica, Ireland and South Africa to the First Committee of the General Assembly as its sixty-eighth session, which are available from the paper-smart portal at http://papersmart.unmeetings.org. | 见奥地利、哥斯达黎加、爱尔兰和南非在联大第一委员会第六十八届会议上所作的发言，可查阅节纸门户网站http://papersmart.unmeetings.org。 |
| See para. (9) of the commentary to art. 1 of the articles on prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, Yearbook … | 见预防危险活动的跨界损害条款第1条评注第(9)段。 |
| 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 97–98, at p. 151. | 《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第97-98段，见第151页。 |
| See also General Assembly resolution 62/68 of 6 December 2007, annex. | 另见联大2007年12月6日第62/68号决议，附件。 |
| Para. (12) of the commentary to art. 1, ibid. | 第1条评注第(12)段，同上。 |
| A/CN.4/692, para. 33. | A/CN.4/692, 第33段。 |
| Concerning the concept of “control”, see Namibia, Advisory Opinion (footnote 1322 above), at p. 54, para. 118, where it states that: “The fact that South Africa no longer has any title to administer the Territory does not release it from its obligations and responsibilities under international law towards other States in respect of the exercise of its powers in relation to this Territory. | 关于“控制”的概念，见纳米比亚案，咨询意见(上文脚注1322)，第54页，第118段，其中指出：“南非不再有权管理该领土，这一事实并不免除它根据国际法在对该领土行使其权力方面对其他国家的义务和责任。 |
| Physical control of a territory, and not sovereignty or legitimacy of title, is the basis of State liability for acts affecting other States.” | 对某一领土的实际控制，而不是主权或权利的合法性，正是对影响到其他国家的行为的国家责任的基础”。 |
| See, for example, Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, as well as the Protocol on Explosive Remnants of War, annexed to the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons which may be deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to have Indiscriminate Effects (Protocol V) (hereinafter, “Protocol V to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons”) (Geneva, 3 May 1996), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2399, No. 22495, p. 100. | 例如见《特定常规武器公约第二号议定书》，以及《禁止或限制使用某些可被认为具有过分伤害力或滥杀滥伤作用的常规武器公约》所附的《战争遗留爆炸物议定书》(第五号议定书)(下称《特定常规武器公约第五号议定书》)(1996年5月3日，日内瓦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2399卷，第22495号，第100页。 |
| See, for example, amended Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons; | 例如见《特定常规武器公约经修正后的第二号议定书》； |
| Protocol V to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons; | 《特定常规武器公约第五号议定书》； |
| Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (Oslo, 18 September 1997), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2056, No. 35597, p. 211; | 《关于禁止使用、储存、生产和转让杀伤人员地雷及销毁此种地雷的公约》(1997年9月18日，奥斯陆)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2056卷，第35597号，第211页； |
| Convention on Cluster Munitions (Dublin, 30 May 2008), ibid., vol. 2688, No. 47713, p. 39; | 《集束弹药公约》(2008年5月30日，都柏林)，同上，第2688卷，第47713号，第39页； |
| Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction (Geneva, 3 September 1992), ibid., vol. 1974, No. 33757, p. 45. | 《关于禁止发展、生产、储存和使用化学武器及销毁此种武器的公约》(1992年9月3日，日内瓦)，同上，第1974卷，第33757号，第45页。 |
| See the wording of the amended Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons; Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction; Convention on Cluster Munitions. | 见《特定常规武器公约经修正后的第二号议定书》、《关于禁止使用、储存、生产和转让杀伤人员地雷及销毁此种地雷的公约》和《集束弹药公约》的措词。 |
| See, e.g., art. 3, para. 2, of the amended Protocol II Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons: “Each High Contracting Party or party to a conflict is, in accordance with the provisions of this Protocol, responsible for all mines, booby-traps, and other devices employed by it and undertakes to clear, remove, destroy or maintain them as specified in Article 10 of this Protocol. | 例如见《特定常规武器公约经修正后的第二号议定书》第3条第2款，“按照本议定书的规定，每一缔约方或冲突当事方对其布设的所有地雷、诱杀装置和其他装置负有责任，并承诺按照本议定书第10条的规定对其进行清除、排除、销毁或维持”。 |
| ” Art. 10, para. 2, in turn provides that: “High Contracting Parties and parties to a conflict bear such responsibility with respect to minefields, mined areas, mines, booby-traps and other devices in areas under their control. | 第10条第2款规定又规定：“各缔约方和冲突各方对其控制区域内的雷场、雷区、地雷、诱杀装置和其他装置负有此种责任”。 |
| ” In addition, art. 3, para. 2, of Protocol V to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons provides that: “After the cessation of active hostilities and as soon as feasible, each High Contracting Party and party to an armed conflict shall mark and clear, remove or destroy explosive remnants of war in affected territories under its control”; | 此外，《特定常规武器公约第五号议定书》第3条第2款规定：“每一缔约方和武装冲突当事方应在现行敌对行动停止后并在可行的情况下尽快标示和清除、排除或销毁其控制之下的受影响领土内的战争遗留爆炸物”； |
| Convention on Cluster Munitions, art. 4, para. 1: “Each State Party undertakes to clear and destroy, or ensure the clearance and destruction of, cluster munition remnants located in cluster munition contaminated areas under its jurisdiction or control”; | 《集束弹药公约》第四条第一款规定：“每一缔约国承诺清理并销毁或确保清除和销毁位于其管辖或控制下的集束弹药污染地区的遗留集束弹药”； |
| Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, art. 5, para. 1: “Each State Party undertakes to destroy or ensure the destruction of all anti-personnel mines in mined areas under its jurisdiction or control”. | 《关于禁止使用、储存、生产和转让杀伤人员地雷及销毁此种地雷的公约》第5条第1款规定：“每一缔约国承诺销毁或确保销毁在其管辖或控制下的雷区内的所有杀伤人员地雷”。 |
| The need to take cooperative measures to assess and increase awareness of environmental effects related to waste originating from chemical munitions dumped at sea has been explicitly recognized by the General Assembly since 2010, including in General Assembly resolution 71/220. | 联大自2010年以来，包括在联大第71/220号决议中，明确确认需要采取合作措施，评估海上倾弃化学弹药所生废物的环境影响和提高对此种影响的认识。 |
| The resolution reaffirms the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and recalls a number of relevant international and regional instruments. | 该决议重申了《2030年可持续发展议程》，并回顾了一些相关的国际和区域文书。 |
| It furthermore notes the importance of raising awareness of the environmental effects related to waste originating from chemical weapons dumped at sea and invites the Secretary-General to seek the views of Member States and relevant regional and international organizations on the cooperative measures envisaged in the resolution and identifying the appropriate intergovernmental bodies within the United Nations for further consideration and implementation, as appropriate, of those measures. | 它还注意到应提高对海上倾弃化学弹药所生废物相关环境影响的认识，并请秘书长征求会员国和有关区域和国际组织对决议设想的合作措施的意见，并确定联合国系统内的适当政府间机构，以进一步适当审议和实施这些措施。 |
| See the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay, 10 December 1982), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1833, No. 31363, p. 3. | 见《联合国海洋法公约》(1982年12月10日，蒙特哥湾)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1833卷，第31363号，第3页。 |
| The remnants of war could be located in the territorial waters, the continental shelf, the exclusive economic zone or on the high seas, and this will have an impact on the rights and obligations of States. | 战争遗留物可能位于领水、大陆架、专属经济区或公海，这将对各国的权利和义务产生影响。 |
| See A. Lott, “Pollution of the marine environment by dumping: legal framework applicable to dumped chemical weapons and nuclear waste in the Arctic Ocean”, Nordic Environmental Law Journal, vol. 1 (2015), pp. 57–69, and W. Searle and D. Moody, “Explosive Remnants of War at Sea: Technical Aspects of Disposal”, in Explosive Remnants of War: Mitigating the Environmental Effects, A. Westing (ed.) (Taylor & Francis 1985). | See A. Lott, “Pollution of the marine environment by dumping: legal framework applicable to dumped chemical weapons and nuclear waste in the Arctic Ocean”, Nordic Environmental Law Journal, vol. 1 (2015), pp. 57–69, and W. Searle and D. Moody, “Explosive Remnants of War at Sea: Technical Aspects of Disposal”, in Explosive Remnants of War: Mitigating the Environmental Effects, A. Westing (ed.) (Taylor & Francis 1985). |
| For example, the CHEMSEA project, which was initiated in 2011 as a project of cooperation among the Baltic States and partly financed by the European Union (see footnote 1424 above). | 例如，化学弹药搜索和评估项目于2011年启动，是波罗的海国家之间的一个合作项目，由欧洲联盟提供部分资助(见上文脚注1424)。 |
| See General Assembly resolutions 65/149 of 20 December 2010 and 68/208 of 20 December 2013 and A/68/258. | 见联大2010年12月20日第65/149号决议和2013年12月20日第68/208号决议以及A/68/258号决议。 |
| See also Mensah, “Environmental damages under the Law of the Sea Convention”, p. 233. | 另见Mensah, “Environmental damages under the Law of the Sea Convention”, 第233页。 |
| The Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (Helsinki Commission), governing body of the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, issued guidelines for fishermen that encounter sea-dumped chemical munitions at an early stage. | 波罗的海海洋环境保护委员会(赫尔辛基委员会)，是《保护波罗的海地区海洋环境公约》理事结构，发布了渔民遇到海上倾弃化学弹药早期阶段准则。 |
| For an easily accessible overview, see the work done by the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies at www.nonproliferation.org/chemical-weapon-munitions-dumped-at-sea/ (accessed on 8 July 2019). | 便于查阅的概览见詹姆斯·马丁不扩散研究中心所做的工作，网址www.nonproliferation.org/chemical-weapon-munitions-dumped-at-sea/ (2019年7月8日访问)。 |
| There is a clear link between danger to the environment and public health and safety. | 环境危险与公共健康和安全之间有明显的联系。 |
| See, for example, article 55, paragraph 1, of Additional Protocol I provides for the protection of the natural environment in international armed conflicts and prohibits the use of means and methods of warfare which are intended or may be expected to cause environmental damage and thereby prejudice the health of the population; | 例如见《第一附加议定书》第五十五条第一款，其中规定应在国际性武装冲突中保护自然环境，并禁止使用旨在或可能对自然环境造成损害从而妨害居民健康的作战方法或手段； |
| article 1, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes stipulates that adverse effects on the environment include: “effects on human health and safety, flora, fauna, soil, air, water, climate, landscape and historical monuments or other physical structures or the interactions among these factors; | 《跨界水道和国际湖泊保护和利用公约》第1条第2款规定，对环境的不利影响包括：对环境的不利影响包括“对人类健康和安全、植物、动物、土壤、空气、水、气候、地貌和历史纪念物或其他物理结构影响或这些因素之间的互动； |
| they also include effects on the cultural heritage or socio-economic conditions resulting from alterations to those factors”. | 它们也包括上述因素的变化对于文化遗产或社会经济状况而产生的影响”。 |
| At its 3354th meeting, on 9 May 2017. | 在2017年5月9日第3354次会议上。 |
| The topic had been included in the long-term programme of work of the Commission during its sixty-eighth session (2016), on the basis of the proposal contained in annex B to the report of the Commission (Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-first Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/71/10)). | 根据委员会报告(《大会正式记录，第七十一届会议，补编第10号》(A/71/10))附件B所载建议，委员会第六十八届会议(2016年)已将该专题列入长期工作方案。 |
| The interim report of the Chair of the Drafting Committee is available in the analytical guide to the work of the International Law Commission: http://legal.un.org/ilc/guide/3_5.shtml. | 起草委员会主席的临时报告可查阅《国际法委员会工作分析指南》：http://legal.un.org/ilc/guide/ 3_5.shtml。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| The text of draft articles 2, paragraph (f), X, Y, 12, 13, 14 and 15, and the titles of Part II and Part III, as proposed by the Special Rapporteur in his third report, reads as follows: | 按照特别报告员在第三次报告中的建议，第2条草案(f)项、第X条、第Y条、第12条、第13条、第14条和第15条草案的案文以及第二部分和第三部分的标题如下： |
| Draft article 2 | 第2条草案 |
| Use of terms | 用语 |
| For the purposes of the present draft articles: … | 为本条款草案的目的：… |
| (f) “States concerned” means, in respect of a case of succession of States, a State which before the date of succession of States committed an internationally wrongful act, a State injured by such act and a successor State or States of any of these States; | (f) “有关国家”指国家继承案中在国家继承日期之前实施国际不法行为的国家、受此行为损害的国家，以及前述任何国家的一个或多个继承国； |
| Title for Part II – Reparation for injury resulting from internationally acts committed by the predecessor State | 第二部分的标题――对被继承国实施的国际不法行为所致损害的赔偿 |
| Draft article X | 第X条草案 |
| Scope of Part II | 第二部分的范围 |
| The provisions of this Part apply to reparation for injury resulting from internationally wrongful acts committed by the predecessor State for which the injured State did not receive full reparation before the date of succession of States. | 本部分的规定适用于被继承国实施的国际不法行为造成损害，但因受害国在国家继承日期之前未就此获得充分赔偿，而作出的赔偿。 |
| Title for Part III – Reparation for injury resulting from internationally wrongful acts committed against the predecessor State | 第三部分――对被继承国遭受的国际不法行为所致损害的赔偿 |
| Draft article Y | 第Y条草案 |
| Scope of the present Part | 本部分的范围 |
| The articles in the present Part apply to reparation for injury resulting from internationally wrongful acts committed against the predecessor State for which this State did not receive full reparation before the date of succession of States. | 本部分的条款适用于被继承国遭受的国际不法行为造成损害，但因该国在国家继承日期之前未就此获得充分赔偿，而作出的赔偿。 |
| Draft article 12 | 第12条草案 |
| Cases of succession of States when the predecessor State continues to exist | 被继承国继续存在时的国家继承情况 |
| 1. In the cases of succession of States: (a) when part of the territory of a State, or any territory for the international relations of which a State is responsible, not being part of the territory of that State, becomes part of the territory of another State; or | 1. 在下列国家继承的情况下，因另一国的国际不法行为而受损害的被继承国即使在国家继承日期之后，仍可要求该另一国提供赔偿： |
| (b) when a part or parts of the territory of a State separate to form one or more States, while the predecessor State continues to exist; | (a) 一国领土的一部分，或虽非一国领土的一部分但其国际关系由该国负责的任何领土，成为另一国领土的一部分； |
| or | 或 |
| (c) when a successor State is a newly independent State the territory of which immediately before the date of the succession of States was a dependent territory for the international relations of which the predecessor State was responsible; | (b) 一国的一部分或几部分领土分离而组成一个或一个以上国家，但被继承国继续存在； 或 |
| the predecessor State injured by an internationally wrongful act of another State may request from this State reparation even after the date of succession of States. | (c) 继承国是新独立国家，其领土在紧接国家继承日期之前原是由被继承国负责其国际关系的附属领土。 |
| 2. Notwithstanding paragraph 1, the successor State may request from the responsible State reparation in special circumstances where the injury relates to the part of the territory or the nationals of the predecessor State that became the territory or nationals of the successor State. | 2. 尽管有第1款的规定，在特殊情况下，即当损害涉及曾属被继承国、后属继承国的那一部分领土或国民时，继承国可要求责任国提供赔偿。 |
| 3. The provisions of paragraphs 1 and 2 are without prejudice to any question of compensation between the predecessor State and successor State. | 3. 第1和第2款的规定不影响被继承国和继承国之间的任何补偿问题。 |
| Draft article 13 | 第13条草案 |
| Uniting of States | 国家合并 |
| 1. When two or more States unite and so form one successor State, the successor State may request reparation from the responsible State. | 1. 当两个或两个以上国家合并而形成一个继承国时，该继承国可要求责任国作出赔偿。 |
| 2. Paragraph 1 applies unless the States concerned otherwise agree. | 2. 除非有关国家另有协议，否则适用第1款。 |
| Draft article 14 | 第14条草案 |
| Dissolution of States | 国家解体 |
| 1. When parts of the territory of the State separate to form two or more States and the predecessor State ceases to exist, one or more successor States may request reparation from the responsible State. | 1. 一国部分领土分离，形成两个或两个以上国家且被继承国不复存在时，一个或多个继承国可要求责任国作出赔偿。 |
| 2. Such claims and agreements should take into consideration a nexus between the consequences of an internationally wrongful act and the territory or nationals of the successor State, an equitable proportion and other relevant factors. | 2. 此类主张和协议应顾及国际不法行为的后果与继承国领土或国民之间的联系、公平比例和其他有关因素。 |
| 3. The provisions of paragraphs 1 and 2 are without prejudice to any question of compensation between the successor States. | 3. 第1和第2款的规定不影响继承国之间的任何补偿问题。 |
| Draft article 15 | 第15条草案 |
| Diplomatic protection | 外交保护 |
| 1. The successor State may exercise diplomatic protection in respect of a person who is its national at the date of the official presentation of the claim but was not a national at the date of injury, provided that the person or the corporation had the nationality of a predecessor State or lost his or her nationality and acquired, for a reason unrelated to the bringing of the claim, the nationality of the former State in a manner not inconsistent with international law. | 1. 继承国对在正式提出索赔之日为其国民但在受到损害之日不是其国民的人或公司，可行使外交保护，但条件是该人或该公司曾具有被继承国的国籍，或者曾丧失原国籍，并且基于与提出索赔无关的原因、以不违反国际法的方式又获得继承国的国籍。 |
| 2. Under the same conditions set in paragraph 1, a claim in exercise of diplomatic protection initiated by the predecessor State may be continued after the date of succession by the successor State. | 2. 在第1款规定的相同条件下，被继承国在行使外交保护时提出的索赔，在继承日期之后可由继承国继续进行。 |
| 3. Paragraphs 1 and 2 are without prejudice to application of rules of State responsibility relating to the nationality of claims and rules of diplomatic protection. | 3. 第1款和第2款不影响国家责任规则中索赔者国籍相关内容的适用，以及外交保护规则的适用。 |
| The report and the corresponding statement of the Chair of the Drafting Committee are available in the analytical guide to the work of the International Law Commission (see footnote 1442 above). | 该报告和起草委员会主席的相应声明可查阅《国际法委员会工作分析指南》(见上文脚注1442)。 |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| General Assembly resolution 62/67 of 6 December 2007, annex. | 联大2007年12月6日第62/67号决议，附件。 |
| The draft articles adopted by the Commission and the commentaries thereto are reproduced in Yearbook … 2006, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 49–50. | 委员会通过的条款草案及其评注载于《2006年…年鉴》第二卷(第二部分)，第49-50段。 |
| Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties (Vienna, 23 August 1978), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1946, No. 33356, p. 3. | 《关于国家在条约方面的继承的维也纳公约》(1978年8月23日，维也纳)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1946卷，第33356号，第3页。 |
| Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts (Vienna, 8 April 1983), United Nations, Juridical Yearbook 1983 (Sales No. E.90.V.1), p. 139. | 《关于国家对国家财产、档案和债务的继承的维也纳公约》(维也纳，1983年4月8日)，联合国，《1983年法律年鉴》(联合国出版物，出售品编号：E.90.V.1)，第139页。 |
| General Assembly resolution 56/83 of 12 December 2001, annex. | 联大2001年12月12日第56/83号决议，附件。 |
| The draft articles adopted by the Commission and the commentaries thereto are reproduced in Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 76–77. | 委员会通过的条款草案及其评注载于《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)及更正，第76-77页。 |
| General Assembly resolution 55/153 of 12 December 2000, annex. | 联大2000年12月12日第55/153号决议，附件。 |
| The draft articles and the commentaries thereto are reproduced in Yearbook … 1999, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 47–48. | 条款草案及其评注载于《1999年…年鉴》第二卷(第二部分)，第47-48段。 |
| Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965, Advisory Opinion, 25 February 2019, General List No. 169. | 1965年查戈斯群岛从毛里求斯分离的法律后果，咨询意见，2019年2月25日，总清单，第169号。 |
| Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties (Vienna, 23 August 1978) United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1946, No. 33356, p. 3; | 《关于国家在条约方面的继承的维也纳公约》(1978年8月23日，维也纳)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1946卷，第33356号，第3页； |
| Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of State Property, Archives and Debts (Vienna, 8 April 1983, not yet in force), A/CONF.117/14. | 《关于国家对国家财产、档案和债务的继承的维也纳公约》(1983年4月8日，维也纳，尚未生效)，A/CONF.117/14。 |
| General Assembly resolution 56/83 of 12 December 2001, annex. | 联大2001年12月12日第56/83号决议，附件。 |
| The draft articles adopted by the Commission and the commentaries thereto are reproduced in Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, paras. 76–77 (hereinafter, “articles on State responsibility”). | 委员会通过的条款草案及其评注载录于《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第76-77段(下称《国家责任条款》)。 |
| Para. (5) of the commentary to art. 1 of the articles on State responsibility, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, at p. 33. | 《国家责任条款》第1条评注第(5)段，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第33页。 |
| Para. (5) of the general commentary to the articles on State responsibility, Yearbook … 2001, vol. II (Part Two) and corrigendum, at p. 32. | 《国家责任条款》的总评注第(5)段，《2001年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)和更正，第32页。 |
| Para. (3) of the commentary to draft article 2 of the draft articles on succession of States in respect of treaties, Yearbook … 1974, vol. II (Part One), document A/9610/Rev.1, at p. 175. | 关于国家在条约方面的继承的条款草案第2条的评注第(3)段，《1974年…年鉴》，第二卷(第一部分)，A/9610/Rev.1号文件，第175页。 |
| General Assembly resolution 55/153 of 12 December 2000, annex. | 联大2000年12月12日第55/153号决议，附件。 |
| The draft articles and the commentaries thereto are reproduced in Yearbook … 1999, vol. II (Part Two), paras. 47–48. | 条款草案及其评注载录于《1999年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第47-48段。 |
| See also Institute of International Law, Yearbook, vol. 76, Session of Tallinn (2015), “State succession in matters of international responsibility”, Fourteenth Commission, Rapporteur: Marcelo Kohen, p. 509, resolution, p. 711. | 另见国际法学会，《年鉴》，第76卷，塔林会议(2015年)，“国际责任事项中的国家继承”，第十四委员会，报告员：马塞洛·科恩，第509页起，决议，第711页。 |
| General Assembly resolution 2625 (XXV) of 24 October 1970, annex. | 联大1970年10月24日第2625(XXV)号决议，附件。 |
| See, for example, Security Council resolution 662 (1990) of 9 August 1990 concerning annexation of Kuwait by Iraq; Security Council resolutions 216 (1965) of 12 November 1965 and 217 (1965) of 20 November 1965 concerning Southern Rhodesia; Security Council resolutions 541 (1983) of 18 November 1983 and 550 (1984) of 11 May 1984 concerning Cyprus. | 例如见安全理事会关于伊拉克兼并科威特的1990年8月9日第662(1990)号决议、安全理事会关于南罗得西亚的1965年11月12日第216(1965)号和1965年11月20日第217(1965)号决议，以及安全理事会关于塞浦路斯的1983年11月18日第541(1983)号和1984年5月11日第550(1984)号决议。 |
| Institute of International Law, Yearbook, vol. 76 (see footnote 1458 above), final report, para. 24 (footnote omitted). | 国际法学会，《年鉴》，第76卷(见上文脚注1458)，最后报告，第24段(脚注略)。 |
| At its 2940th meeting, on 20 July 2007 (Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-second Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/62/10), para. 376). | 2007年7月20日第2940次会议(《大会正式记录，第六十二届会议，补编第10号》(A/62/10)，第376段)。 |
| The General Assembly, in paragraph 7 of its resolution 62/66 of 6 December 2007, took note of the decision of the Commission to include the topic in its programme of work. | 联大在2007年12月6日第62/66号决议第7段中注意到委员会决定将本专题列入其工作方案。 |
| The topic had been included in the long-term programme of work of the Commission during its fifty-eighth session (2006), on the basis of the proposal contained in annex A of the report of the Commission (Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-first Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/61/10), para. 257). | 在第五十八届会议(2006年)上，委员会已根据其报告附件A中所载建议，将本专题列入其长期工作方案(《大会正式记录，第六十一届会议，补编第10号》(A/61/10)，第257段)。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-second Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/62/10), para. 386. | 《大会正式记录，第六十二届会议，补编第10号》(A/62/10)，第386段。 |
| For the memorandum prepared by the Secretariat, see A/CN.4/596 and Corr.1. | 秘书处编写的备忘录见A/CN.4/596和Corr.1号文件。 |
| A/CN.4/601, A/CN.4/631 and A/CN.4/646, respectively. | 分别为A/CN.4/601、A/CN.4/631和A/CN.4/646。 |
| See Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-fourth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/64/10), para. 207; | 见《大会正式记录，第六十四届会议，补编第10号》(A/64/10)，第207段； |
| and ibid., Sixty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/65/10), para. 343. | 和同上，《第六十五届会议，补编第10号》(A/65/10)，第343段。 |
| Ibid., Sixty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/67/10), para. 266. | 同上，《第六十七届会议，补编第10号》(A/67/10)，第266段。 |
| A/CN.4/654, A/CN.4/661, A/CN.4/673, A/CN.4/686, A/CN.4/701, and A/CN.4/722, respectively. | 分别为A/CN.4/654、A/CN.4/661、A/CN.4/673、A/CN.4/686、A/CN.4/701和A/CN.4/722。 |
| See Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/68/10), paras. 48–49. | 见《大会正式记录，第六十八届会议，补编第10号》(A/68/10)，第48-49段。 |
| At its 3174th meeting, on 7 June 2013, the Commission received the report of the Drafting Committee and provisionally adopted draft articles 1, 3 and 4 and, at its 3193rd to 3196th meetings, on 6 and 7 August 2013, it adopted the commentaries thereto (ibid., Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/69/10), paras. 48–49). | 委员会在2013年6月7日第3174次会议上收到了起草委员会的报告并暂时通过了第1、第3和第4这三条草案，在2013年8月6日和7日第3193至第3196次会议上通过了这三条的评注(同上，《第六十九届会议，补编第10号》(A/69/10)，第48-49段)。 |
| At its 3231st meeting, on 25 July 2014, the Commission received the report of the Drafting Committee and provisionally adopted draft articles 2 (e) and 5 and, at its 3240th to 3242nd meetings, on 6 and 7 August 2014, it adopted the commentaries thereto. | 委员会在2014年7月25日第3231次会议上收到了起草委员会的报告并暂时通过了第2条草案(e)项和第5条草案，在2014年8月6日和7日的第3240至第3242次会议上通过了其评注。 |
| At its 3329th meeting, on 27 July 2016, the Commission provisionally adopted draft articles 2, subparagraph (f), and 6, provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee and taken note of by the Commission at its sixty-seventh session, and at its 3345th and 3346th meetings, on 11 August 2016, the Commission adopted the commentaries thereto (ibid., Seventy-first Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/71/10), paras. 194–195 and 250). | 委员会在2016年7月27日第3329次会议上暂时通过了由起草委员会暂时通过并由委员会第六十七届会议注意到的第2条草案(f)项和第6条草案，在2016年8月11日第3345次和第3346次会议上通过了其评注(同上，《第七十一届会议，补编第10号》(A/71/10)，第194-195段和第250段)。 |
| At its 3378th meeting, on 20 July 2017, the Commission provisionally adopted draft article 7 by a recorded vote and at the 3387th to 3389th meetings on 3 and 4 August 2017, the commentaries thereto (ibid., Seventy-first Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/72/10), paras. 74, 76 and 140–141). | 委员会在2017年7月20日第3378次会议上经记录表决暂时通过了第7条草案，在2017年8月3日和4日第3387次至第3389次会议上通过了其评注(同上，《第七十二届会议，补编第10号》(A/72/10)，第74、第76和第140-141段)。 |
| The report and the corresponding statement of the Chair of the Drafting Committee are available in the Analytical Guide to the Work of the International Law Commission: http://legal.un.org/ilc/guide/gfra/shtml. | 该报告和起草委员会主席的相应声明可从以下网址查阅：国际法委员会工作分析指南：http://legal.un.org/ilc/guide/gfra/shtml。 |
| The draft article 8 ante, provisionally adopted by the Drafting Committee, reads as follows: | 起草委员会暂时通过的第8(前)条草案如下： |
| “Draft article 8 ante | “第8(前)条草案 |
| Applicgation of Part Four | 第四部分的适用范围 |
| The procedural provisions and safeguards in this Part shall be applicable in relation to any criminal proceeding against a foreign State official, current or former, that concerns any of the draft articles contained in Part Two and Part Three of the present draft articles, including to the determination of whether immunity applies or does not apply under any of the draft articles.” | 本部分的程序性规定和保障措施适用于针对现任或前任外国官员的、涉及本条款草案第二部分和第三部分所载的任何条款草案的任何刑事诉讼，包括适用于依本条款草案任何部分确定豁免适用还是不适用。 |
| The proposals by the Special Rapporteur currently in the Drafting Committee read as follow: | ” 特别报告员目前在起草委员会提出的建议如下： |
| “Draft article 3 | “第3条草案 |
| Definitions | 定义 |
| For the purposes of the present draft articles: | 为本条款草案的目的： |
| (a) The term ‘criminal jurisdiction’ means all of the forms of jurisdiction, processes, procedures and acts which, under the law of the State that purports to exercise jurisdiction, are needed in order for a court to establish and enforce individual criminal responsibility arising from the commission of an act established as a crime or misdemeanour under the applicable law of that State. | (a) “刑事管辖”一语，是指根据要行使管辖的国家的法律，为了使法院能够确立并追究因实施被该国适用的法律定为犯罪或不端行为而产生的个人刑事责任，所需的所有形式的管辖、过程、程序和行为。 |
| For the purposes of the definition of the term ‘criminal jurisdiction’, the basis of the State’s competence to exercise jurisdiction is irrelevant;” | 为“刑事管辖”定义的目的，国家行使管辖的权限的依据与此无关； |
| (A/CN.4/661, para. 42). | (A/CN.4/661, 第42段)。 |
| In the draft articles provisionally adopted by the Commission, the definitions article is draft article 2. | 在委员会暂时通过的条款草案里，关于定义的一条是第2条草案。 |
| “(b) | “(b) |
| ‘Immunity from foreign criminal jurisdiction’ means the protection from the exercise of criminal jurisdiction by the judges and courts of another State that is enjoyed by certain State officials;” | “外国刑事管辖豁免”是指国家某些官员享有的不受另一国法官和法院刑事管辖的保护； |
| (A/CN.4/661, para. 46). | (A/CN.4/661, 第46段)。 |
| “(c) | “(c) |
| ‘Immunity ratione personae’ means the immunity from foreign criminal jurisdiction that is enjoyed by certain State officials by virtue of their status in their State of nationality, which directly and automatically assigns them the function of representing the State in its international relations;” | “属人豁免”是指国家某些官员因其在国籍国的地位直接自动授予他们在国际关系中代表国家的职能而享有的外国刑事管辖豁免； |
| “(d) | “(d) |
| ‘Immunity ratione materiae’ means the immunity from foreign criminal jurisdiction that is enjoyed by State officials on the basis of the acts which they perform in the discharge of their mandate and which can be described as ‘official acts’” | “属事豁免”是指国家官员依据其在履行职责时实施的可被称为“公务行为”的行为而享有的外国刑事管辖豁免” |
| (A/CN.4/661, para. 53). | (A/CN.4/661, 第53段)。 |
| See A/CN.4/722. | 见A/CN.4/722。 |
| The draft article proposed by the Special Rapporteur reads as follows: | 特别报告员提出的条款草案如下： |
| “Draft article 8 | “第8条草案 |
| Consideration of immunity by the forum State | 法院地国考虑豁免问题 |
| 1. The competent authorities of the forum State shall consider immunity as soon as they are aware that a foreign official may be affected by a criminal proceeding. | 1. 法院地国主管当局一旦意识到某一外国官员可能受到刑事诉讼的影响，即应考虑豁免。 |
| 2. Immunity shall be considered at an early stage of the proceeding, before the indictment of the official and the commencement of the prosecution phase. | 2. 应在诉讼早期阶段，在该官员被起诉和起诉阶段开始之前考虑豁免。 |
| 3. The immunity shall, in any case, be considered if the competent authorities of the State intend to take a coercive measure against the foreign official that may affect the performance of his or her functions.” | 3. 在任何情况下，如果国家主管当局打算对该外国官员采取可能影响其履行职能的强制措施，则应考虑豁免。 |
| The draft article proposed by the Special Rapporteur reads as follows: | ” 特别报告员提出的条款草案如下： |
| “Draft article 9 | “第9条草案 |
| Determination of immunity | 豁免的确定 |
| 1. It shall be for the courts of the forum State that are competent to exercise jurisdiction to determine the immunity of State officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction, without prejudice to the participation of other organs of the State which, in accordance with national laws, may cooperate with them. | 1. 应由有权行使管辖权的法院地国法院确定国家官员的外国刑事管辖豁免，但不妨碍根据国内法的规定可与法院合作的该国其他机关的参与。 |
| 2. The immunity of the foreign State shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of the present draft articles and through the procedures established by national law. | 2. 应依照本条款草案的规定并通过国内法规定的程序确定该外国官员的豁免。 |
| 3. The competent court shall consider whether the State of the official has invoked or waived immunity, as well as the information provided to it by other authorities of the forum State and by the authorities of the State of the official whenever possible.” | 3. 主管法院应考虑官员所属国是否已援引或放弃豁免，并尽可能考虑到法院地国其他当局和官员所属国当局向其提供的资料。 |
| The draft article proposed by the Special Rapporteur reads as follows: | ” 特别报告员提出的条款草案如下： |
| “Draft article 10 | “第10条草案 |
| Invocation of immunity | 援引豁免 |
| 1. A State may invoke the immunity of any of its officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction before a State that intends to exercise jurisdiction. | 1. 一国可向打算行使管辖权的国家为其任何官员援引外国刑事管辖豁免。 |
| 2. Immunity shall be invoked soon as the State of the official is aware that the forum State intends to exercise criminal jurisdiction over the official. | 2. 官员所属国在知悉法院地国打算对该官员行使刑事管辖权后，应立即援引豁免。 |
| 3. Immunity shall be invoked in writing and clearly, indicating the identity of the official in respect of whom the immunity is being invoked and the type of immunity being invoked. | 3. 援引豁免应以书面形式明确提出，同时说明被援引豁免的官员的身份和援引的豁免类型。 |
| 4. Immunity shall be invoked preferably through the procedures established in cooperation and mutual judicial assistance agreements to which both States are parties, or through other procedures commonly accepted by said States. | 4. 援引豁免最好通过两国都是缔约国的合作和司法互助协定所规定的程序提出，或通过两国共同接受的其他程序提出。 |
| Immunity may also be invoked through the diplomatic channel. | 也可以通过外交途径援引豁免。 |
| 5. Where immunity is not invoked directly before the courts of the forum State, the authorities that have received the communication relating to the invocation of immunity shall use all means available to them to transmit it to the organs that are competent to determine the application of immunity, which shall decide thereon as soon as they are aware of the invocation of immunity. | 5. 如果援引豁免不是直接向法院地国法院提出，则收到援引豁免有关通信的主管当局应利用一切可用手段，将通信转交有权确定是否适用豁免的机关，而主管机关应在知悉豁免的援引后尽快就此作出决定。 |
| 6. In any event, the organs that are competent to determine immunity shall decide proprio motu on its application in respect of State officials who enjoy immunity ratione personae, whether the State of the official invokes immunity or not.” | 6. 无论如何，有权确定豁免的机关应自行决定是否对享有属人豁免的国家官员适用豁免，而不论官员所属国是否援引豁免。” |
| The draft article proposed by the Special Rapporteur reads as follows: | 特别报告员提出的条款草案如下： |
| “Draft article 11 | “第11条草案 |
| Waiver of immunity | 放弃豁免 |
| 1. A State may waive the immunity of its officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction. | 1. 一国可放弃其官员的外国刑事管辖豁免。 |
| 2. Waiver shall be express and clear and shall mention the official whose immunity is being waived and, where applicable, the acts to which the waiver pertains. | 2. 放弃应以明示方式明确作出，提及被放弃豁免的官员，并酌情提及放弃豁免所涉及的行为。 |
| 3. Waiver shall be effectuated preferably through the procedures set out in cooperation and mutual judicial assistance agreements to which both States are parties, or through other procedures commonly accepted by said States. | 3. 最好通过两国均为缔约国的合作和司法互助协定中规定的程序实施放弃豁免，或通过上述国家共同接受的其他程序实施。 |
| A waiver of immunity may be communicated through the diplomatic channel. | 放弃豁免可通过外交途径作出通知。 |
| 4. A waiver that can be deduced clearly and unequivocally from an international treaty to which the forum State and the State of the official are parties shall be deemed an express waiver. | 4. 从法院地国和官员所属国均为缔约国的国际条约中可以明确无疑推断出的放弃，应被视为明示放弃。 |
| 5. Where a waiver of immunity is not effectuated directly before the courts of the forum State, the authorities that have received the communication relating to the waiver shall use all means available to them to transmit it to the organs competent to determine the application of immunity. | 5. 不是直接在法院地国法院实施的放弃豁免，应由收到放弃豁免有关通信的当局利用其一切可用手段将该通信转交有权决定豁免适用问题的机关。 |
| 6. Waiver of immunity is irrevocable.” | 6. 放弃豁免不可撤销。 |
| The draft article proposed by the Special Rapporteur reads as follows: | ” 特别报告员提出的条款草案如下： |
| “Draft article 12 | “第12条草案 |
| Notification of the State of the official | 通知官员所属国 |
| 1. Where the competent authorities of the forum State have sufficient information to conclude that a foreign official could be subject to its criminal jurisdiction, the forum State shall notify the State of the official of that circumstance. | 1. 如果法院地国主管当局有足够信息认定某一外国官员可能受其刑事管辖，则法院地国应将这一情况通知该官员所属国。 |
| For that purpose, States shall consider establishing in their domestic law appropriate procedures to facilitate such notification. | 为此目的，各国应考虑在其国内法中规定适当程序，以便利这种通知。 |
| 2. The notification shall include the identity of the official, the acts of the official that may be subject to the exercise of criminal jurisdiction and the authority that, in accordance with the law of the forum State, is competent to exercise such jurisdiction. | 2. 通知应包括该官员的身份、该官员可能受刑事管辖的行为以及根据法院地国法律有权行使这种管辖权的当局。 |
| 3. The notification shall be provided through any means of communication accepted by both States or through means provided for in international cooperation and mutual legal assistance treaties to which both States are parties. | 3. 通知应以两国都接受的任何通信方式作出，或通过两国均为缔约国的国际合作和司法互助条约规定的方式作出。 |
| Where no such means exist or are accepted, the notification shall be provided through the diplomatic channel.” | 如果不存在或不接受这样的方式，则应通过外交途径发出通知。” |
| The draft article proposed by the Special Rapporteur reads as follows: | 特别报告员提出的条款草案如下： |
| “Draft article 13 | “第13条草案 |
| Exchange of information | 交换信息 |
| 1. The forum State may request from the State of the official information that it considers relevant in order to decide on the application of immunity. | 1. 法院地国可请官员所属国提供其认为相关的官方信息，以便就豁免的适用作出决定。 |
| 2. That information may be requested through the procedures set out in international cooperation and mutual legal assistance treaties to which both States are parties, or through any other procedure that they accept by common agreement. | 2. 可通过两国均为缔约国的国际合作和司法互助条约规定的程序，或通过两国共同商定认可的任何其他程序，请求提供相关信息。 |
| Where no applicable procedure exists, the information may be requested through the diplomatic channel. | 在没有适用程序的情况下，可通过外交渠道请求提供信息。 |
| 3. Where the information is not transmitted directly to the competent judicial organs so that they can rule on immunity, the authorities of the forum State that receive it shall, in accordance with domestic law, transmit it directly to the competent courts. | 3. 如果信息不是直接传递给主管司法机关供其就豁免问题作出裁决，接收信息的法院地国当局应根据国内法将该信息直接送交主管法院。 |
| For that purpose, States shall consider establishing in their domestic law appropriate procedures to facilitate such communication. | 为此目的，各国应考虑在其国内法中规定适当程序，以便利这种通信。 |
| 4. The State of the official may refuse a request for information if it considers that the request affects its sovereignty, public order (ordre public), security or essential public interests. | 4. 官员所属国如认为提供信息的请求影响到其主权、公共秩序、安全或基本公共利益，可予以拒绝。 |
| Before refusing the request for information, the State of the official shall consider the possibility of making the transmission of the information subject to conditions. | 在拒绝信息请求之前，官员所属国应考虑是否有可能为提供信息附加条件。 |
| 5. The information received shall, where applicable, be subject to conditions of confidentiality stipulated by the State of the official, which shall be fulfilled in accordance with the mutual assistance treaties that provide the basis for the request for and provision of the information or, failing that, to conditions set by the State of the official when it provides the information. | 5. 在适用的情况下，对于接收的信息，应按照请求和提供信息所依据的互助条约，遵守官员所属国规定的保密条件，如果没有此类条约，则应遵守官员所属国在提供信息时设定的条件。 |
| 6. Refusal by the State of the official to provide the requested information cannot be considered sufficient grounds for declaring that immunity from jurisdiction does not apply.” | 6. 官员所属国拒绝提供所请求的信息，不能被视为宣布管辖豁免不适用的充分理由。 |
| The draft article proposed by the Special Rapporteur reads as follows: | ” 特别报告员提出的条款草案如下： |
| “Draft article 14 | “第14条草案 |
| Transfer of proceedings to the State of the official | 向官员所属国转移诉讼 |
| 1. The authorities of the forum State may consider declining to exercise its jurisdiction in favour of the State of the official, transferring to that State criminal proceedings that have been initiated or that are intended to be initiated against the official. | 1. 法院地国当局可考虑拒绝行使管辖权，并将已经提起或打算对有关官员提起的刑事诉讼转移给官员所属国，由其行使管辖权。 |
| 2. Once a transfer has been requested, the forum State shall suspend the criminal proceedings until the State of the official has made a decision concerning that request. | 2. 转移请求一经提出，法院地国应暂停刑事诉讼程序，直至官员所属国就该项请求作出决定。 |
| 3. The proceedings shall be transferred to the State of the official in accordance with the national laws of the forum State and the international cooperation and mutual judicial assistance agreements to which the forum State and the State of the official are parties.” | 3. 应按照法院地国的国内法以及法院地国和官员所属国均为缔约国的国际合作和司法互助协定，向官员所属国转移诉讼。” |
| The draft article proposed by the Special Rapporteur reads as follows: | 特别报告员提出的条款草案如下： |
| “Draft article 15 | “第15条草案 |
| Consultations | 协商 |
| The forum State and the State of the official may consult, at the request of either, on matters concerning the determination of the immunity of the foreign official in accordance with the present draft articles.” | 法院地国和官员所属国应在彼此任何一方的请求下，就根据本条款草案确定该外国官员豁免事宜进行协商。 |
| The draft article proposed by the Special Rapporteur reads as follows: | ” 特别报告员提出的条款草案如下： |
| “Draft article 16 | “第16条草案 |
| Fair and impartial treatment of the official | 公平公正地对待官员 |
| 1. A State official whose immunity from foreign criminal jurisdiction is being examined by the authorities of the forum State shall benefit from all fair treatment safeguards, including the procedural rights and safeguards relating to a fair and impartial trial. | 1. 被法院地国当局审查外国刑事管辖豁免的国家官员应得到全部公平待遇保障，包括与公平公正审判有关的程序性权利和保障。 |
| 2. These safeguards shall be applicable both during the process of determining the application of immunity from jurisdiction and in any court proceeding initiated against the official in the event that immunity from jurisdiction does not apply. | 2. 在确定是否适用管辖豁免的过程中，以及在不适用管辖豁免的情况下对该官员提起的任何法院诉讼中，这些保障均适用。 |
| 3. The fair and impartial treatment safeguards shall in all cases include the obligation to inform the nearest representative of the State of the official, without delay, of such person’s detention or any other measure that might affect his or her personal liberty, so that the official can receive the assistance to which he or she is entitled under international law. | 3. 在任何情况下，公平公正待遇保障包括有义务毫不拖延地将该官员被拘禁或可能影响其人身自由的任何其他措施通知官员所属国的最近代表，以便该官员能够获得其根据国际法有权得到的协助。 |
| 4. The official shall be treated in a fair and impartial manner consistent with applicable international rules and the laws and regulations of the forum State.” | 4. 应按照适用的国际规则和法院地国的法律和规章，以公平公正的方式对待该官员。 ” |
| Situation in Darfur, Sudan, In the case of the Prosecutor v. Omar Hassan Ahmed Bashir (Decision under article 87(7) of the Rome Statute on the non-compliance by Jordan with the request by the Court for the arrest and surrender or Omar Al-Bashir). | 苏丹达尔富尔局势，检察官诉奥马尔·哈桑·艾哈迈德·巴希尔案(根据《罗马规约》第八十七条第七款关于约旦不遵守法院逮捕和移交奥马尔·巴希尔的请求的决定)。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/73/10), chap. VII. | 《大会正式记录，第七十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/73/10)，第七章。 |
| The draft conclusions proposed by the Special Rapporteur in his first report read as follows: | 特别报告员在第一次报告中提出的结论草案如下： |
| “Draft conclusion 1 | “结论草案1： |
| Scope | 范围 |
| The present draft conclusions concern general principles of law as a source of international law. | 本结论草案涉及作为国际法渊源之一的一般法律原则。 |
| Draft conclusion 2 | 结论草案2： |
| Requirement of recognition | 承认的要求 |
| For a general principle of law to exist, it must be generally recognized by States. | 一般法律原则须为各国普遍承认才会存在。 |
| Draft conclusion 3 | 结论草案3： |
| Categories of general principles of law | 一般法律原则的类别 |
| General principles of law comprise those: | 一般法律原则包括： |
| (a) derived from national legal systems; | (a) 源自国家法律体系的原则； |
| (b) formed within the international legal system.” | (b) 国际法体系内形成的原则。 ” |
| http://legal.un.org/ilc/guide/gfra/shtml. | http://legal.un.org/ilc/guide/gfra/shtml. |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/73/10), para. 369. | 《大会正式记录，第七十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/73/10)，第369段。 |
| Ibid., annex B. | 同上，附件B。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/73/10), para. 85. | 《大会正式记录，第七十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/73/10), 第85段。 |
| Ibid., para. 90. | 同上，第90段。 |
| Ibid., para. 85, footnote 1008. | 同上，第85段，脚注1008。 |
| A/CN.4/718, paras. 75–77, and Add.1. | A/CN.4/718, 第75-77段，以及Add.1。 |
| Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Vienna, 23 May 1969), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1155, No. 18232, p. 331. | 《维也纳条约法公约》(1969年5月23日，维也纳)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1155卷，第18232号，第331页。 |
| Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/63/10). | 《大会正式记录，第六十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/63/10)。 |
| Ibid., Sixty-fourth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/64/10), para. 231; | 同上，《第六十四届会议，补编第10号》(A/64/10)，第231段； |
| ibid., Sixty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/65/10), paras. 390–393; | 同上，《第六十五届会议，补编第10号》(A/65/10)，第390-393段； |
| ibid., Sixty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/66/10), paras. 392–398; | 同上，《第六十六届会议，补编第10号》(A/66/10)，第392-398段； |
| ibid., Sixty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/67/10), paras. 274–279; | 同上，《第六十七届会议，补编第10号》(A/67/10)，第274-279段； |
| ibid., Sixty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/68/10), paras. 171–179; | 同上，《第六十八届会议，补编第10号》(A/68/10)，第171-179段； |
| ibid., Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/69/10), paras. 273–280; | 同上，《第六十九届会议，补编第10号》(A/69/10)，第273-280段； |
| ibid., Seventieth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/70/10), paras. 288–295; | 同上，《第七十届会议，补编第10号》(A/70/10)，第288-295段； |
| ibid., Seventy-first Session, Supplement No.10 (A/71/10), paras. 314–322; | 同上，《第七十一届会议，补编第10号》(A/71/10)，第314-322段； |
| ibid., Seventy-second Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/72/10), paras. 269–278; | 同上，《第七十二届会议，补编第10号》(A/72/10)，第269-278段； |
| ibid., Seventy-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/73/10), paras. 372–380. | 同上，《第七十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/73/10)，第372-380段。 |
| General Assembly resolution 67/1 of 30 November 2012 on the Declaration of the high-level meeting of the General Assembly on the rule of law at the national and international levels, para. 41. | 联大2012年11月30日关于《国内和国际的法治问题大会高级别会议宣言》的第67/1号决议，第41段。 |
| Report of the Secretary-General on measuring the effectiveness of the support provided by the United Nations system for the promotion of the rule of law in conflict and post-conflict situations, S/2013/341, 11 June 2013, para. 70. | 秘书长关于衡量联合国系统在冲突中和冲突后支持促进法治的效力的报告，S/2013/341, 2013年6月11日，第70段。 |
| General Assembly resolution 70/1 of 21 October 2015, para. 35. | 联大2015年10月21日第70/1号决议，第35段。 |
| General Assembly resolution 73/207 of 20 December 2018, paras. 2 and 23. | 联大2018年12月20日第73/207号决议，第2段和第23段。 |
| Ibid., para. 23. | 同上，第23段。 |
| Ibid., para. 9. | 同上，第9段。 |
| See more specifically Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventieth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/70/10), para. 294. | 详见《大会正式记录，第七十届会议，补编第10号》(A/70/10)，第294段。 |
| See ibid., Fifty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/57/10), paras. 525–531; | 见同上，《第五十七届会议，补编第10号》(A/57/10)，第525-531段； |
| ibid., Fifty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/58/10), para. 447; | 同上，《第五十八届会议，补编第10号》(A/58/10)，第447段； |
| ibid., Fifty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/59/10), para. 369; | 同上，《第五十九届会议，补编第10号》(A/59/10)，第369段； |
| ibid., Sixtieth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/60/10), para. 501; | 同上，《第六十届会议，补编第10号》(A/60/10)，第501段； |
| ibid., Sixty-first Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/61/10), para. 269; | 同上，《第六十一届会议，补编第10号》(A/61/10)，第269段； |
| ibid., Sixty-second Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/62/10), para. 379; | 同上，《第六十二届会议，补编第10号》(A/62/10)，第379段； |
| ibid., Sixty-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/63/10), para. 358; | 同上，《第六十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/63/10)，第358段； |
| ibid., Sixty-fourth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/64/10), para. 240; | 同上，《第六十四届会议，补编第10号》(A/64/10)，第240段； |
| ibid., Sixty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/65/10), para. 396; | 同上，《第六十五届会议，补编第10号》(A/65/10)，第396段； |
| ibid., Sixty-sixth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/66/10), para. 399; | 同上，《第六十六届会议，补编第10号》(A/66/10)，第399段； |
| ibid., Sixty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/67/10), para. 280; | 同上，《第六十七届会议，补编第10号》(A/67/10)，第280段； |
| ibid., Sixty-eighth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/68/10), para. 181; | 同上，《第六十八届会议，补编第10号》(A/68/10)，第181段； |
| ibid., Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/69/10), para. 281; | 同上，《第六十九届会议，补编第10号》(A/69/10)，第281段； |
| and ibid., Seventieth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/70/10), para. 299; | 同上，《第七十届会议，补编第10号》(A/70/10)，第299段； |
| ibid., Seventy-first Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/71/10), para. 333; | 同上，《第七十一届会议，补编第10号》(A/71/10)，第333段； |
| ibid., Seventy-second Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/72/10), para. 282; | 同上，《第七十二届会议，补编第10号》(A/72/10)，第282段； |
| ibid., Seventy-third Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/73/10), para. 382. | 同上，《第七十三届会议，补编第10号》(A/73/10)，第382段。 |
| For considerations relating to page limits on the reports of Special Rapporteurs, see, for example, Yearbook … 1977, vol. II (Part Two), p. 132, and Yearbook … 1982, vol. II (Part Two), pp. 123–124. | 关于对特别报告员报告页数限制的考虑因素，例如，见《1977年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第132页，和《1982年…年鉴》，第二卷(第二部分)，第123-124页。 |
| See also General Assembly resolution 32/151 of 9 December 1977, para. 10, and General Assembly resolution 37/111 of 16 December 1982, para. 5, as well as subsequent resolutions on the annual reports of the Commission to the General Assembly. | 另见联大1977年12月9日第32/151号决议第10段和联大1982年12月16日第37/111号决议第5段，以及之后关于委员会向联大提交年度报告的决议。 |
| http://legal.un.org//ilc. | http://legal.un.org//ilc. |
| In general, available from: http://legal.un.org/cod/. | 一般而言，可查阅：http://legal.un.org/cod/。 |
| http://legal.un.org/avl/intro/welcome_avl.html. | http://legal.un.org/avl/intro/welcome_avl.html. |
| The statement is recorded in the summary record of that meeting. | 发言载于该次会议简要记录。 |
| The statements are recorded in the summary record of that meeting. | 发言载于该次会议简要记录。 |
| The statement is recorded in the summary record of that meeting. | 发言载于该次会议简要记录。 |
| The statement is recorded in the summary record of that meeting. | 发言载于该次会议简要记录。 |
| The statements are recorded in the summary record of that meeting. | 发言载于该次会议简要记录。 |
| The following persons participated in the Seminar: Mr. Mohamed Abdelmeguid Rabie (Egypt), Mr. Hafez Abou Alchamat (Syrian Arab Republic), Mr. Alexander Antialon Conde (Peru), Ms. Giulia Bernabei (Italy), Ms. Ozge Bilge (Turkey), Ms. Elisabetta Bucci (San Marino), Ms. Arianna del Carmen Carral Castelo (Cuba), Mr. Delva Dimanche (Haiti), Ms. Victoria Ernst (United States of America), Ms. Benjaporn Fattier (Thailand), Mr. René Figueredo Corrales (Paraguay), Mr. Javier Fernando García Botero (Colombia), Mr. Gueorgui Gueorguiev (Bulgaria), Ms. Fatima Hajoui (Morocco), Ms. Ha’a Hauirae (Solomon Islands), Mr. Martin Mändveer (Estonia), Mr. Chany Pavel Ngatheyo Akony (Congo), Ms. Marie Claire Ngo Nyeheg (Cameroon), Ms. Pia Niederdorfer (Austria), Ms. Marieanne Oludhe (Kenya), Ms. Naureen Rahim (Bangladesh), Mr. Shokirjon Rakhmatov (Uzbekistan), Mr. Simon-Peter St. Emmanuel (Nigeria), Ms. Aichatou Tamba (Senegal), Mr. Kiran Mohan Vazhapully (India). | 下列人员参加了讲习班：Mohamed Abdelmeguid Rabie先生(埃及)、Hafez Abou Alchamat先生(阿拉伯叙利亚共和国)、Alexander Antialon Conde先生(秘鲁)、Giulia Bernabei女士(意大利)、Ozge Bilge女士(土耳其)、Elisabetta Bucci女士(圣马力诺)、Arianna del Carmen Carral Castelo女士(古巴)、Delva Dimanche先生(海地)、Victoria Ernst女士(美利坚合众国)、Benjaporn Fattier女士(泰国)、René Figueredo Corrales先生(巴拉圭)、Javier Fernando García Botero先生(哥伦比亚)、Gueorgui Gueorguiev先生(保加利亚)、Fatima Hajoui女士(摩洛哥)、Ha’a Hauirae女士(所罗门群岛)、Martin Mändveer先生(爱沙尼亚)、Chany Pavel Ngatheyo Akony先生(刚果)、Marie Claire Ngo Nyeheg女士(喀麦隆)、Pia Niederdorfer女士(奥地利)、Marieanne Oludhe女士(肯尼亚)、Naureen Rahim女士(孟加拉国)、Shokirjon Rakhmatov先生(乌兹别克斯坦)、Simon-Peter St. Emmanuel先生(尼日利亚)、Aichatou Tamba女士(塞内加尔)、Kiran Mohan Vazhapully先生(印度)。 |
| The Selection Committee, chaired by Mr. Makane Moïse Mbengue, Professor of International Law at the University of Geneva, met on 30 April 2019 and selected 25 candidates from 304 applications. | 由日内瓦大学国际法教授Makane Moïse Mbengue先生担任主席的甄选委员会于2019年4月30日举行会议，从304名申请人中选出了25名学员。 |
| Protocol to the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement establishing a partnership between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Russian Federation, of the other, to take account of the accession of the Republic of Croatia to the European Union, Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 373, p. 3,art. 4 (“This Protocol shall apply provisionally…”); | 《俄罗斯联邦、白俄罗斯共和国、哈萨克斯坦共和国和吉尔吉斯共和国关于深化经济和人道主义领域一体化的条约》(1996年3月29日，莫斯科)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2014卷，第34547号，第15页，第26条； 《葡萄牙语国家共同体规约》(1996年7月17日，里斯本)，同上，第2233卷，第39756号，第207页； |
| Agreement between the European Community and the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic on certain aspects of air services, Ibid., No. L 179, p. 20, art. 9 (“…the Parties agree to provisionally apply this Agreement…”); | 《关于必须离开南斯拉夫的南斯拉夫国民过境许可的协定》(2000年3月21日，柏林)，同上，第2307卷，第41137号，第3页，第7条，第3款； |
| Exchange of notes between Switzerland and Liechtenstein relating to the distribution of the tax benefits on CO2 and the reimbursement of the tax on CO2 to enterprises under Liechtenstein’s law on the exchanges of rights, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2763, p. 274, at 262, art. 12 (“…this Agreement shall apply provisionally…”); | 《设立支持非正规教育政策的“Karanta”基金会和在附件中列入基金会章程的协定》(2000年12月15日，达喀尔)，同上，第2341卷，第41941号，第3页，第8条； 1972年《国际可可协定》(1972年10月21日，日内瓦)，同上，第882卷，第12652号，第67页，第66条； |
| Council Decision of 18 November 2002 on the signature and provisional application of certain provisions of an Agreement establishing an association between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Chile, of the other part (2002/979/EC), Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 352, 30 December 2002, p. 1, art. 2 (“The following provisions of the Association Agreement shall be applied on a provisional basis pending its entry into force …”); | 《美利坚合众国政府和马绍尔群岛共和国政府之间关于合作制止大规模毁灭性武器、其运载系统和相关材料通过海运扩散的协定》(2004年8月13日，檀香山)，同上，[该卷尚未出版]，第51490号，第17条，第2款。 1994年《国际咖啡协定》，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1827卷，第31252号，第3页，第40条； 1994年《国际热带木材协定》，同上，第1955卷，第33484号，第81页，第41条，第2款； |
| ECOWAS Protocol A/P.1/12/99 relating to the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peace-keeping and Security, art. 57 (“This Protocol shall enter into force provisionally upon signature…”); | 《欧洲联盟及其成员国与乌克兰之间联系协定》(2014年3月21日，布鲁塞尔)，《欧洲联盟公报》，L 161号，第3页； |
| Supplementary Protocol A/SP.1/01/06 Amending Articles VI-C, VI-I, IX- 8, XI – 2 AND XII of Protocol A/P2/7/87 on the Establishment of the Western African Health Organization (WAHO), art. 2 (“This Protocol shall enter into force provisionally upon signature…”); | 1968年《国际咖啡协定》(1968年3月18日至31日在纽约开放供签署)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第647卷，第9262号，第3页，第62条，第2款； 1976年《国际咖啡协定》(1975年12月3日，伦敦)，同上，第1024卷，第15034号，第3页，第61条，第2款； |
| Supplementary Protocol A/SP.1/06/06 amending the Revised ECOWAS Treaty, art. 4 (“The present Supplementary Protocol shall enter into force provisionally upon signature…”); | 1983年《国际咖啡协定》(1982年9月16日，伦敦)，同上，第1333卷，第22376号，第119页，第61条，第2款。 |
| ECOWAS Supplementary Protocol A/SP.2/06/06 amending Article 3 Paragraphs 1, 2 and 4, Article 4 Paragraphs 1, 3 and 7 and Article 7,Paragraph 3 of the Protocol on the Community Court of Justice, art. 8 (“This Supplementary Protocol shall come into force provisionally upon its signature… | 《瑞士和列支敦士登关于根据列支敦士登权益交易法分配二氧化碳排放税益和二氧化碳排放税返还企业的换文》，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2763卷，第274页，见第262页，第48680号，第12条(“与本条约一样，本协定自…起暂时适用”)。 |
| ”). Treaty between the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Kyrgyz Republic on the deepening of integration in economic and humanitarian fields (Moscow, 29 March 1996), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2014, No. 34547, p. 15, art. 26; Statutes of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (Lisbon, 17 July 1996), Ibid., vol. 2233, No. 39756, p. 207; | 《〈关于欧洲共同体及其成员国与俄罗斯联邦之间建立伙伴关系的伙伴关系与合作协定〉反映克罗地亚共和国加入欧洲联盟一事的议定书》，《欧洲联盟公报》，L373号，第3页，第4条(“本议定书…暂时适用”)； |
| Agreement concerning permission for the transit of Yugoslav nationals who are obliged to leave the country (Berlin, 21 March 2000), Ibid., vol. 2307, No. 41137, p. 3, art.7, para.3; | 《欧洲共同体和吉尔吉斯共和国政府关于航空服务某些方面的协定》，同上，L179号，第20页，第9条(“…双方同意…暂时适用本协定…”)； |
| Agreement establishing the “Karanta” Foundation for support of non-formal education policies and including in annex the Statutes of the Foundation (Dakar, 15 December 2000), ibid., vol. 2341, No. 41941, p. 3, art. 8; 1972 International Cocoa Agreement (Geneva, 21 October 1972), ibid., vol. 882, No. 12652, p. 67, art. 66; | 《瑞士和列支敦士登关于根据列支敦士登权益交易法分配二氧化碳排放税益和二氧化碳排放税返还企业的换文》，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2763卷，第274页，见第262页，第12条(“…本协定…暂时适用”)； |
| Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands concerning cooperation to suppress the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, their delivery systems, and related materials by sea (Honolulu August 13, 2004), ibid., [vol. not yet published], No. 51490, art. 17, para. 2. | 理事会2002年11月18日关于签署《欧洲共同体及其成员国与智利共和国之间建立联系协定》以及暂时适用某些条款的决定(第2002/979/EC号)，《欧洲联盟公报》，L352号，2002年12月30日，第1页，第2条(“在《联系协定》生效以前，暂时适用以下条款…”)； |
| 1994 International Coffee Agreement, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1827, No. 31252, p. 3, art. 40; 1994 International Tropical Timber Agreement, Ibid., vol. 1955, No. 33484, p. 81, art. 41, para.2; | 《西非经共体关于预防、管理和解决冲突以及维持和平与安全机制的第A/P.1/12/99号议定书》，第57条(“本议定书在…签署后暂时生效”)； |
| Association Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and Ukraine, of the other part (Brussels, 21 March 2014), Official Journal of the European Union, L 161, p. 3; 1968 International Coffee Agreement (open for signature at New York from 18 to 31 March 1968), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 647, No. 9262, p. 3, art. 62, para. 2; | 《修正〈关于设立西非卫生组织的第A/P2/7/87号议定书〉第六条(c)款、第六条(i)款、第九条第8款、第十一条第2款和第十二条的第A/SP.1/01/06号补充议定书》，第2条(“本议定书在…签署后暂时生效”)； |
| 1976 International Coffee Agreement (London, 3 December 1975), ibid., vol. 1024, No. 15034, p. 3, art. 61, para. 2; International Coffee Agreement, 1983 (London, 16 September 1982), ibid., vol. 1333, No. 22376, p. 119, art. 61, para. 2. | 《修正经修订的〈西非经共体条约〉的第A/SP.1/06/06号补充议定书》，第4条(“本补充议定书在…签署后暂时生效”)； |
| Exchange of notes between Switzerland and Liechtenstein relating to the distribution of the tax benefits on CO2 and the reimbursement of the tax on CO2 to enterprises under Liechtenstein’s law on the exchanges of rights, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2763, p. 274, at 262, No. 48680, art. 12 (“Like the Treaty, this Agreement shall apply provisionally as of… | 《西非经共体修正〈共同体法院议定书〉第3条第1款、第2款和第4款、第4条第1款、第3款和第7款和第7条第3款的第A/SP.2/06/06号补充议定书》，第8条(“本补充议定书在…签署后暂时生效”)。 |
| ”). Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Kazakhstan, of the other part, Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 29, 4 February 2016, p. 3, art. 281, para. 5 (“unless otherwise specified therein, shall apply provisionally”). | 《欧洲联盟及其成员国与哈萨克斯坦共和国之间加强伙伴关系与合作协定》，《欧洲联盟公报》，L 29号，2016年2月4日，第3页，第281条，第5款(“除非另行说明，…暂时适用”)。 |
| Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 (New York, 28 July 1994), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1836, p. 41, at p. 46, art. 7; | 《关于执行1982年12月10日〈联合国海洋法公约〉第十一部分的协定》(1994年7月28日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1836卷，第41页，见第46页，第7条； |
| Exchange of notes of 17 June 1979 constituting an agreement for the provisional application of the Convention on International Land Transport and the annexes thereto (Mar del Plata on 10 November 1977) (available on the website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Peru, Directorate-General for Treaties: https://apps.rree.gob.pe/portal/webtratados.nsf/Tratados_ Bilateral.xsp?action=openDocument&documentId=E0F2.); | 《1979年6月17日构成〈国际陆路运输公约〉及其附件暂时适用协定的换文》(1977年11月10日，马德普拉塔)(可在秘鲁外交部条约司网站上查阅：https://apps.rree.gob.pe/portal/webtratados.nsf/ Tratados_Bilateral.xsp?action=openDocument&documentId=E0F2)； |
| Protocol on the Provisional Application of the Agreement establishing the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (Belize City, 5 February 2002), United Nations, Treaty Series, [vol. not yet published], No. 51181 (text available at: https://treaties.un.org); | 《关于暂时适用〈建立加勒比共同体气候变化中心的协定〉的议定书》(2002年2月5日，伯利兹城)，联合国，《条约汇编》，[该卷尚未出版]，第51181号(案文可查阅：https://treaties.un.org)； |
| Protocol on the Provisional Application of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas (Nassau, 5 July 2001), ibid., vol. 2259, No. 40269, p. 440; | 《关于暂时适用经修订的〈查瓜拉马斯条约〉的议定书》(2001年7月5日，拿骚)，同上，第2259卷，第40269号，第440页； |
| Agreement on the provisional application of certain provisions of Protocol No. 14 [to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, amending the control system of the Convention] pending its entry into force (Agreement of Madrid) (Madrid, 12 May 2009), Council of Europe Treaty Series, No. 194; | 《关于[〈保护人权与基本自由公约〉关于修改公约监察体系的]第14号议定书生效前暂时适用其某些规定的协定》(《马德里协定》)(2009年5月12日，马德里)，《欧洲委员会条约汇编》，第194号； |
| available at: https://rm.coe.int/1680083718. | 可查阅：https://rm.coe.int/1680083718。 |
| Agreement of Madrid; | 《马德里协定》； |
| Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 and the annex to the agreement, on costs to States parties and institutional arrangements; | 《关于执行1982年12月10日〈联合国海洋法公约〉第十一部分的协定》以及该协定关于缔约国的费用和体制安排的附件； |
| International Cocoa Agreement, 1986 (Geneva, 25 July 1986) United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1446, No. 24604, p. 104, art. 69 (“It shall remain a provisional member until the date of deposit of its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.”); | 1986年《国际可可协定》(1986年7月25日，日内瓦)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1446卷，第24604号，第104页，第69条(“…临时成员，直至交存其批准书、接受书、核准书或加入书之日。”)； |
| Agreement on the provisional application of certain provisions of Protocol No. 14 pending its entry into force. Council of Europe, Treaty Series, No. 194, para. e (“the provisional application of the above-mentioned provisions of Protocol No. 14 will terminate upon entry into force of Protocol No. 14 or if the High Contracting Parties in some other manner so agree.”). | 《关于第14号议定书生效前暂时适用其某些规定的协定》，《欧洲委员会条约汇编》，第194号，e款(“第14号议定书上述规定的暂时适用将在第14号议定书生效时或缔约方以其他方式同意时终止。 ”)。 |
| Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Vienna, 23 May 1969). United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1155, No. 18232, p. 331; | 《维也纳条约法公约》(1969年5月23日，维也纳)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1155卷，第18232号，第331页； |
| Treaty between the Federal Republic of Germany and the Kingdom of the Netherlands concerning the implementation of air traffic controls by the Federal Republic of Germany above Dutch territory and concerning the impact of the civil operations of Niederrhein Airport on the territory of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Berlin, 29 April 2003), ibid., vol. 2389, No. 43165, p. 117; | 《德意志联邦共和国和荷兰王国之间关于德意志联邦共和国在荷兰领土上空执行空中交通管制以及关于下莱茵机场民用业务对荷兰王国领土的影响的条约》(2003年4月29日，柏林)，同上，第2389卷，第43165号，第117页； |
| Agreement between Spain and the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (London, 2 June 2000), ibid., vol. 2161, No. 37756, p. 45; | 《西班牙和国际油污赔偿基金之间的协定》(2000年6月2日，伦敦)，同上，第2161卷，第37756号，第45页； |
| Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands concerning cooperation to suppress the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, their delivery systems, and related materials by sea (Honolulu, 13 August 2004), ibid., vol. [not yet published], No. 51490 (text available at: https://treaties.un.org); | 《美利坚合众国政府和马绍尔群岛共和国政府之间关于合作制止大规模毁灭性武器、其运载系统和相关材料通过海运扩散的协定》(2004年8月13日，檀香山)，同上，[该卷尚未出版]，第51490号(案文可查阅：https://treaties.un.org)； |
| Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, ibid., vol. 2167, p. 3, at p. 126.; | 《执行1982年12月10日〈联合国海洋法公约〉有关养护和管理跨界鱼类种群和高度洄游鱼类种群的规定的协定》，同上，第2167卷，第3页，见第126页； |
| Energy Charter Treaty (Lisbon, 17 December 1994), ibid., vol. 2080, No. 36116, p. 95; | 《能源宪章条约》(1994年12月17日，里斯本)，同上，第2080卷，第36116号，第95页； |
| Final Act of the European Energy Charter Conference, Art. 45 (text available at: https://www.italaw.com/ sites/default/files/laws/italaw%206101%2833%29.pdf) (“Any signatory may terminate its provisional application of this Treaty by written notification to the Depository of its intention not to become a Contracting Party to the Treaty”); | 《欧洲能源宪章会议最终法案》，第45条(案文可查阅：https://www.italaw.com/ sites/default/files/laws/italaw6101%2833%29.pdf)(“任何签署国都可以书面通知保存人不打算加入本条约，从而终止暂时适用本条约”)； |
| Association Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and Ukraine, of the other part (Brussels, 21 March 2014), Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 161, 29 May 2014, p. 3, art. 486, para. 7 (“Either Party may give written notification to the Depositary of its intention to terminate the provisional application of this Agreement.”); | 《欧洲联盟及其成员国与乌克兰之间联系协定》(2014年3月21日，布鲁塞尔)，《欧洲联盟公报》，L 161号，2014年5月29日，第3页，第486条，第7款(“任何一方都可向保存人发出书面通知，声明打算终止暂时适用本协定。”)； |
| Framework Agreement between the United States of America and the European Union on the participation of the United States of America in European Union crisis management operations, ibid., No. L 143, 31 May 2011, p. 2, art. 2, para. 10 (“Either party may terminate this Agreement upon six month’s written notice to the other Party.”); | 《美利坚合众国和欧洲联盟关于美利坚合众国参加欧洲联盟危机管理行动的框架协定》，同上，L 143号，2011年5月31日，第2页，第2条，第10款(“任何一方都可提前六个月以书面通知另一方终止本协定。 ”)； |
| Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Kazakhstan, of the other part, ibid., No. L 29, 4 February 2016, p. 3, art. 281, para. 10 (“Either Party may terminate the provisional application by means of a written notification delivered to the other Party through diplomatic channels.”; | 《欧洲联盟及其成员国与哈萨克斯坦共和国之间加强伙伴关系与合作协定》，同上，L 29号，2016年2月4日，第3页，第281条，第10款(“任何一方都可通过外交渠道向另一方发出书面通知，声明终止暂时适用。 |
| ECOWS Energy Protocol A/P4/1/03, art. 40 (“Any signatory may terminate its provisional application of this Protocol by written notification to the Depository of its intention not to become a Contracting Party to the Protocol.”); | ”)； 《西非经共体第A/P4/1/03号能源议定书》，第40条(“任何签署国都可以书面通知保存人不打算加入本议定书，从而终止暂时适用本议定书。 ”)； |
| Free Trade Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Korea, of the other part, Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 127, 14 May 2011, p. 6, art. 15.10. para. c (“A Party may terminate provisional application by written notice to the other Party. | 《欧洲联盟及其成员国与大韩民国之间自由贸易协定》，《欧洲联盟公报》，L 127号，2011年5月14日，第6页，第15.10条，c款(“一方可以书面通知另一方终止暂时适用。 |
| Such termination shall take effect on the first day of the month following notification”); | 此类终止在通知后次月第一天生效”)； |
| Treaty between the Federal Republic of Germany and the Kingdom of the Netherlands concerning the implementation of air traffic controls by the Federal Republic of Germany above Dutch territory and concerning the impact of the civil operations of Niederrhein Airport on the territory of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Berlin, 29 April 2003), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2389, No. 43165, p. 117, art. 16 (“Its provisional application shall be terminated if one of the Contracting Parties declares its intention not to become a Contracting Party.”); | 《德意志联邦共和国和荷兰王国之间关于德意志联邦共和国在荷兰领土上空执行空中交通管制以及关于下莱茵机场民用业务对荷兰王国领土的影响的条约》(2003年4月29日，柏林)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2389卷，第43165号，第117页，第16条(“如果缔约方之一声明不打算加入，则终止暂时适用。 ”)； |
| Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands concerning cooperation to suppress the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, their delivery systems, and related materials by sea, Ibid., [vol. not yet published], No. 51490, art. 17, para. 3 (“This Agreement may be terminated by either Party upon written notification of such termination to the other Party through the diplomatic channel, termination to be effective one year from the date of such notification”); | 《美利坚合众国政府和马绍尔群岛共和国政府之间关于合作制止大规模毁灭性武器、其运载系统和相关材料通过海运扩散的协定》，同上，[该卷尚未出版]，第51490号，第17条，第3款(“本协定可由任何一方通过外交渠道以书面通知另一方终止而终止，终止自通知之日起一年后生效”)； |
| ECOWAS Energy Protocol A/P4/1/03, art. 40 (“Any signatory may terminate its provisional application of this Protocol by written notification to the Depository of its intention not to become a Contracting Party to the Protocol.”). | 《西非经共体第A/P4/1/03号能源议定书》，第40条(“任何签署国都可以书面通知保存人不打算加入本议定书，从而终止暂时适用本议定书。 ”)。 |
| Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 (New York, 28 July 1994), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1836, p. 41, at p. 46.; | 《关于执行1982年12月10日〈联合国海洋法公约〉第十一部分的协定》(1994年7月28日，纽约)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1836卷，第41页，见第46页； |
| Agreement on the provisional application of certain provisions of Protocol No. 14 pending its entry into force; | 《关于第14号议定书生效前暂时适用其某些规定的协定》； |
| International Wheat Agreement 1986 (London, 14 March 1986), ibid., vol. 1429, No. 24237, p. 85, art. 28 (Referencing a separate “mutual consent”); | 1986年《国际小麦协定》(1986年3月14日，伦敦)，同上，第1429卷，第24237号，第85页，第28条(参考单独的“相互同意”)； |
| Havana Charter for an International Trade Organization (1947) (E/CONF.2/78) (text available at: https://treaties.un.org/doc/source/docs/E_CONF.2_78-E.pdf (“Any Member which before July 1, 1948 has signed the Protocol of Provisional Application… ”). | 《关于国际贸易组织的哈瓦那宪章》(1947年)(E/CONF.2/78号文件)(案文可查阅：https://treaties.un.org/doc/source/docs/E_CONF.2_78-E.pdf)(“在1948年7月1日以前签署…《暂时适用议定书》…的任何成员…”)。 |
| Draft Guideline 3 (General Rule) chose not to restrict the possibility of resorting to provisional application to the ‘negotiating States’ (and international organizations), thereby leaving open that possibility to ‘States (international organizations) concerned’. | 准则草案3(一般规则)选择不将采取暂时适用的可能性限于“谈判国”(和国际组织)，从而为“有关国家(国际组织)”保留了这种可能性。 |
| In order not to create a presumption that non-negotiating States and international organizations are generally permitted to be bound by the provisional application of a treaty or a part of a treaty, negotiating States should accept it as established in Draft Guideline 4 (Form of agreement), paragraph (b). | 为了不让人推定非谈判国和国际组织普遍获准受暂时适用条约或条约之一部分的约束，谈判国应接受准则草案4(协议形式)(b)项的规定。 |
| This is what draft model clause 3 intends to address. | 这是示范条款草案3打算述及的问题。 |
| Draft Guideline 4 allows also for a resolution adopted by an international organization or at an intergovernmental conference, as a means to agree on the provisional application of a treaty or a part of a treaty. | 准则草案4也考虑到由国际组织或政府间会议通过决议，以此商定暂时适用条约或条约之一部分。 |
| Some examples are the following: Article 3, Council Decision of 25 June 2012 on the signing, on behalf of the European Union, of the Agreement establishing an Association between the European Union and its Member States, on the one hand, and Central America on the other, and the provisional application of Part IV thereof concerning trade matters (2012/734/EU) (Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 346, 15 December 2012, p. 1); | 一些范例如下：理事会2012年6月25日《关于代表欧洲联盟签署〈欧洲联盟及其成员国与中美洲之间建立联系协定〉以及暂时适用有关贸易问题的该协定第四部分的决定》(第2012/ 734/EU号)，第3条，(《欧洲联盟公报》，L 346号，2012年12月15日，第1页)； |
| Article 2, Council Decision of 18 November 2002 on the signature and provisional application of certain provisions of an Agreement establishing an association between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Chile, of the other part (2002/979/EC) (Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 352, 30 December 2002, p. 1); | 理事会2002年11月18日《关于签署〈欧洲共同体及其成员国与智利共和国之间建立联系协定〉以及暂时适用某些条款的决定》(第2002/979/EC号)，第2条，(《欧洲联盟公报》，L 352号，2002年12月30日，第1页)； |
| Article 4, Council Decision of 23 June 2014 on the signing, on behalf of the European Union, and provisional application of the Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and Ukraine, of the other part, as regards Title III (with the exception of the provisions relating to the treatment of third country nationals legally employed as workers in the territory of the other Party) and Titles IV, V, VI and VII thereof, as well as the related Annexes and Protocols (2014/668/EU) (Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 278, 20 September 2014, p. 1); | 理事会2014年6月23日《关于代表欧洲联盟签署〈欧洲联盟和欧洲原子能共同体及其成员国与乌克兰之间联系协定〉以及暂时适用该协定第三章(与作为另一方领土上工人合法雇佣的第三国国民待遇有关的条款除外)、第四章、第五章、第六章和第七章及相关附件和议定书的决定》(第2014/668/EU号)，第4条，(《欧洲联盟公报》，L 278号，2014年9月20日，第1页)； |
| Article 3, Council Decision of 16 June 2014 on the signing, on behalf of the European Union, and provisional application of the Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and Georgia, of the other part (2014/494/EU) (Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 261, 30 August 2014, p. 1); | 理事会2014年6月16日《关于代表欧洲联盟签署以及暂时适用〈欧洲联盟和欧洲原子能共同体及其成员国与格鲁吉亚之间联系协定〉的决定》(第2014/ 494/EU号)，第3条，(《欧洲联盟公报》，L 261号，2014年8月30日，第1页)； |
| Article 2, Council Decision of 10 May 2010 on the signing, on behalf of the European Union, and provisional application of the Framework Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, on the one part, and the Republic of Korea, on the other part (2013/40/EU) (Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 20, 23 January 2013, p. 1). | 理事会2010年5月10日《关于代表欧洲联盟签署以及暂时适用〈欧洲联盟及其成员国与大韩民国之间框架协定〉的决定》(第2013/40/EU号)，第2条，(《欧洲联盟公报》，L 20号，2013年1月23日，第1页)。 |
| Without prejudice to the rules of decision-making applicable to an international organization or intergovernmental conference in a concrete situation and to the question of whether a resolution has binding character, the voluntary nature of provisional application may call for an opt-out clause in case a State or international organization does not agree with such resolution. | 在不妨碍具体情形下对国际组织或政府间会议适用的决策规则，以及决议是否具有约束性这一问题的情况下，暂时适用的自愿性可能需要一条退出条款，以防一国或国际组织不赞同此类决议。 |
| Draft model clause 4 addresses that situation. | 示范条款草案4述及这种情形。 |
| A number of multilateral treaties refer to the internal law of concerned States. | 若干多边条约提到了有关国家的国内法。 |
| Some examples are the following: Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, article 7, paragraph 2; | 一些范例如下：《关于执行〈联合国海洋法公约〉第十一部分的协定》，第7条，第2款； |
| Agreement on collective forces of rapid response of the Collective Security Treaty Organization, art. 17; | 《集体安全条约组织集体快速反应部队协定》，第17条； |
| Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement, article 20.5, paragraph 3; | 《跨太平洋经济战略伙伴关系协定》，第20.5条，第3款； |
| Article 26 of the 1995 Grains Trade Convention; | 1995年《谷物贸易公约》第26条； |
| Article XXII (c) (signature and ratification) and article XXIII (c) (accession) of the 1999 Food Aid Convention; | 1999年《粮食援助公约》第二十二条(c)款(签署和批准)和第二十三条(c)款(加入)； |
| Article 40 (entry into force), paragraphs 2 and 3, of the 1994 International Coffee Agreement; | 1994年《国际咖啡协定》第40条(生效)第2款和第3款； |
| Article 38 of the 2006 International Tropical Timber Agreement (notification of provisional application); | 2006年《国际热带木材协定》第38条(暂时适用的通知)； |
| and Article 45 (entry into force), paragraph 2, of the 2001 International Coffee Agreement. | 2001年《国际咖啡协定》第45条(生效)第2款。 |
| Energy Charter Treaty (Lisbon, 17 December 1994), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2080, No. 36116, p. 95, art. 45 (“to the extent that such provisional application is not inconsistent with its constitution, laws or regulations”); | 《能源宪章条约》(1994年12月17日，里斯本)，联合国，《条约汇编》，第2080卷，第36116号，第95页，第45条(“但以此类暂时适用不违反其宪法、法律或规章为限”)； |
| Protocol Of Provisional Application of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (Geneva, 30 October 1947), ibid., vol. 55, No. 814, p. 308, art. 1 (“Undertake… to apply provisionally…to the fullest extent not inconsistent with existing legislation.”); | 《暂时适用〈关税及贸易总协定〉议定书》(1947年10月30日，日内瓦)，同上，第55卷，第814号，第308页，第1条(“承诺…暂时适用…但以不违反现行立法为最大限度。 |
| International Natural Rubber Agreement (Geneva, 6 October 1979), ibid., vol. 120, No. 19184, p. 191, art. 59 (“a Government may provide in its notification of provisional application that it will apply this Agreement only within the limitations of its constitutional and/or legislative procedures.”); | ”)； 《国际天然橡胶协定》(1979年10月6日，日内瓦)，同上，第120卷，第19184号，第191页，第59条(“一个政府可在其暂时适用通知中声明它只在其宪法和(或)立法程序范围内适用本协定。 ”)； |
| Sixth International Tin Agreement (Geneva, 26 June 1981), ibid., vol. 1282, No. 21139 pg. 205, art. 53 (“will, within the limitations of its constitutional and/or legislative procedures, apply this Agreement provisionally…”); | 《第六个国际锡协定》(1981年6月26日，日内瓦)，同上，第1282卷，第21139号，第205页，第53条(“将在其宪法和(或)立法程序的限制范围内暂时适用本协定…”)； |
| Agreement on Air Transport between Canada and the European Community and its Member States (available at: https://www.icao.int/sustainability/Documents/Compendium_ FairCompetition/Practices/EU-canada-OSA_final_text_agreement.pdf) (“in accordance with the provisions of domestic law of the Parties…”); | 《加拿大和欧洲共同体及其成员国之间航空运输协定》(可查阅：https://www.icao.int/sustainability/Documents/Compendium_FairCompetition/Practices/EU-canada-OSA_final_text_agreement.pdf) (“依照各方国内法律规定…”)； |
| Common Aviation Area Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and Georgia, of the other part (2010) (“ in accordance with their internal procedures and/or domestic legislation as applicable”); | 《欧洲联盟及其成员国与格鲁吉亚之间共同飞行区协定》(2010年)(“酌情根据各自内部程序和(或)国内立法”)； |
| Association Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and Ukraine, of the other part, Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 161, 29 May 2014, p. 3, art. 486, para. 3 (“ in accordance with their respective internal procedures and legislation as applicable.”); | 《欧洲联盟及其成员国与乌克兰之间联系协定》，《欧洲联盟公报》，L 161号，2014年5月29日，第3页，第486条，第3款(“酌情根据各自内部程序和立法”)； |
| Enhanced Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Kazakhstan, of the other part, ibid., No. L 29, 4 February 2016, p. 3 (“ may apply this Agreement…in accordance with their respective internal procedures and legislation, as applicable”); | 《欧洲联盟及其成员国与哈萨克斯坦共和国之间加强伙伴关系与合作协定》，同上，L 29号，2016年2月4日，第3页(“可以酌情根据各自内部程序和立法…适用本协定…”)； |
| EuroMediterranean Aviation Agreement between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part and the Kingdom of Morocco, of the other part, ibid., No. L 386, 29 December 2006, p. 57, art. 30 (“in accordance with the national laws of the Contracting Parties, from the date of signature.”); | 《欧洲共同体及其成员国与摩洛哥王国之间的欧洲－地中海航空协定》，同上，L 386号，2006年12月29日，第57页，第30条(“自签署之日起，根据各缔约方国内法律。 ”)； |
| ECOWAS Energy Protocol A/P4/1/03, art. 40 (“ to the extent that such provisional application is not inconsistent with its constitution, laws or regulations.”); | 《西非经共体第A/P4/1/03号能源议定书》，第40条(“但以此类暂时适用不违反其宪法、法律或规章为限。”)； |
| Association Agreement between the European Union and the European Atomic Energy Community and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Moldova, of the other part, Official Journal of the European Union, No. L 260, 30 August 2014, p. 4, art. 464 (“in accordance with their respective internal procedures and legislation, as applicable”. | 《欧洲联盟和欧洲原子能共同体及其成员国与摩尔多瓦共和国之间联系协定》，《欧洲联盟公报》，L 260号，2014年8月30日，第4页，第464条(“酌情根据各自内部程序和立法”)； |
| ) Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1836, p. 41, at p. 46, art. 7, para. 2 (“All such States and entities shall apply this Agreement provisionally in accordance with their national or internal laws and regulations… | 《关于执行1982年12月10日〈联合国海洋法公约〉第十一部分的协定》，联合国，《条约汇编》，第1836卷，第41页，见第46页，第7条，第2款(“所有上述国家和实体应依照其本国或其内部的法律和规章…临时适用本协定”)。 |
| ”). The term “gross” violations of IHRL is used to properly narrow the scope of this text, for its content see Academy Briefing No. 6, What amounts to ‘a serious violation of international human rights law’? An analysis of practice and expert opinion for the purpose of the 2013 Arms Trade Treaty, Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights, August 2014 at p. 10. | 采用“严重”违反国际人权法一词，是为了适当缩小本文的范围，其内容见日内瓦国际人道法和人权学院第6期学院简报，“何种行为构成‘严重违反国际人权法’：《2013年武器贸易条约》实践分析和专家意见”，2014年8月，第10页。 |
| The term serious violations and grave breaches of IHL have been used interchangeably; | “严重违反(serious violations)”和“严重破坏(grave breaches)”国际人道法这两个术语一直在交替使用； |
| however, the syllabus employs the term “serious”, among other reasons, to promote consistency with the language of the General Assembly. | 但本提纲采用了“serious”一词，主要是为了与联大用语保持一致。 |
| See Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, General Assembly Resolution, UN Doc. A/RES/60/147, Principle 2(c) (Mar. 21, 2006). | 见《严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为受害人获得补救和赔偿的权利基本原则和准则》，联大决议，联合国文件A/RES/60/147，原则2(c)(2006年3月21日)。 |
| Additionally, it aligns the text with the view of the International Committee of the Red Cross that has explained that “Serious violations of international humanitarian law are: grave breaches as specified under the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 (Articles 50, 51, 130, 147 of Conventions I, II, III and IV respectively) […],grave breaches as specified under Additional Protocol I of 1977 (Articles 11 and 85) […], war crimes as specified under Article 8 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court […], and other war crimes in international and non-international armed conflicts in customary international humanitarian law [… | 此外，这样还使本文与红十字国际委员会的意见保持统一，红十字会曾做出解释：“严重违反国际人道法的行为是：1949年日内瓦四公约(分别为第一、第二、第三和第四公约第五十条、第五十一条、第一百三十条和第一百四十七条)所指严重破坏公约行为[…]，1977年《第一附加议定书》(第十一条和第八十五条)所指严重违约行为[…]，《国际刑事法院罗马规约》第八条所指战争罪[…]，以及习惯国际人道法中国际和非国际武装冲突中的其他战争罪[…]。 |
| ]. See Explanatory Note, What are “serious violations of international humanitarian law”?, International Committee of the Red Cross, 2012, available at https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/2012/att-what-are-serious-violations-of-ihl-icrc.pdf. | 见解释性说明，什么是“严重违反国际人道法行为”？ ，红十字国际委员会，2012年，可查阅https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/2012/att-what-are-serious-violations-of-ihl-icrc.pdf。 |
| Other topics relating to the individual have also been discussed in the work of the International Law Commission, such as the topics of “State responsibility of internationally wrongful acts,” “Diplomatic protection,” “Position of the individual in international law,” “Nationality including statelessness,” and “Protection of persons in the event of disasters.” | 国际法委员会在工作中还讨论了与个人有关的其他专题，如“国家对国际不法行为的责任”、“外交保护”、“个人在国际法中的地位”、“国籍，包括无国籍状态”和“发生灾害时的人员保护”等专题。 |
| For instance, the Central American Court of Justice, created in 1907 and recognizing the procedural capacity of individuals to bring claims against States; | 例如，1907年成立的中美洲法院承认个人对国家提出索赔的程序能力； |
| the International Prize Court, created in 1907 and allowing individuals to bring claims against foreign States; | 1907年成立的国际捕获法院允许个人对外国提起诉讼； |
| the Treaty of Versailles of 1919, which allowed nationals of the Allied and Associated Powers to bring claims against Germany; | 1919年《凡尔赛条约》允许协约和参战各国国民对德国提出索赔； |
| and the PCIJ decision in the Case Concerning Jurisdiction of the Courts of Danzig, which declared that individuals may have the right to bring international claims before national courts. | 以及常设国际法院在但泽法院管辖权案的判决中宣布个人有权向国家法院提出国际索赔。 |
| The Case Concerning the Factory at Chorzow, Claim for Indemnity (1927) P.C.I.J. Series A, no. 9, 21. | 霍茹夫工厂案，索赔请求(1927年)，常设国际法院，A辑，第9号，第21号。 |
| See the Case Concerning the Factory at Chorzow (Germ. V. Pol.), J. (1928) P.C.I.J. Series A, no. 17, 125 (elaborating further that “[r]estitution in kind, or, if this is not possible, payment of a sum corresponding to the value which a restitution in kind would bear; | 见霍茹夫工厂案(德国诉波兰)，判决(1928年)，常设国际法院，A辑，第17号，第125号(进一步阐明：“实物复原，或若无可能则支付与实物复原价值相等的一笔款项； |
| the award, if need be, of damages for loss sustained which would not be covered by the restitution in kind or payment in place of it – such are the principles which should serve to determine the amount of compensation due for an act contrary to international law”). | 如有必要，对实物复原或相当于实物复原的赔款所不能涵盖的损失给予损害赔偿――这是应用于确定违反国际法行为的赔偿金额的原则”)。 |
| See Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), J., I.C.J. Rep. 2005 (Dec. 19), p. 257, para. 259. | 见刚果境内的武装活动案(刚果民主共和国诉乌干达)，判决，《2005年国际法院案例汇编》(12月19日)，第257页，第259段。 |
| Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Op., I.C.J. Rep. 2004 (July 9), p. 136, 193–94, 198. | “在巴勒斯坦被占领土修建隔离墙的法律后果”，咨询意见，《2004年国际法院案例汇编》(7月9日)，第136页、第193-94页、第198页。 |
| Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), J. on Compensation, I.C.J. Rep. 2012 (June 19), p. 324, para. 57; | 艾哈迈杜·萨迪奥·迪亚洛案(几内亚共和国诉刚果民主共和国)，关于补偿的判决，《2012年国际法院案例汇编》(6月19日)，第324页，第57段； |
| see also Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), J. on Compensation, I.C.J. Rep. 2012 (June 19) Separate Opinion of J. Cançado Trindade, p. 361, para. 35 (“the reparations are owed by the responsible State concerned to the individuals victimized”). | 另见艾哈迈杜·萨迪奥·迪亚洛案(几内亚共和国诉刚果民主共和国)，关于补偿的判决，《2012年国际法院案例汇编》(6月19日)，法官坎萨多·特林达德的个别意见，第361页，第35段(“相关责任国应对受害个人承担赔偿责任”)。 |
| Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection, with commentaries, United Nations International Law Commission, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, vol. II, Part Two, UN Doc. A/CN.4/SER.A/2006. | 《关于外交保护的条款草案及评注》，联合国国际法委员会，《国际法委员会年鉴》，2006年，第二卷，第二部分，联合国文件A/CN.4/SER.A/2006。 |
| See e.g. the friendly settlement process offered by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights that allows States and aggrieved individuals the opportunity to find a mutually agreeable solution to a human rights violation without resorting to a contentious proceeding. | 例如见美洲人权委员会提供的友好解决程序，该程序使国家和受侵害个人有机会找到双方均可接受的解决办法，处理侵犯人权行为，而无需诉诸争议性诉讼程序。 |
| Article 7, paragraph 1 reads, “the right to an appeal to competent national organs against acts of violating his fundamental rights as recognized and guaranteed by conventions, laws, regulations and customs in force”. | 第7条第1款规定：“就侵犯其基本权利的行为向国家主管机关提出上诉的权利，受到现行公约、法律、条例和习俗的承认和保障”。 |
| See ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights, Human Rights in ASEAN (last accessed June 2, 2019 at 4:53 PM), available at https://humanrightsinasean.info/asean-intergovernmental-comission-human-rights/about.html (explaining that although the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights’ mandate does not explicitly authorize receipt and investigation of complaints for human rights violations, the intergovernmental body seems to be moving in the direction of investigations, based on the fact that six complaints have been accepted since 2012). | 见东盟政府间人权委员会，“东盟的人权状况”(最后访问时间为2019年6月2日下午4时53分)，可查阅https://humanrightsinasean.info/asean-intergovernmental-comission-human-rights/ about.html (依据东盟政府间人权委员会自2012年以来已经受理了六项申诉这一事实做出解释：尽管委员会的任务并未明确授权其受理和调查关于侵犯人权行为的申诉，但该政府间机构似乎正朝着调查的方向发展)。 |
| The reasoning of these bodies is important to the formation of general principles regarding the contours of specific human rights, especially in the absence of applicable treaties or domestic law. | 这些机构的推理论证对于形成关于各项具体人权之轮廓的一般原则很重要，尤其是在没有适用的条约或国内法的情况下。 |
| The possibility of collective reparation has been envisaged in the Inter-American System of Human Rights, for example, in the Case of the Awas Tingni Mayagna (Sumo) Community v. Nicaragua (Merits, Reparations, and Costs), Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2001), available at www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/articulos/seriec_79_ing.pdf; | 美洲人权体系设想了集体赔偿的可能性，例如见Awas Tingni Mayagna (Sumo) Community诉尼加拉瓜案(案件的实质问题、赔偿和费用)，美洲人权法院(2001年)，可查阅www.corteidh.or.cr/ docs/casos/articulos/seriec_79_ing.pdf； |
| see also Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Criminal Court, whose article 97 provides that “the Court may award reparations on an individualized basis or, where it deems it appropriate, on a collective basis or both”; | 另见《国际刑事法院程序和证据规则》，该规则第97条规定，“法院可在个人基础上，或在它认为适当的情况下，在集体基础上或两者兼有的基础上裁定赔偿”； |
| 2005 Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, also recognize the possibility of collective reparation in its paragraph 13. | 2005年《严重违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为受害人获得补救和赔偿的权利基本原则和准则》第13段也承认集体赔偿的可能性。 |
| Although the proposed topic is limited to obligations resulting from violations of international human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law, the result of the Commission’s work on this subject may influence other areas of international law where violations of the rights of individuals invoke State responsibility to make reparation, such as: international investment law, international environmental law, and international trade law. | 尽管拟议专题的范围仅限于违反国际人权法和严重违反国际人道法行为所导致的义务，但委员会在这一问题上的工作结果可能影响到国际法中侵犯个人权利的行为引起国家赔偿责任的其他领域，如国际投资法、国际环境法和国际贸易法。 |
| See id. at art. 34 (“Full reparation for the injury caused by the internationally wrongful act shall take the form of restitution, compensation and satisfaction, either singly or in combination, in accordance with the provisions of this chapter”). | 见同上，第34条(“对国际不法行为造成的损害充分赔偿，应按照本章的规定单独或合并地采取恢复原状、补偿和抵偿的方式”)。 |
| At the Commemoration of the 70th Anniversary of the Commission, the President of the ICJ, Mr. Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf, noted the need to address more comprehensively the situation of the individual in international law. | 在纪念委员会成立70周年的活动中，国际法院院长阿卜杜勒卡维·艾哈迈德·优素福先生指出，需要更全面地处理个人在国际法中的状况。 |
| He recognized that whilst “certain elements of the ILC’s work recognize the ability of individuals to hold rights under international law, such as Article 33(2) of the Articles on State Responsibility, the Commission has only acknowledged as recommended practice, under the Articles on Diplomatic Protection, the important fact that reparation should accrue to an aggrieved individual in cases where their rights are breached”. | 他承认，虽然“国际法委员会工作的某些内容如《国家责任条款》第33条第2款确认，个人有能力根据国际法持有权利，但是对于受侵害个人在权利受到侵犯的情况下应获得赔偿这一重要事实，委员会仅在《外交保护条款》中作为建议做法予以承认”。 |
| See Abdulqawi A. Yusuf, Keynote Address at the 70th Anniversary of the International Law Commission, Geneva, Switzerland (July 5, 2018), available at http://legal.un.org/docs/?path=../ilc/sessions/70/pdfs/english/key_note_address_5july2018.pdf&lang=E. | 见阿卜杜勒卡维·A·优素福在国际法委员会成立70周年纪念活动上的主旨发言，瑞士日内瓦(2018年7月5日)，可查阅http://legal.un.org/docs/?path=../ilc/ sessions/70/pdfs/english/key_note_address_5july2018.pdf&lang=E。 |
| United Nations International Law Commission. | 联合国国际法委员会。 |
| “Methods of work”, available at http://legal.un.org/ilc/methods.shtml (last accessed 30 May 2019). | “工作方法”，可查阅http://legal.un.org/ilc/methods.shtml (最后访问日期2019年5月30日)。 |
| Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1997, vol. II, Part Two, 72, para. 238. | 《国际法委员会年鉴》，1997年，第二卷(第二部分)，72, 第238段。 |
| See United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 3 [UNCLOS], at Arts 100–107. | 见《联合国海洋法公约》，1982年12月10日，《联合国条约汇编》，第1833卷，第3号[《联合国海洋法公约》]，第一〇〇至一〇七条。 |
| Jane G Dalton, J Ashely Roach & John Daley, “Introductory Note to United Nations Security Council: Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea – Resolutions 1816, 1846 & 1851” (2009) 48 ILM 129 at 129; | Jane G Dalton, J Ashely Roach & John Daley, “Introductory Note to United Nations Security Council: Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea – Resolutions 1816, 1846 & 1851” (2009) 48 ILM 129 at 129; |
| Alfred P Rubin, “The Law of Piracy” (1987) 15:2-3 Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 173. | Alfred P Rubin, “The Law of Piracy” (1987) 15:2-3 Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 173. |
| C Paul Hallwood & Thomas J Miceli. Maritime Piracy and Its Control: An Economic Analysis (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015) at 3-4; | C Paul Hallwood & Thomas J Miceli. Maritime Piracy and Its Control: An Economic Analysis (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015) at 3-4; |
| ICC International Maritime Bureau, Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships: Report for the Period 1 January – 31 December 2018, London, January 2019. | ICC International Maritime Bureau, Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships: Report for the Period 1 January – 31 December 2018, London, January 2019. |
| Jennifer C Bulkeley, “Regional Cooperation on Maritime Piracy: A Prelude to Greater Multilateralism in Asia? ”, (2003) 14 Journal of Public and International Affairs, Article 2 at 3; | Jennifer C Bulkeley, “Regional Cooperation on Maritime Piracy: A Prelude to Greater Multilateralism in Asia?”, (2003) 14 Journal of Public and International Affairs, Article 2 at 3; |
| Masataka Okano, “Is International Law Effective in the Fight against Piracy: Lessons from Somalia” (2010) 53 Japanese Yearbook of International Law 178 at 179-81; | Masataka Okano, “Is International Law Effective in the Fight against Piracy: Lessons from Somalia” (2010) 53 Japanese Yearbook of International Law 178 at 179-81; |
| Yvonne M Dutton, “Maritime piracy and the impunity gap: insufficient national laws or a lack of political will” (2012) 85:5 Tulane Law Review 1111 at 1127–30. | Yvonne M Dutton, “Maritime piracy and the impunity gap: insufficient national laws or a lack of political will” (2012) 85:5 Tulane Law Review 1111 at 1127-30. |
| Secretary-General, Report on Oceans and the Law of The Sea: Law of the Sea, UNGAOR, 52nd Sess, UN Doc A/52/487 (1997) at para 374. | 秘书长的报告，《海洋和海洋法：海洋法》，联合国大会正式纪录，第五十二届会议，联合国文件，A/52/487(1997年)，第374段。 |
| Monica Pathak, “Maritime Violence, Piracy at Sea & Marine Terrorism Today” (2005) 20 Windsor Review of Legal and Social Issues 65. | Monica Pathak, “Maritime Violence, Piracy at Sea & Marine Terrorism Today” (2005) 20 Windsor Review of Legal and Social Issues 65. |
| Hugh R Williamson, “New Thinking in the Fight against Marine Piracy: Financing and Plunder Pre-Empting Piracy before Prevention Becomes Necessary” (2013) 46 Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 335; | Hugh R Williamson, “New Thinking in the Fight against Marine Piracy: Financing and Plunder Pre-Empting Piracy before Prevention Becomes Necessary” (2013) 46 Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 335; |
| S Whitman & C Saurez, “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project: The Root Causes and True Costs of Marine Piracy” (2012) Marine Affairs Program Technical Report ·1. | S Whitman & C Saurez, “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project: The Root Causes and True Costs of Marine Piracy” (2012) Marine Affairs Program Technical Report ·1. |
| UNSCOR, 67th year, 6727th Mtg, UN Doc S/RES/2039 (2012) at Preamble. | 联合国安全理事会正式纪录，第67年，第6727次会议，联合国文件，S/RES/2039(2012年)，序言部分。 |
| D Ortolland & J-P Pirot, eds, Atlas géopolitique des espaces maritimes : frontières, énergie, pêche et environnement (Paris : Technip, 2008). | D Ortolland & J-P Pirot, eds, Atlas géopolitique des espaces maritimes : frontières, énergie, pêche et environnement (Paris : Technip, 2008). |
| Storny-Annika Mildner & Franziska Grob, “Piracy and World Trade: The Economic Costs” in Stefan Mair, ed, Piracy and Maritime Security: Regional characteristics and political, military, legal and economic implications, SWP Research Paper, (German Institute for International and Security Affairs: Berlin, 2011) at 26–28. | Storny-Annika Mildner & Franziska Grob, “Piracy and World Trade: The Economic Costs” in Stefan Mair, ed, Piracy and Maritime Security: Regional characteristics and political, military, legal and economic implications, SWP Research Paper, (German Institute for International and Security Affairs: Berlin, 2011) at 26-28. |
| Ibid. at 12. | 同上，第12页。 |
| Hallwood and Miceli. Maritime Piracy and Its Control, supra note 3 at 5–6. | Hallwood and Miceli. Maritime Piracy and Its Control, supra note 3 at 5-6. |
| See R Wright, “Piracy set to escalate shipping costs”, Financial Times, 20 November 2008; | See R Wright, “Piracy set to escalate shipping costs”, Financial Times, 20 November 2008; |
| Christopher N Douse, “Combating Risk on the High Sea: An Analysis of the Effects of Modern Piratical Acts on the Marine Insurance Industry” (2010) 35 Tulane Maritime Law Journal 267 at 278–81. | Christopher N Douse, “Combating Risk on the High Sea: An Analysis of the Effects of Modern Piratical Acts on the Marine Insurance Industry” (2010) 35 Tulane Maritime Law Journal 267 at 278-81. |
| See José Louis Jesus, “International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea” in Jon M Van Dyke et al., eds, Governing Ocean Resources: New Challenges and Emerging Regime (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2013) 25 at 26. | See José Louis Jesus, “International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea” in Jon M Van Dyke et al, eds, Governing Ocean Resources: New Challenges and Emerging Regime (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2013) 25 at 26. |
| Torben C Skaanild, “Piracy: Armed Robbery, Kidnapping, Torture and Murder at Sea” in Maximo Q Mejia, Chie Kojima & Mark Sawyer, eds, Piracy at Sea (New York: Springer, 2013) 23 at 24; | Torben C Skaanild, “Piracy: Armed Robbery, Kidnapping, Torture and Murder at Sea” in Maximo Q Mejia, Chie Kojima & Mark Sawyer, eds, Piracy at Sea (New York: Springer, 2013) 23 at 24; |
| Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, supra note 3 at 4; | Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, supra note 3 at 4; |
| Whitman & Saurez. “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project” supra note 7 at 70. | Whitman & Saurez. “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project” supra note 7 at 70. |
| Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, ibid. at 5. | Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, ibid at 5. |
| Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, ibid. at 5–6; | Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, ibid at 5-6; |
| Whitman & Saurez, “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project” supra note 7 at 57. | Whitman & Saurez, “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project” supra note 7 at 57. |
| Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, ibid. at 6; | Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, ibid at 6; |
| Whitman & Saurez, “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project” ibid. at 58. | Whitman & Saurez, “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project” ibid at 58. |
| Whitman & Saurez, “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project” ibid. at 59–61. | Whitman & Saurez, “Dalhousie Marine Piracy Project” ibid at 59-61. |
| Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, supra note 3 at 6. | Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, supra note 3 at 6. |
| Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, ibid. at 15. | Hallwood & Miceli, Maritime Piracy and Its Control, ibid at 15. |
| Ibid. | 同上。 |
| Ibid. at 16. | 同上，第16页。 |
| Ibid. at 16–18. | 同上，第16-18页。 |
| Committee of Experts for the Progressive Codification of International Law, “Codification of International Law: Part IV: Piracy” (1932) 26 American Journal of International Law Supplement 739. | 国际法逐渐编纂专家委员会，“国际法的编纂：第四部分：海盗行为”(1932) 26, American Journal of International Law Supplement 739。 |
| International Law Commission, Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Eighth Session, UNGAOR, 11th Sess, Supp No 9, UN Doc A/3159 (1956) at 282. | 国际法委员会，《国际法委员会第八届会议工作报告》，联合国大会正式纪录，第十一届会议，补编第9号，联合国文件，A/3159(1956年)，第282页。 |
| Convention on the High Seas, 29 April 1958, 450 UNTS 11. | 《公海公约》，1958年4月29日，《联合国条约汇编》，第450卷，第11号。 |
| UNCLOS, supra note 1. | 《联合国海洋法公约》，上文脚注1。 |
| Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, 10 March 1988, 1678 UNTS 221. | 《制止危及海上航行安全非法行为公约》，1988年3月10日，《联合国条约汇编》，第1678卷，第221号。 |
| Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms located on the Continental Shelf, 10 March 1988, 1678 UNTS 304. | 《制止危及大陆架固定平台安全非法行为议定书》，1988年3月10日，《联合国条约汇编》，第1678卷，第304号。 |
| International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, 17 December 1979, 1326 UNTS 205. | 《反对劫持人质国际公约》，1979年12月17日，《联合国条约汇编》，第1326卷，第205号。 |
| Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia, 29 November 2006, 2398 UNTS 199. | 《亚洲打击海盗和武装抢劫船舶行为区域合作协定》，2006年11月29日，《联合国条约汇编》，第2398卷，第199号。 |
| See Brice Martin-Castex & Guillaume Loonis-Quélen, “L’Organisation maritime internationale et la piraterie ou le vol à main armée en mer : le cas de la Somalie” (2008) 54 Annuaire français de droit international 77 at 86. This Agreement was adopted under Japan’s initiative and to which the following States are parties; Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam; | See Brice Martin-Castex & Guillaume Loonis-Quélen, “L’Organisation maritime internationale et la piraterie ou le vol à main armée en mer : le cas de la Somalie” (2008) 54 Annuaire français de droit international 77 at 86. 此协定在日本的倡议下通过，缔结协定的国家包括：孟加拉国、文莱达鲁萨兰国、柬埔寨、日本、中国、印度、韩国、印度尼西亚、老挝、马来西亚、缅甸、菲律宾、新加坡、斯里兰卡、泰国和越南。 |
| Cambodia, Japan, China, India, South Korea, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. See United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Piracy Under International Law, online: . | 见联合国海洋事务和海洋法司，“国际法之下的海盗行为”，可在以下网址查阅：。 |
| See Selected Bibliography of this topic; | 见本专题参考文献选编； |
| point 4 relates to National Court Decisions. | 第4项涉及各国法院的裁决。 |
| G Noakes, “Statement on International Piracy” before the US House of Representative Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure’s Subcommittee on Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation”, February 2009, online: . | G Noakes, “Statement on International Piracy” before the US House of Representative Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure’s Subcommittee on Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation”, February 2009, online: . |
| “Code of Conduct Concerning the Repression of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the gulf of Aden”, IMO Council 102nd Sess, Attachment 1, Doc C 102/14 (2009). | 《关于打击西印度洋和亚丁湾海域海盗和武装抢劫船只的行为守则》，海事组织理事会第102届会议，文件编号C 102/14 (2009年)，附件1。 |
| Code of Conduct Concerning the Repression of Piracy, Armed Robbery against Ships, and illicit Maritime Activity in West and Central Africa, 25 June 2013, Yaoundé, Cameroon, online: . | 《关于在西部和中部非洲打击海盗行为、武装抢劫船只和海上非法活动的行为守则》，2013年6月25日，喀麦隆雅温得，可在以下网址查阅：。 |
| Ministries of Foreign Affairs, of Industry, of Justice and of Defence of Denmark, Priority Paper for the Danish efforts to Combat Piracy and Other Types of Maritime Crime 2019–2022, at 6. | 丹麦外交部、工业部、司法部和国防部，Priority Paper for the Danish efforts to Combat Piracy and Other Types of Maritime Crime 2019-2022, at 6。 |
| UNSC Resolutions on piracy: S/RES/1816 (2008), 6 November 2008; | 联合国安全理事会关于海盗问题的决议：S/RES/1816(2008年)，2008年11月6日； |
| S/RES/1838 (2008), 7 October 2008; | S/RES/1838 (2008年)，2008年10月7日； |
| S/RES/1846 (2008), 2 December 2008; | S/RES/1846(2008年)，2008年12月2日； |
| S/RES/1851 (2008), 16 December 2008; | S/RES/1851(2008年)，2008年12月16日； |
| S/RES/1897 (2009), 30 November 2009; | S/RES/1897(2009年)，2009年11月30日； |
| S/RES/1918 (2010), 23 April 2010; | S/RES/1918(2010年)，2010年4月23日； |
| S/RES/1950 (2010), 23 November 2010; | S/RES/1950(2010年)，2010年11月23日； |
| S/RES/1976 (2011), 11 April 2011; | S/RES/1976(2011年)，2011年4月11日； |
| S/RES/2015 (2011), 24 October 2011; | S/RES/2015(2011年)，2011年10月24日； |
| S/RES/2020 (2011), 22 November 2011; | S/RES/2020(2011年)，2011年11月22日； |
| S/RES/2018 (2011), 31 October 2011; | S/RES/2018(2011年)，2011年10月31日； |
| S/RES/2020 (2011), 22 November 2011; | S/RES/2020(2011年)，2011年11月22日； |
| S/RES/2039 (2012), 29 February 2012; | S/ RES/2039(2012年)，2012年2月29日； |
| S/RES/2077 (2012), 21 November 2012; | S/RES/2077(2012年)，2012年11月21日； |
| S/RES/2125 (2013), 18 November 2013; | S/RES/2125 (2013年)，2013年11月18日； |
| S/RES/2383 (2017), 7 November 2017. | S/RES/2383(2017年)，2017年11月7日。 |
| Sandra L Hodgkinson, “The Governing International Law on Maritime Piracy” in Michael P Scharf, Michael A Newton & Milena Sterio, eds, Prosecuting Maritime Piracy: Domestic Solutions to International Crimes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015) 13 at 15–17; | Sandra L Hodgkinson, “The Governing International Law on Maritime Piracy” in Michael P Scharf, Michael A Newton & Milena Sterio, eds, Prosecuting Maritime Piracy: Domestic Solutions to International Crimes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015) 13 at 15-17; |
| Malcolm D Evans & Sofia Galani, “Piracy and the Development of International Law” in Panos Koutrakos & Achilles Skordas, eds, The Law and Practice of Piracy at Sea: European and International Perspectives (London: Hart Publishing, 2014) 343 at 344–45. | Malcolm D Evans & Sofia Galani, “Piracy and the Development of International Law” in Panos Koutrakos & Achilles Skordas, eds, The Law and Practice of Piracy at Sea: European and International Perspectives (London: Hart Publishing, 2014) 343 at 344-45. |
| Dutton, “Maritime piracy and the impunity gap” supra note 4 at 1143–44. | Dutton, “Maritime piracy and the impunity gap” supra note 4 at 1143-44. |
| Ibid. at 1152. | 同上，第1152页。 |
| Ibid. at 1116. | 同上，第1116页。 |
| Mahinga, Jean-Grégoire, “L’affaire du Ponant” (2008) 7 Revue de droit des transports 10; | Mahinga, Jean-Grégoire, “L’affaire du Ponant” (2008) 7 Revue de droit des transports 10; |
| Philippe Chapleau & JeanPaul Pancracio, La piraterie maritime : Droit, pratiques et enjeux (Paris: Vuibert, 2014) at 106–107. | Philippe Chapleau & Jean-Paul Pancracio, La piraterie maritime : Droit, pratiques et enjeux (Paris: Vuibert, 2014) at 106-107. |
| United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea. | 联合国海洋事务和海洋法司。 “关于海盗问题的国家立法”。 |
| National Legislation on Piracy. online: . | 可在以下网址查阅：https:// www.un.org/depts/los/piracy/piracy_national_legislation.htm。 |
| See for e.g. Brian Wilson, “Reshaping maritime security cooperation: the importance of interagency coordination at the national level” in Guilfoyle, Douglas, ed, Modern Piracy: Legal Challenges and Responses (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2013) 202. | See for e.g. Brian Wilson, “Reshaping maritime security cooperation: the importance of interagency coordination at the national level” in Guilfoyle, Douglas, ed, Modern Piracy: Legal Challenges and Responses (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2013) 202. |
| Anna Petrig & Robin Geiß, Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea: The Legal Framework for Counter-Piracy Operations in Somalia and the Gulf of Aden (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) at 140–44. | Anna Petrig & Robin Geiß, Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea: The Legal Framework for Counter-Piracy Operations in Somalia and the Gulf of Aden (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) at 140-44. |
| United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, supra note 46. | 联合国海洋事务和海洋法司，上文脚注46。 |
| Melda Kamil Ariadno, “Maritime Security in South East Asia: Indonesian Perspective” (2009) 7:1 Indonesian Journal of International Law 88 at 95. | Melda Kamil Ariadno, “Maritime Security in South East Asia: Indonesian Perspective” (2009) 7:1 Indonesian Journal of International Law 88 at 95. |
| UNCLOS, supra note 1 at Arts 58 & 101; | 《联合国海洋法公约》，上文脚注1，第五十八和一〇一条； |
| Anna Petrig, “Piracy” in Donald Rothwell et al, eds, The Oxford handbook of the law of the sea (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016) 844 at 848–49. | Anna Petrig, “Piracy” in Donald Rothwell et al, eds, The Oxford handbook of the law of the sea (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016) 844 at 848-49. |
| Petrig, “Piracy” ibid. at 851–52. | Petrig, “Piracy” ibid at 851-52. |
| United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, supra note 46. | 联合国海洋事务和海洋法司，上文脚注46。 |
| Ilja Van Hespen, “Protecting merchant ships from maritime piracy by privately contracted armed security personnel: a comparative analysis of flag state legislation and port and coastal state requirements” (2014) 45:3 Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce 361. | Ilja Van Hespen, “Protecting merchant ships from maritime piracy by privately contracted armed security personnel: a comparative analysis of flag state legislation and port and coastal state requirements” (2014) 45:3 Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce 361. |
| UNCLOS, supra note 1 at Art 111. | 《联合国海洋法公约》，上文脚注1，第一一一条。 |
| Joseph M Isanga, “Countering Persistent Contemporary Sea Piracy: Expanding Jurisdictional Regimes” (2010) 59 American University Law Review 1267 at 1273. | Joseph M Isanga, “Countering Persistent Contemporary Sea Piracy: Expanding Jurisdictional Regimes” (2010) 59 American University Law Review 1267 at 1273. |
| UNSCOR, 66th Year, 6635th Mtg, UN Doc S/RES/2015 (2011) at Preamble. | 联合国安全理事会正式纪录，第66年，第6635次会议，联合国文件，S/RES/2015 (2011年)，序言部分。 |
| UNSCOR, 63rd Year, 5902nd Mtg, UN Doc S/RES/1816 (2008) at Preamble. | 联合国安全理事会正式纪录，第63年，第5902次会议，联合国文件，S/RES/1816 (2008年)，序言部分。 |
| Douglas Guilfoyle, “Counter-Piracy Law Enforcement and Human Rights” (2010) 59:1 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 141; | Douglas Guilfoyle, “Counter-Piracy Law Enforcement and Human Rights” (2010) 59:1 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 141； |
| see also point 4 of the Selected Bibliography. | 另见参考文献选编，第4项。 |
| See International Law Commission, Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its fiftieth session, UNGAOR, 53rd Sess, Supp No 10, UN Doc A/53/10 (1998) at para 553; | 见国际法委员会，《国际法委员会第五十届会议工作报告》，联合国大会正式纪录，第五十三届会议，补编第10号，联合国文件，A/53/10 (1998年)，第553段； |
| International Law Commission, Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its sixty-ninth session, UNGAOR, 72nd Sess, Supplement No 10, UN Doc A/72/10 (2017) at para 32. | 国际法委员会，《国际法委员会第六十九届会议工作报告》，联合国大会正式纪录，第七十二届会议，补编第10号，联合国文件，A/72/10 (2017年)，第32段。 |
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