E/C.12/GC/26 2300043E.docx (English)	E/C.12/GC/26 2300043C.docx (Chinese)
2300043E (3).docx	2300043C (3).docx
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights	经济、社会及文化权利委员会
General comment No. 26 (2022) on land and economic, social and cultural rights*	第26号一般性意见：土地与经济、社会及文化权利(2022年)*
I.	一.
Introduction	导言
1.	1.
Land plays an essential role in the realization of a range of rights under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.	土地对于实现《经济社会文化权利国际公约》规定的一系列权利具有不可或缺的作用。
Secure and equitable access to, use of and control over land for individuals and communities can be essential to eradicate hunger and poverty and to guarantee the right to an adequate standard of living.	个人和族群能够安全和公平地获得、使用和控制土地对于消除饥饿和贫困及保障适当生活水准权至关重要。
The sustainable use of land is essential to ensure the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment and to promote the right to development, among other rights.	土地的可持续利用对于确保享有清洁、健康和可持续环境的权利及促进发展权等各项权利是必不可少的。
In many parts of the world, land is not only a resource for producing food, generating income and developing housing, it also constitutes the basis for social, cultural and religious practices and the enjoyment of the right to take part in cultural life.	在世界许多地方，土地不仅是生产粮食、创造收入和开发住房的资源，也是社会、文化和宗教习俗以及享受参与文化生活权利的基础。
At the same time, secure land tenure systems are important to protect people’s access to land as a means of guaranteeing livelihoods and avoiding and regulating disputes.	与此同时，有保障的土地权属制度对于保护人们获取土地从而保障生计、避免和调节纠纷十分重要。
2.	2.
However, the current use and management of land are not conducive to the realization of the rights enshrined in the Covenant. The most important factors in this trend are the following:	然而，目前的土地利用和管理并不利于实现《公约》规定的权利，这方面最主要的一些因素如下：
(a)	(a)
The increased competition for access to and control over land.	获取和控制土地的竞争加剧。
Long-term trends in high demand for land and rapid urbanization in most parts of the world have had a significant impact on the rights of many, in particular peasants, rural communities, pastoralists, fisherfolk and Indigenous Peoples, as well as persons living in poverty in urban areas;	世界大部分地区长期以来存在土地需求大和城市化快速发展的趋势，显著影响到许多人的权利，特别是农民、农村社区、牧民、渔民和土著人民以及生活在城市地区的穷人；
(b)	(b)
In cities, the financialization of housing markets has led to competition between different groups for access to and control over land and has encouraged speculation and inflation, affecting the rights of those left behind to an adequate standard of living and to adequate housing;	在城市，住房市场的金融化导致各种群体争相获得和控制土地，刺激了投机和通货膨胀，影响到掉队者享有适当生活水准和适当住房的权利；
(c)	(c)
In rural areas, competition for arable land resulting from demographic growth, urbanization, large-scale development projects and tourism has significantly affected the livelihoods and rights of rural populations;	在农村地区，人口增长、城市化、大规模发展项目和旅游业导致对可耕地的争夺，显著影响农村人口的生计和权利；
(d)	(d)
Land degradation owing to overuse, poor management and unsustainable agricultural practices has caused food insecurity and water degradation and is directly linked to climate change and environmental degradation, escalating the risk of widespread, abrupt and irreversible environmental changes, including massive desertification;	过度使用、管理不善和不可持续的农作方式造成土地退化，使得粮食没有保障，水资源退化，而土地退化又与气候变化和环境退化直接相关，加剧了环境出现广泛、突然和不可逆转变化的风险，包括大规模荒漠化；
(e)	(e)
Measures to mitigate climate change, such as large-scale renewable energy projects or reforestation measures, might contribute to such trends when not adequately managed;	大规模可再生能源项目或森林再造等一些缓解气候变化的措施如果管理不当，可能助长上述趋势；
(f)	(f)
Global trends, including climate change and the resulting increase in internal and cross-border migration, are likely to increase tensions over the access to and use and tenure of land, with negative implications for human rights;	气候变化从而导致国内和跨国移民增加等一些全球性趋势可能加剧在土地的获得、使用和权属方面的紧张局势，对人权产生负面影响；
(g)	(g)
Weak, mismanaged, corrupt or non-existent legal and institutional frameworks for the governance of land tenure exacerbate these problems and lead to land disputes and conflicts, social inequality, hunger and poverty.	土地权属治理的法律和体制框架薄弱、管理不善、腐败丛生，甚至根本不存在这方面的法律和体制框架，加剧了上述问题，导致土地纠纷和冲突、社会不平等、饥饿和贫困。
3.	3.
Concerns relating to access to, use of and control over land have led in recent years to the adoption of a number of international instruments that have significantly influenced national legislation and policy and have been widely endorsed by Governments.	出于对土地的获得、使用和控制问题的关切，近年来一些国际文书获得通过，对各国立法和政策产生了重大影响，并得到各国政府的广泛认可。
In 2004, the Council of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) adopted the Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security, which contain several provisions relating to access to natural resources, including land and water.	2004年，联合国粮食及农业组织(粮农组织)理事会通过了《支持在国家粮食安全范围内逐步实现充足食物权的自愿准则》，其中载有若干关于获取土地和水等各种自然资源的规定。
In 2012, the Committee on World Food Security endorsed the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security, which have acquired a high degree of legitimacy owing to, inter alia, the inclusive nature of that Committee.	2012年，世界粮食安全委员会核可了《国家粮食安全范围内土地、渔业及森林权属负责任治理自愿准则》，由于委员会组成广泛等一些因素，为这份准则赢得了高度的合法性。
In 2014, the Committee on World Food Security endorsed the Principles for Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems, which address, inter alia, the human rights implications of agricultural investments.	2014年，世界粮食安全委员会核可了《农业和粮食系统负责任投资原则》，其中述及农业投资的人权影响。
In 2007, in its resolution 61/295, the General Assembly adopted the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and in 2018, in its resolution 73/165, it adopted the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas, in both of which the Assembly recognized a right to land for these populations.	2007年，大会第61/295号决议通过了《联合国土著人民权利宣言》；2018年，大会第73/165号决议通过了《联合国农民和农村地区其他劳动者权利宣言》，大会在这两项宣言中都承认这些人群的土地权。
Indeed, the importance of land for the realization of many human rights has led some scholars, civil society organizations and special rapporteurs to consider land as a human right, with reference to all the rights, entitlements and State obligations relating to land.	事实上，土地对于实现多项人权的重要性已经使得一些学者、民间社会组织和特别报告员援引与土地有关的所有权利、权益和国家义务，将土地视为一项人权。
One example is the basic principles and guidelines on development-based evictions and displacement, which were drawn up by the Special Rapporteur on the right to adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living.	一个例子是由适当生活水准权所含适当住房问题特别报告员起草的《关于出于发展目的的搬迁和迁离问题的基本原则和准则》。
4.	4.
The present general comment was formulated on the basis of the Committee’s experience in its review of State party reports and in the light of its other general comments and its Views and decisions on communications.	本一般性意见以委员会审查缔约国报告的经验 为基础，参照委员会其他一般性意见及其关于来文的意见和决定拟定。
It is aimed at clarifying States’ obligations relating to the impact of access to, use of and control over land on the enjoyment of the rights enshrined in the Covenant, especially for the most disadvantaged and marginalized individuals and groups.	本意见旨在明确在获得、使用和控制土地对享有《公约》所载权利的影响方面的国家义务，特别是对最困难和边缘化的个人和群体的义务。
Thus, it is aimed at clarifying the specific obligations contained in the Covenant that relate to land, particularly in the context of the rights enshrined in articles 1–3, 11, 12 and 15.	因此，意见力求澄清《公约》所载的与土地有关的具体义务，特别是围绕第一条至第三条、第十一条、第十二条和第十五条所载权利方面的义务。
II.	二.
Provisions of the Covenant relating to land	《公约》有关土地的规定
5.	5.
Secure and equitable access to, use of and control over land can have direct and indirect implications for the enjoyment of a range of rights enshrined in the Covenant.	有保障和公平地获得、使用和控制土地会对享有《公约》所载的一系列权利产生直接和间接的影响。
6.	6.
First, land is crucial to guarantee the enjoyment of the right to adequate food, as land is used in rural areas for the purpose of food production.	首先，土地对于保障享有充足食物权至关重要，因为农村地区利用土地从事粮食生产。
Consequently, if land users are deprived of the land they use for productive purposes, their right to adequate food might be endangered.	因此，如果土地使用者被剥夺了用于生产目的的土地，就可能危及他们获得充足食物的权利。
Article 11 (2) of the Covenant provides that States parties, recognizing the connection between the right to be free from hunger and the utilization of natural resources, which include land, should develop or reform agrarian systems in such a way as to achieve the most efficient development and utilization of natural resources.	《公约》第十一条第二款规定，缔约国认识到免于饥饿的权利与土地等自然资源的利用之间的联系，应当发展或改革土地制度，以实现自然资源的最有效开发和利用。
In the Committee’s general comment No. 12 (1999) on the right to adequate food and in the Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security, the importance of access to productive resources is highlighted as a key element for the realization of the right to adequate food, particularly in rural areas, where most peasants and pastoralists live and where people are more likely to experience hunger.	委员会关于取得足够食物的权利的第12号一般性意见(1999年)和《支持在国家粮食安全范围内逐步实现充足食物权的自愿准则》都强调了获得生产资源的重要性，认为这是实现充足食物权的一个关键因素，特别是在农村地区，大多数农民和牧民生活在农村，农村人口遭遇饥饿的可能性也更大。
7.	7.
Second, as access to land provides space for housing, the enjoyment of the right to adequate housing depends largely on having secure access to land.	第二，获得土地会为住房提供空间，因此享有适当住房权在很大程度上取决于能够有保障地获得土地。
Without such access, people could be subject to displacement and forced eviction, which could violate their right to adequate housing.	不能获得土地，人们就可能遭遇流离失所和强行迁离，从而可能侵犯他们的适当住房权。
Secure access to land in rural areas serves the rights to both adequate food and housing, as housing is often built on land used for the purpose of food production.	在农村地区，有保障地获得土地有助于实现充足食物权和适当住房权，因为住房往往建在用于粮食生产的土地上。
8.	8.
Third, land is also directly linked to the enjoyment of the right to water.	第三，土地也与水权的享有直接相关。
For example, the enclosure of communal grounds deprives people from access to water sources that are necessary to meet their personal and domestic needs.	例如，封闭社区场地就使人们无法接近他们满足个人和家庭需求所必需的水源。
9.	9.
Fourth, the use of land may affect the enjoyment of the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health.	第四，土地的使用可能影响到享有能达到的最高标准身心健康的权利。
For example, land use that relies on pesticides, fertilizers and plant growth regulators or that results in the production of animal waste and other microorganisms has contributed to various respiratory diseases.	例如，在使用土地时依赖杀虫剂、化肥和植物生长调节剂，或产生动物粪便和其他微生物，助长了各种呼吸道疾病的发生。
10.	10.
Fifth, land is closely and often intrinsically related to the enjoyment of the right to take part in cultural life owing to the particular spiritual or religious significance of land to many communities, for example, when land serves as a basis for social, cultural and religious practices or the expression of cultural identity.	第五，土地与享有参与文化生活的权利密切相关并常常存在着本质性的联系，因为对许多社区来说，土地具有特殊的精神或宗教意义，例如土地有时作为社会、文化和宗教实践的基础或文化身份的表达。
This is particularly relevant for Indigenous Peoples and for peasants and other local communities living traditional lifestyles.	对于土著人民、农民和其他有着传统生活方式的地方社群来说尤其如此。
11.	11.
Sixth, land is also closely linked to the right to self-determination, enshrined in article 1 of the Covenant, the importance of which was emphasized in Declaration on the Right to Development (1986).	第六，土地也与《公约》第一条所载、《发展权利宣言》(1986年)中所强调的自决权密切相关。
The realization of self-determination is an essential condition for the effective guarantee and observance of individual human rights and for the promotion and strengthening of those rights.	实现自决是有效保障和遵行个人人权以及促进和加强这些权利的基本条件。
Indigenous Peoples can freely pursue their political, economic, social and cultural development and dispose of their natural wealth and resources for their own ends only if they have land or territory in which they can exercise their self-determination.	只有当土著人民拥有可以实行自决的土地或领土时，他们才能自由追求自身的政治、经济、社会和文化发展，为自身目的处置自己的自然财富和资源。
The present general comment deals only with the internal self-determination of Indigenous Peoples, which has to be exercised in accordance with international law and respecting the territorial integrity of States.	本一般性意见仅涉及土著人民的对内自决，这种自决的行使必须符合国际法，同时尊重各国的领土完整。
Thus, according to their right to internal self-determination, the collective ownership of lands, territories and resources of Indigenous Peoples shall be respected, which implies that these lands and territories shall be demarcated and protected by States parties.	因此，根据土著人民的对内自决权，土著人民对土地、领土和资源的集体所有权应得到尊重，这意味着缔约国应划定和保护这些土地和领土。
III.	三.
Obligations of States parties under the Covenant	《公约》规定的缔约国义务
A.	A.
Non-discrimination, equality and groups or persons requiring particular attention	不歧视、平等和需要特别关注的群体或人员
12.	12.
Under articles 2 (2) and 3 of the Covenant, States parties are required to eliminate all forms of discrimination and to ensure substantive equality.	根据《公约》第二条第二款和第三条，缔约国必须消除一切形式的歧视，确保实质性平等。
Accordingly, States parties shall undertake regular reviews to ensure that domestic laws and policies do not discriminate against people on any prohibited grounds.	因此，缔约国应定期进行审查，确保国内法律和政策不得基于任何被禁止的理由对人进行歧视。
They should also adopt specific measures, including legislation, aimed at eliminating discrimination against both public and private entities in relation to rights under the Covenant in land-related contexts.	缔约国还应采取立法等具体措施，消除在涉及土地的背景下针对《公约》规定的权利对公共和私营实体进行歧视。
In particular, women, Indigenous Peoples, peasants and other people working in rural areas deserve special attention, either because they have been traditionally discriminated against in terms of access to, use of and control over land or because of their particular relationship to land.	特别是，妇女、土著人民、农民和农村地区其他劳动者需要得到特别关注，因为他们传统上在获得、使用和控制土地方面受到歧视，或者与土地有着特殊关系。
1.	1.
Women	妇女
13.	13.
Women are among those who are disproportionately affected by poor access to, use of, control over and bad governance of land, threatening their rights under the Covenant and potentially leading to discrimination, including intersectional discrimination.	妇女属于受难以获得、使用、控制土地和土地管理不善等问题影响较大的人群之一，这就威胁到她们在《公约》下的权利，并可能导致歧视，包括交叉歧视。
In several of its concluding observations, the Committee has drawn special attention to discrimination against women with regard to security of land tenure, access to, use of and control over land, marital property, inheritance and exclusion from decision-making processes, including in the context of communal forms of land tenure.	委员会在其若干结论性意见中提请特别注意在土地权属保障、获得、使用和控制土地、婚内财产和继承方面对妇女的歧视以及妇女被排除在决策过程之外的问题，包括土地集体权属制下的这些问题。
In its general comment No. 16 (2005), the Committee noted that women have a right to own, use or otherwise control housing, land and property on an equal basis with men, and to access necessary resources to do so (para. 28).	委员会在第16号一般性意见(2005年)中指出，妇女有权在与男子平等的基础上拥有、使用或以其他方式控制住房、土地和财产，并有权为此获得必要的资源(第28段)。
In its general comment No. 12 (1999), the Committee recognized the importance of full and equal access to economic resources, particularly for women, including the right to inheritance and the ownership of land (para. 26).	委员会在第12号一般性意见(1999年)中认识到充分和平等地获得经济资源的重要性，特别是对妇女而言，包括土地继承权和所有权(第26段)。
14.	14.
For women, land is a pivotal resource for meeting subsistence needs and for accessing other goods and services, such as credit.	对妇女来说，土地是满足生存需求和获得信贷等其他商品和服务的关键资源。
Furthermore, land is important to enhance women’s engagement in household decision-making and for their participation in rural institutions that could strengthen their decision-making power and leverage over collective rights and resources.	此外，土地对于强化妇女介入家庭决策和参与农村机构非常重要，可以加强她们的决策权和对集体权利和集体资源的影响力。
In addition, women’s property ownership improves children’s welfare and increases access to sexual and reproductive health services.	而且妇女的地产所有权会改善儿童福祉，增加获得性健康和生殖健康服务的机会。
It also reduces women’s exposure to violence, in part because women who have security in access to tenure can flee domestic violence more easily by seeking access to protection, and also by making women’s households more secure, by enhancing women’s self-confidence and self-esteem and their role in decision-making, and by allowing them to garner more social, familial and community support.	妇女拥有地产还能减少妇女遭受暴力的风险，部分原因是有权属保障的妇女更容易逃离家庭暴力，可以寻求保护，可以使妇女的家庭更有保障，增强妇女的自信自尊及其在决策中的作用，并使妇女获得更多的社会、家庭和社区支持。
Thus, in cases of agrarian reform or any redistribution of land, the right of women, regardless of marital status, to share such redistributed land on equal terms with men should be carefully observed.	因此应特别注意，在土地改革或土地再分配时，无论婚姻状况如何，都应尊重妇女与男子平等分得这种再分配土地的权利。
States should also monitor and regulate customary law, which in many countries has an important role in governing land, to protect the rights of women and girls who are affected by traditional inheritance rules of male primogeniture.	由于习惯法在许多国家的土地管理中发挥着重要作用，国家还应监测和规范习惯法，保护受长子继承制的传统规则影响的妇女和女童的权利。
15.	15.
However, laws and social customs such as those providing that, upon the death of a man, his land belongs to his sons and not his widow or daughters, remain in place, despite their flagrant violation of women’s rights under the Covenant.	然而，尽管一些法律和社会习俗公然侵犯《公约》规定的妇女权利，却仍得以保留，例如规定在男子死亡后，土地归属其子，而不归属其遗孀和女儿。
Ensuring that women enjoy the rights enshrined in the Covenant on an equal basis to men requires the removal of traditional land regulations and structures that discriminate against women. This could be achieved by a combination of traditional and modern land governance regimes.	要确保妇女在与男子平等的基础上享有《公约》规定的权利，就要求消除歧视妇女的传统土地规范和架构，而这可以通过结合传统和现代土地治理制度来实现。
2.	2.
Indigenous Peoples	土著人民
16.	16.
The right of Indigenous Peoples over the lands and territories they have traditionally occupied is recognized in international law.	国际法承认土著人民对他们传统上占有的土地和领土的权利。
The Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169) of the International Labour Organization and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (arts. 25–28) both recognize Indigenous Peoples’ right to land and territory.	国际劳工组织1989年《土著和部落人民公约》(第169号)和《联合国土著人民权利宣言》(第25-28条) 都承认土著人民对其土地和领土的权利。
These sources of international human rights law provide for respect for and the protection of the relationship that Indigenous Peoples have with their lands, territories and resources, requiring States to demarcate their lands, protect those lands from encroachment and respect their right to manage the lands according to their internal modes of organization.	作为国际人权法的渊源之一，它们都规定尊重和保护土著人民与其土地、领土和资源的关系，要求各国划定他们的土地，保护这些土地不受侵蚀，尊重他们按照内部组织模式管理土地的权利。
The spiritual relationship of Indigenous Peoples to land is linked not only to spiritual ceremonies but also to every activity on land, such as hunting, fishing, herding and gathering plants, medicines and foods.	土著人民与土地的精神联系不仅涉及精神仪式，也涉及他们在土地上的每一项活动，如狩猎、捕鱼、放牧和采集植物、药物和食物。
Thus, States parties should ensure Indigenous Peoples’ right to maintain and strengthen their spiritual relationship with their lands, territories and resources, including waters and seas in their possession or no longer in their possession but which they owned or used in the past.	因此，缔约国应确保土著人民有权保持和加强他们与其土地、领土和资源的精神联系，包括他们拥有的、或现在不拥有但过去拥有或使用的水域和海洋。
Indigenous Peoples have the right to have their lands demarcated, and relocation should be allowed only under narrowly defined circumstances and with the prior, free and informed consent of the groups concerned.	土著人民有权要求对其土地进行划界，只有在严格界定的情形下，并经有关群体事先、自由和知情同意，才允许将他们迁移。
Laws and policies should protect Indigenous Peoples from the risk of State encroachment on their land, for instance for the development of industrial projects or for large-scale investments in agricultural production.	法律和政策应保护土著人民免受国家侵蚀其土地的风险，例如，发展工业项目或进行农业生产大规模投资。
Regional human rights courts have contributed to strengthening the rights of Indigenous Peoples to their lands and territories.	区域人权法院为加强土著人民对其土地和领土的权利做出了贡献。
Both the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights have taken the view that Indigenous Peoples who have unwillingly lost possession of their lands without their free and prior consent after a lawful transfer to third parties “are entitled to restitution thereof or to obtain other lands of equal extension and quality”.	美洲人权法院和非洲人权和民族权委员会都认为，在未经土著人民自由和事先同意而依法转让给第三方后，非自愿失去自身土地的土著人民“有权要求归还土地或获得同等面积和质量的其他土地”。
17.	17.
In recent jurisprudence of regional human rights courts, some of the rights applicable to Indigenous Peoples concerning land have been extended to some traditional communities that maintain a similar relationship to their ancestral lands, centred on the community rather than the individual.	在区域人权法院最近的判例中，适用于土著人民的一些涉及土地的权利已经扩展到与祖传土地保持着类似关系的一些传统社群，以社群而不是个人为中心。
3.	3.
Peasants and other people working in rural areas	农民和农村地区其他劳动者
18.	18.
Access to land has particular importance for the realization of the rights of peasants and other people working in rural areas worldwide.	获得土地对于实现全世界农民和农村地区其他劳动者的权利尤为重要。
For peasants, access to land and other productive resources is so important for the realization of most rights under the Covenant that it implies for them a right to land.	对农民来说，获得土地和其他生产资源对于实现《公约》规定的大多数权利如此重要，以至于对他们而言就意味着土地权。
Articles 5 and 17 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas recognize this right to land for peasants and other people working in rural areas, which include agricultural workers, pastoralists and fisherfolk.	《联合国农民和农村地区其他劳动者权利宣言》第5条和第17条承认农民以及农业工人、牧民和渔民等农村地区其他劳动者的这项土地权。
This right can be exercised individually and collectively.	这项权利可以由个人或集体行使。
It includes the right to have access to, sustainably use and manage land to achieve an adequate standard of living, to have a place to live in security, peace and dignity and to develop their cultures.	它包括有权获得、持续使用和管理土地以实现适当的生活水平，有权享有一个安全、和平和尊严生活的场所，有权发展自身的文化。
States should take measures to support peasants to use the land in a sustainable manner, to maintain soil fertility and its productive resources, and to ensure that their methods of production do not endanger the environment for others, in terms of aspects such as access to clean water and preservation of biodiversity.	各国应采取措施，支持农民以可持续的方式使用土地，保持土壤肥力及其生产资源，确保生产方式不会在获取清洁水和保持生物多样性等方面危及他人的环境。
19.	19.
If disputes over land arise between Indigenous Peoples or peasants, States shall provide mechanisms for the adequate settlement of those disputes, making every effort to satisfy the right to land of both groups.	如果土著人民或农民之间出现土地纠纷，国家应提供充分解决纠纷的机制，尽一切努力满足两个群体的土地权。
Both groups depend to a large extent on access to communal lands or to collective ownership.	这两个群体都深度依赖使用社群土地或获得集体所有权。
Respect for Indigenous Peoples’ self-determination and their customary land tenure system necessitates recognition of their collective ownership of lands, territories and resources.	尊重土著人民的自决权及其习惯土地权属制度，就必须承认他们对土地、领土和资源的集体所有权。
There are also other groups, including peasants, pastoralists and fisherfolk, for whom access to communal lands or the commons for gathering firewood, collecting water or medicinal plants or for hunting and fishing is essential.	此外，对农民、牧民和渔民等其他群体来说，进入社群土地或公地采集柴火、水、草药或狩猎和捕鱼至关重要。
Customary forms of property may provide security for people who depend on commons and for whom formal property rights are generally not an appropriate solution.	习惯产权形式可能为依赖公地的人提供保障，对他们而言，正规产权通常并不是恰当的解决方案。
However, ill-conceived attempts to formalize customary tenure rights through titling schemes and the enclosure of communal lands might exclude such people from access to resources on which they depend, affecting the right to food, the right to water and other rights enshrined in the Covenant.	然而，一些做法试图通过确权计划和圈定社群土地将习惯权属权利正规化，却由于考虑不周，反而可能会使这些人无法获得他们所依赖的资源，影响到他们的食物权、水权和《公约》规定的其他权利。
Consequently, States have an obligation to guarantee secure access to legitimate land users without discrimination, including those who depend on collective or communal land.	因此，国家有义务保障合法的土地使用者不受歧视和有保障地使用土地，包括那些依赖集体土地或社群土地的人。
B.	B.
Participation, consultation and transparency	参与、协商和透明
20.	20.
Participation, consultation and transparency are key principles for the implementation of obligations arising from the Covenant, including in relation to land.	参与、协商和透明是履行《公约》义务、包括有关土地义务的关键原则。
Individuals and communities shall be properly informed about and allowed to meaningfully participate in decision-making processes that may affect their enjoyment of rights under the Covenant in land-related contexts, without retaliation.	个人和社区应被妥善告知，并获准有意义地参与可能影响自身在涉及土地背景下享受《公约》权利的决策过程，而不会遭到报复。
Equal access to sufficient and transparent information for all parties involved in decision-making is key for human rights-based participation in decision-making.	参与决策的所有各方平等获得充分和透明的信息是基于人权参与决策的关键。
States parties should develop relevant laws, policies and procedures to ensure transparency, participation and consultation in relation to decision-making affecting land, including in relation to land registration, land administration and land transfers, as well as prior to evictions from land.	缔约国应制定相关法律、政策和程序，以确保在涉及土地的决策上做到透明、参与和协商，这些决策包括土地登记、土地管理和土地转让，以及从土地上迁离之前。
Decision-making processes should be transparent, organized in the relevant languages, without barriers and with reasonable accommodation for all involved.	决策过程应当透明，以适合的语言开展，对所有参与方不设障碍并提供合理便利。
21.	21.
Decision-making processes should be widely publicized and include procedures to grant access to all relevant documents.	决策过程应广泛公布，并包含允许查阅所有相关文件的程序。
Affected persons need to be contacted prior to any decision that might affect their rights under the Covenant.	在做出任何可能影响人们《公约》权利的决定之前，需要与受影响者取得联系。
The international legal standard for Indigenous Peoples is that of free, prior and informed consent, which needs to be a process of dialogue and negotiation where consent is the objective.	关于土著人民的国际法律标准是自由、事先和知情同意，这必须是一个对话和谈判过程，以取得同意为目标。
Indigenous Peoples shall not only be involved in decision-making processes, but shall also be able to actively influence their outcome.	土著人民不仅应参与决策过程，还应能够积极影响决策结果。
Consent is required for relocation, as stated in article 10 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.	正如《联合国土著人民权利宣言》第10条所述，迁离需要征得同意。
The right to participate is meaningful only when its use does not entail any form of retaliation.	只有在参与权的使用不会招致任何形式报复的情况下，参与权才有意义。
C.	C.
Specific obligations of States parties	缔约国的具体义务
1.	1.
Obligation to respect	尊重义务
22.	22.
The obligation to respect requires that States parties do not interfere directly or indirectly with the rights enshrined in the Covenant relating to land, including the access to, use of and control over land.	尊重义务要求缔约国不直接或间接干涉《公约》所载与土地有关的权利，包括获得、使用和控制土地。
The obligation to respect means not doing any of the following: (a) interfering with land users’ legitimate tenure rights, in particular by evicting occupants from land on which they depend for their livelihoods; (b) evicting by force and demolishing property as punitive measures; (c) committing any discriminatory acts in the process of land registration and land administration, including on the basis of marital status, legal capacity or access to economic resources; or (d) committing any act of corruption with regard to tenure administration and tenure transfers.	尊重义务意味着不做下述任何事情：(a) 干涉土地使用者的合法权属权利，尤其是将居民从他们赖以谋生的土地上迁离出去；(b) 暴力搬迁，并以毁坏财产作为惩罚措施；(c) 在土地登记和土地管理中实施任何歧视行为，包括基于婚姻状况、法律行为能力或经济能力进行歧视；(d) 在权属管理和权属转让上出现各种腐败行为。
The obligation to respect also entails respecting existing access to land of all legitimate tenure holders and respecting decisions of concerned communities to manage their lands according to internal modes of organization.	尊重义务还包括尊重所有合法权属权利人既有的土地使用权，尊重有关社群根据内部组织模式管理自身土地的决定。
23.	23.
States should provide all persons with a reasonable degree of tenure security that guarantees legal protection against forced evictions.	国家应向所有人提供合理程度的权属保障，保障提供防止强迫迁离的法律保护。
More generally, the Covenant imposes on States a duty to abstain from interfering with land users’ legitimate tenure rights, particularly by not evicting occupants from the land on which they depend for their livelihoods.	更普遍而言，《公约》规定各国有义务不干涉土地使用者的合法权属权利，特别是不将居住者从他们赖以谋生的土地上迁离出去。
Forced evictions are prima facie incompatible with the requirements of the Covenant.	强迫迁离显然不符合《公约》的要求。
The relevant authorities shall ensure that evictions are only carried out in accordance with legislation that is compatible and in conformity with the Covenant and in accordance with the general principles of reasonableness and proportionality between the legitimate objective of the eviction and its consequences for the evicted persons.	有关当局应确保依法迁离，而所依的法律应符合《公约》和遵守《公约》，迁离还应符合迁离的合法目标与对被迁离者的后果之间具备合理性和相称性的一般原则。
That obligation arises from the interpretation of the State party’s obligations under article 2 (1) of the Covenant, read in conjunction with article 11, and in accordance with the requirements of article 4, which stipulates the conditions under which limitations on the enjoyment of the rights under the Covenant are permitted.	这项义务产生于对缔约国根据《公约》第二条第一款(与第十一条一并解读)并依照第四条的要求所承担的义务的解释，第四条规定了允许对《公约》所载权利的享受作出限制的条件。
Firstly, the limitation shall be determined by law.	首先，限制须由法律确定。
Secondly, it shall promote the general welfare or “public purpose” in a democratic society.	其次，限制应增进民主社会的普遍福利或推动“公共目的”。
Thirdly, it shall be suited to the legitimate purpose cited.	第三，限制应适合所述的合法目的。
Fourthly, the limitation shall be necessary, in the sense that it is the least restrictive measure to fulfil the legitimate purpose.	第四，这种限制是必要的，即它是实现合法目的的限制性最小的措施。
Lastly, the benefits of the limitation in promoting the general welfare shall outweigh the impact on the enjoyment of the right being limited.	最后，限制在增进普遍福利方面的益处应超过限制享受权利的影响。
States parties shall clearly define the concepts of public purpose in law, in order to allow for judicial review.	缔约国应在法律中明确界定各项公共目的的概念，以便能够进行司法审查。
States parties shall introduce and implement national legislation that explicitly prohibits forced evictions and sets out a framework for eviction and resettlement processes to be carried out in line with international human rights law and standards.	缔约国应制定和实施国内法律，明文禁止强迫迁离，并确立框架，使迁离和再安置程序能够依照国际人权法律和标准进行。
24.	24.
Where people have been relocated and given alternative accommodation, alternative housing shall be safe and provide security of tenure, enabling access to public services, including education, health care, community engagement and livelihood opportunities.	如果人们已经迁离并获得替代住所，替代住房要安全并有权属保障，使人们能够获得公共服务，包括教育、医疗保健、社区参与和谋生机会。
Every effort shall be made not to break up communities, given their crucial role in supporting and sustaining neighbour networks and livelihood support.	鉴于社区在支持和维持邻里联系和提供生计支持方面的重要作用，应竭尽全力不要拆散社区。
Prior to carrying out any evictions or shifts in land use which could result in depriving individuals of access to their productive resources, States parties should ensure that all feasible alternatives are explored in consultation with the affected persons, with a view to avoiding, or at least minimizing, the need to resort to evictions.	在开展任何迁离或变更土地用途从而可能导致个人被剥夺生产资源之前，缔约国应确保与受影响人口协商，探讨所有可行的选项，以避免诉诸迁离做法，至少应尽量缩小这样做的必要性。
In all cases, effective legal remedies or procedures shall be provided to those who are affected by eviction orders.	在所有情况下，都应向受迁离令影响的人提供有效的法律救济或程序。
25.	25.
Where the State owns or controls land, it should ensure that the legitimate land tenure rights of individuals and communities, even within customary tenure systems, are recognized and respected.	如果是国家拥有或控制土地，国家应确保个人和社区的合法土地权属权利乃至在习惯权属制度中的权属权利得到承认和尊重。
Collective systems of use and management of land, be they traditional systems, cooperatives or other forms of common management, should be identified, recognized and registered.	土地的集体使用和管理制度，无论是传统体系、合作社还是其他的共同管理形式，都应得到确认、承认和登记。
Policies aimed at granting tenure rights of publicly owned land to landless peasants should follow broader social and environmental objectives in accordance with human rights obligations.	向无地农民授予公有土地权属的政策应依照人权义务遵循广泛的社会和环境目标。
Local communities that have traditionally used the land should be prioritized in the reallocation of tenure rights.	在重新分配权属权利时，传统上使用土地的当地社区应得到优先考虑。
2.	2.
Obligation to protect	保护义务
26.	26.
The obligation to protect requires States parties to adopt measures to prevent any person or entity from interfering with the rights enshrined in the Covenant relating to land, including the access to, use of and control over land.	保护义务要求缔约国采取措施，防止任何个人或实体干涉《公约》规定的与土地有关的权利，包括获得、使用和控制土地的权利。
States parties shall protect access to land by ensuring that no one is forcibly evicted and that their access rights to land are not otherwise infringed by third parties.	缔约国应保护获得土地的权利，确保任何人不被强迫迁离，他们获得土地的权利也不会以其他方式受到第三方侵犯。
States parties should also ensure that legitimate tenure rights are protected in all processes relating to transfer of these rights, including voluntary or involuntary transactions because of investments, land consolidation policies or other land-related readjustment and redistribution measures.	缔约国还应确保在所有涉及合法权属转让的过程中保护这些合法权属权利，包括因投资、土地整治政策或其他与土地有关的再调整和再分配措施导致的自愿或非自愿交易过程。
27.	27.
Notwithstanding the type of land tenure systems put in place, States parties shall take measures to ensure that all persons possess a reasonable degree of security in relation to their relationship with land and to protect legitimate tenure rights holders from eviction, illegal land dispossession, appropriation, harassment and other threats.	无论实行何种类型的土地权属制度，缔约国都应采取措施，确保所有人在与土地的关系上享有合理程度的保障，并保护合法权属权利人免遭迁离、非法剥夺土地、侵占、骚扰和其他威胁。
In addition, States parties should take immediate measures aimed at conferring legal security of tenure upon those persons and households currently lacking such protection, in genuine consultation with the persons and groups concerned.	此外，缔约国应立即采取措施，通过与有关个人和群体诚意协商，向当前缺乏此种保护的个人和家庭提供权属法律保障。
States parties should also recognize and protect communal dimensions of tenure, particularly in relation to Indigenous Peoples, peasants and other traditional communities who have a material and spiritual relationship with their traditional lands that is indispensable to their existence, well-being and full development.	缔约国还应承认并保护权属的集体性，特别是对土著人民、农民以及与其传统土地有着物质和精神联系的其他传统社群而言，这种物质和精神联系对他们的生存、福祉和充分发展是不可或缺的。
That includes the collective rights of access to, use of and control over lands, territories and resources that they have traditionally owned, occupied or otherwise used or acquired.	这包括获得、使用和控制他们传统上拥有、占有或以其他方式使用或取得的土地、领土和资源的集体权利。
Legal frameworks should therefore avoid the increased concentration of land ownership and privileges within land tenure systems, including when the motivation to change the legal framework stems from international agreements.	因此，法律框架应避免土地所有权日益集中，避免在土地权属制度中出现特权，包括在国际协定要求改变法律框架时也是如此。
28.	28.
States parties should develop laws and policies to guarantee that land-based investments are made in a responsible manner.	缔约国应制定法律和政策，保证基于土地的投资要以负责任方式进行。
That requires the early participation of all affected parties and the fair regulation of transfer processes.	这就需要所有受影响方尽早参与，转让过程接受公平监管。
In all land-related investment processes, affected persons or groups shall have access to complaint mechanisms that allow them to challenge decisions of local governments, investment boards or other relevant parties before the start of the investment and up to the payment of fair compensation.	在所有涉及土地的投资中，受影响的个人或群体应能够利用投诉机制，使他们能够在投资开始之前对地方政府、投资委员会或其他相关方的决定进行置疑，直至获得公平的补偿。
Human rights impact assessments shall be conducted to identify potential harm and options to mitigate it.	须开展人权影响评估，以确定潜在的损害和减轻损害的各种方案。
Principles for responsible investors and investment need to be determined by law and shall be enforceable.	法律应规定可执行的负责任投资者和负责任投资原则。
Responsible investments shall respect legitimate tenure rights and shall not harm human rights and legitimate policy objectives such as food security and the sustainable use of natural resources.	负责任投资应尊重合法的权属权利，不得损害人权和合法的政策目标，如粮食安全和自然资源的可持续利用。
States parties should provide transparent rules on the scale, scope and nature of allowable transactions in tenure rights and should define what constitutes large-scale transactions in tenure rights in their national contexts.	缔约国应就允许的权属权利交易的规模、范围和性质规定透明的规则，并应根据本国国情界定何为大规模权属权利交易。
29.	29.
States parties should have safeguards and policies in place to protect legitimate tenure rights from risks that could derive from large-scale transactions in tenure rights.	缔约国应制定保障措施和政策，保护合法权属权利免受权属权利大规模交易产生的风险。
Large-scale land investments risk violating rights under the Covenant because they often affect many smallholders, whose informal land use titles are often not recognized.	大规模土地投资会有侵犯《公约》权利的风险，因为这种投资往往影响许多小农户，而小农户的非正规土地使用权常常得不到承认。
Such safeguards could include ceilings on permissible land transactions and the requirement that transfers exceeding a certain level should be approved at the highest level of Government or by the national parliament.	此类保障措施可包括对允许的土地交易设定上限，并要求超过一定水平的转让应由最高级别政府或国民议会批准。
States should consider the promotion of a range of production and investment models that do not result in large-scale displacements from land, including models encouraging partnerships with local tenure rights holders.	国家应考虑推广各种不会导致大规模离乡背井的生产和投资模式，包括鼓励与当地权属权利人建立伙伴关系的模式。
30.	30.
The obligation to protect entails a positive duty to take legislative and other measures to provide clear standards for non-State actors such as business entities and private investors, especially in the context of large-scale land acquisitions and leases at home and abroad.	保护义务意味着负有主动责任采取立法和其他措施，为工商业体和私人投资者等非国家行为者规定明确的标准，特别是涉及国内外大规模土地收购和租赁的情况。
States parties shall adopt a legal framework requiring business entities to exercise human rights due diligence in order to identify, prevent and mitigate the negative impact on rights enshrined in the Covenant caused by their decisions and operations.	缔约国应通过一个法律框架，要求工商实体履行人权尽职，以查明、防止和减轻自身决定和业务对《公约》所载权利造成负面影响。
31.	31.
In recent years, titling has been encouraged to protect land users from eviction by the State and encroachment by private actors, particularly large landowners, and by investors.	近年来开始鼓励确权，以保护土地使用者不被国家迁移，不被大地主等私人行为体和投资者侵占。
That process, sometimes referred as “formalization”, consists of demarcating the land effectively occupied and used by each land user (and generally recognized under customary law), increasingly using digital techniques, and attributing a deed protecting land users from expropriation, while at the same time enabling them to sell the land.	这一过程有时被称为"正规化"，包括划定每个土地使用者实际占有和使用(以及在习惯法下普遍得到承认)的土地，这项工作越来越多地使用数字技术，发放地契以保护土地不被征用，同时使土地使用者能够出售土地。
The impact of titling has been mixed.	发放地契的影响好坏兼具。
Clarification of property rights was intended to provide security of tenure, to allow dwellers in informal settlements to be recognized as owners and to protect small farmers from being evicted from their land.	明确产权的目的是提供权属保障，使非正规住区居民被承认为所有者，保护小农户不被迁离自己的土地。
It was also justified by the need to establish a market for land rights, allowing for more fluid transfer of property rights and a lowering of transaction costs in those markets.	这样做的理由还包括需要建立土地权市场，以便更顺畅地转让产权，并降低这些市场的交易成本。
Those two objectives may be contradictory since commodification of property rights can be a source of exclusion and increase insecurity of tenure.	这两个目标可能相互冲突，因为产权商品化可能导致排斥并加剧权属无保障的问题。
Therefore, States should adopt laws and policies to guarantee that titling programmes are not implemented solely to support the sale of land and the commodification of land tenure.	因此，国家应通过法律和政策，保证确权方案的实施不只是为了支持土地出售和土地权属的商品化。
If such laws or regulations are missing, titling of pre-existing, customary forms of tenure may result in more conflicts rather than more clarity and may also result in less security rather than improved security, with a negative impact on rights under the Covenant, in particular the right to an adequate standard of living.	如果此类法律或法规缺失，对已有的、习惯的权属形式确权可能会造就更多的冲突而不是明晰化，还可能减少而不是改善保障，对《公约》规定的各项权利，尤其是适当生活水准权，产生负面影响。
States shall ensure that any titling process that involves determining competing claims to land protects the rights of those most at risk of marginalization and discrimination, while addressing historical injustices.	国家应确保，如果确权工作中涉及对争夺土地的诉求作出裁定，则须保护最有可能被边缘化和歧视者的权利，同时解决历史性的不公正问题。
3.	3.
Obligation to fulfil	履行义务
32.	32.
The obligation to fulfil requires that States adopt legislative, administrative, budgetary and other measures and establish effective remedies aimed at the full enjoyment of the rights under the Covenant relating to land, including the access to, use of and control over land.	履行义务要求国家采取立法、行政、预算和其他措施，建立有效救济，以便使《公约》规定的与土地有关的权利得到充分享有，包括获得、使用和控制土地。
States parties shall facilitate secure, equitable and sustainable access to, use of and control over land for those who depend on land to realize their economic, social and cultural rights.	缔约国应为依赖土地实现经济、社会和文化权利的人提供便利，使他们能够安全、公平和可持续地获得、使用和控制土地。
This is especially important for those who are landless or live in poverty, especially women and those who are marginalized.	这对无地或生活贫困者尤其重要，特别是妇女和边缘化人群。
33.	33.
Land registration and land administration shall be carried out without any discrimination, including discrimination on the basis of a change of marital status, lack of legal capacity and lack of access to economic resources.	土地登记和土地管理不得有任何歧视，包括基于婚姻状况变更、缺乏法律行为能力和无法获得经济资源进行歧视。
The legal recognition and allocation of tenure rights to individuals shall be carried out systematically, without discrimination on the basis of gender, family and community and in a way that ensures that those living in poverty and other disadvantaged and marginalized individuals and groups have every opportunity to acquire legal recognition of their current tenure rights.	应系统开展对个人权属权利的法律承认和分配，不得基于性别、家庭和社区进行歧视，并确保生活贫困者及其他困难和边缘化个人和群体有充分的机会使自身的权属权利得到法律承认。
States parties should identify all existing tenure rights and rights holders, not only those in written records.	缔约国应确认一切现有的权属权利和权利持有人，而不仅仅是有书面登记的权利和权利持有人。
States parties shall, through public rules, establish the definition of land user rights that are legitimate, in line with all the relevant Covenant provisions and with the definitions contained in the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security.	缔约国应通过公共规则，确立合法的土地使用权定义，并使之符合《公约》所有相关条款以及《国家粮食安全范围内土地、渔业及森林权属负责任治理自愿准则》所载定义。
34.	34.
Land administration shall be based on accessible and non-discriminatory services implemented by accountable agencies whose actions are reviewed by judicial bodies.	土地管理应立足于无障碍和非歧视性服务，由可问责的机构实施，其行动应受司法机关审查。
Such services should be accessible and provided promptly and effectively.	这种服务应该是无障碍的，并应及时有效地提供。
Disadvantaged and marginalized individuals and groups shall be supported in using those services and their access to justice shall be guaranteed.	困难和边缘化个人和群体在使用这些服务时应得到支持，他们诉诸司法的机会应得到保障。
Such support should cover legal assistance, including affordable legal aid, particularly for those living in very remote areas.	这种支持应涵盖法律援助，包括可负担的法律协助，特别是对非常偏远地区的居民。
States parties should prevent corruption regarding tenure administration and tenure transfers by adopting and enforcing anti-corruption measures addressing, inter alia, conflicts of interests.	缔约国应防止权属管理和权属转让方面出现腐败，为此应通过和执行反腐败措施，解决利益冲突等问题。
35.	35.
States parties shall also recognize the social, cultural, spiritual, economic, environmental and political value of land for communities with customary tenure systems and shall respect existing forms of self-governance of land.	缔约国还应承认，对于采取习惯权属体系的社区，土地具有社会、文化、精神、经济、环境和政治价值，并应尊重既有的土地自治形式。
Traditional institutions for collective tenure systems shall ensure the meaningful participation of all members, including women and young people, in decisions regarding the distribution of user rights.	集体权属制下的传统机构应确保包括妇女和青年在内的所有成员有意义地参与有关使用权分配的决定。
Ensuring access to natural resources cannot be limited to the protections granted to the lands and territories of Indigenous Peoples.	确保获得自然资源不能仅限于保护土著人民的土地和领土。
Other groups depend on the commons, in other words, global public goods.	还有其他群体依赖公地，或者说全球公共品。
Fisherfolk need access to fishing grounds, yet strengthening individual property rights might entail fencing off the land that gives them access to the sea or to rivers.	渔民需要进入渔场，但强化个人产权就可能导致他们前往海洋或河流的土地被围拦起来。
Pastoralists also form a particularly important group in sub-Saharan Africa, where almost half of the world’s 120 million pastoralists or agropastoralists reside.	在撒哈拉以南非洲，牧民也是一个特别重要的群体，全世界1.2亿牧民或农牧民中几乎有一半居住在撒哈拉以南非洲。
In addition, throughout the developing world, many peasants and rural households still depend on gathering firewood for cooking and heating, and on commonly owned wells or water sources for their access to water.	此外，在整个发展中世界，许多农民和农村家庭仍然依靠拾柴做饭和取暖，并依靠共有水井或水源取水。
The formalization of property rights and the establishment of land registries should not worsen the situation of any of those groups, as cutting them off from the resources on which they depend would threaten their livelihoods.	产权正规化和建立土地登记不应使上述任何一个群体的生活变差，因为切断他们赖以生存的资源会威胁他们的生计。
36.	36.
Agrarian reform is an important measure to fulfil rights enshrined in the Covenant relating to land.	土地改革是实现《公约》所载涉及土地权利的一项重要措施。
More equitable distribution of land through agrarian reform can have a significant impact on poverty reduction and can contribute to social inclusion and economic empowerment.	通过土地改革实现更公平的土地分配可以对减贫产生重大影响，并推动实现社会包容和经济赋权。
It improves food security, since it makes food more available and affordable, providing a buffer against external shocks.	土地改革能够改善粮食安全，因为它改进了粮食的可得性和可负担性，为抵御外部冲击提供了缓冲。
Land distribution schemes should also support small, family-owned farms, which often use the land in a more sustainable way and contribute to rural development owing to their labour intensity.	土地分配计划还应支持小型家庭农场，这些农场往往以更具可持续性的方式使用土地，加之劳动密集，因而有助于农村发展。
However, land redistribution schemes should ensure that the beneficiaries receive proper support to enhance their capacity to use land productively and to engage in sustainable agricultural practices in order to maintain the productivity of the land.	然而，土地再分配计划应确保受益者得到适当的支持，以提高他们有效使用土地、采取可持续农作方法的能力，从而保持土地的生产力。
Policy options to support the economic success of family farmers should include education on access to credits, help in using marketing opportunities and the pooling of machines.	支持家庭农场主经济上取得成功的政策选项应包括开展获得信贷的教育、帮助利用营销机会和集中机器共同使用。
Policies should be formulated in a way that enables beneficiaries to benefit from the land they acquire and avoids incentives to sell the land to support their minimum needs.	制定政策时应使获益者能够从他们获得的土地中受益，避免产生出售土地来满足最低需求的动力。
Redistribution of land and agrarian reforms should focus particularly on the access to land of young people, women, communities facing racial and descent-based discrimination and others belonging to marginalized groups, and should respect and protect the collective and customary tenure of land.	土地再分配和土地改革应特别关注青年、妇女、面临种族和血统歧视的社区以及其他边缘化群体获得土地的机会，并应尊重和保护土地的集体和习惯权属。
37.	37.
States shall use the maximum available resources to progressively realize the rights under the Covenant relating to accessing productive resources, particularly to assist individuals and groups to access an adequate standard of living.	国家应最大限度地利用现有资源，逐步实现《公约》规定的与获得生产资源有关的权利，特别是帮助个人和群体达到适当的生活水平。
Article 11 (2) (a) of the Covenant imposes on States parties the obligation to improve methods of production, conservation and distribution of food by developing or reforming agrarian systems in such a way as to achieve the most efficient development and utilization of natural resources.	《公约》第十一条第二款(子)项规定，缔约国有义务发展或改革土地制度而使天然资源获得最有效的开发与利用，以改进粮食生产、保贮及分配的方法。
That implies that States have a duty to support agrarian reform schemes that ensure adequate access to land, particularly for small-scale peasants who depend on access to land for their livelihoods.	这意味着国家有义务支持通过土地改革计划确保充分获得土地，特别是使依靠土地为生的小农充分获得土地。
Policies and laws should be accompanied by adequate, gender-sensitive support measures, developed through participatory processes, and should aim to make agrarian reforms sustainable.	政策和法律应辅以充分的、顾及性别层面并通过参与性进程制定的支持措施，以土地改革可以持续为目标。
Such policies and laws should include adequate safeguards against land reconcentration following reform, such as land ceiling laws and legal safeguards to protect the collective and customary tenure of land.	此类政策和法律应包括防止改革后土地重新集中的充分保障措施，如土地上限法和保护土地的集体和习惯权属的法律保障。
38.	38.
States parties should engage in long-term regional planning to maintain the environmental functions of land.	缔约国应进行长期区域规划，以保持土地的环境功能。
They should prioritize and support land uses with a human rights-based approach to conservation, biodiversity and the sustainable use of land and other natural resources.	缔约国应优先考虑和支持对土地和其他自然资源在养护、生物多样性和可持续利用方面采取基于人权方法的土地利用。
They should also, inter alia, facilitate the sustainable use of natural resources by recognizing, protecting and promoting traditional uses of land, adopting policies and measures to strengthen people’s livelihoods based on natural resources and the long-term conservation of land.	缔约国还应推动对自然资源的可持续利用，承认、保护和推广对土地的传统利用，采取政策和措施加强立足于自然资源的人口生计和对土地的长期养护。
That includes specific measures to support communities and people to prevent, mitigate and adapt to the consequences of global warming.	这包括采取具体措施支持社区和人民预防、减轻和适应全球变暖的后果。
States should create the conditions for regeneration of biological and other natural capacities and cycles and cooperate with local communities, investors and others to ensure that land use for agricultural and other purposes respects the environment and does not accelerate soil depletion and the exhaustion of water reserves.	国家应为生物和其他自然能力和循环的再生创造条件，并与当地社区、投资者和其他方面合作，确保为农业和其他目的使用土地时尊重环境，不会加速土壤流失和水资源枯竭。
39.	39.
States parties shall put in place laws and policies that allow for the recognition of informal tenure through participatory, gender-sensitive processes, paying particular attention to tenant farmers, peasants and other small-scale food producers.	缔约国应制定法律和政策，以便通过参与式、顾及性别层面的进程承认非正规权属，同时特别关注佃农、农民和其他小规模粮食生产者。
D.	D.
Extraterritorial obligations	域外义务
40.	40.
Extraterritorial obligations are of particular significance to the implementation of obligations arising from the Covenant relating to access to, use of and control over land.	域外义务对于履行《公约》规定的关于获得、使用和控制土地的义务具有特别重要的意义。
Land transfers are quite often financed or fostered by international entities, including public investors such as development banks financing development projects requiring land, such as dams or renewable energy parks, or by private investors.	土地转让往往由国际实体资助或促成，包括开发银行等公共投资者，它们资助需要土地的发展项目如水坝或可再生能源园区，也包括私人投资者。
In reviews of State party reports, the Committee has encountered an increasing number of references to the negative impact on individuals’, groups’, peasants’ and Indigenous Peoples’ access to productive resources as a result of international investment negotiations, agreements and practices, including in the form of public-private partnerships between State agencies and foreign private investors.	委员会在审查缔约国报告时发现，报告中越来越多地提及国际投资谈判、协定和实务对个人、群体、农民和土著人民获得生产资源的负面影响，包括国家机构和外国私人投资者采取公私伙伴关系形式的投资。
1.	1.
Extraterritorial obligation to respect	域外尊重义务
41.	41.
The extraterritorial obligation to respect requires States parties to refrain from actions that interfere, directly or indirectly, with the enjoyment of the rights under the Covenant in land-related contexts outside their territories.	域外尊重义务要求缔约国避免采取直接或间接干涉在本国领土外涉及土地情况下享有《公约》所规定权利的行动。
It also requires them to take specific measures to prevent their domestic and international policies and actions, such as trade, investment, energy, agricultural, development and climate change-mitigation policies, from interfering, directly or indirectly, with the enjoyment of human rights.	这一义务还要求各国采取具体措施，防止其国内和国际政策和行动直接或间接干涉享受人权，这些政策和行动涉及贸易、投资、能源、农业、发展和减缓气候变化等。
That applies to all forms of projects implemented by development agencies or financed by development banks.	这适用于由发展机构实施或由开发银行资助的所有形式的项目。
The safeguards developed by the World Bank and other international development banks are a form of recognition of that obligation, particularly relating to investments in land.	世界银行和其他国际开发银行制定的保障措施是对这一义务的一种承认，特别是在土地投资方面。
In the wake of the world food crisis in 2007–2008, the number of large-scale investments in land has increased worldwide, causing a variety of problems for persons living on or using the land, including forced or involuntary evictions without adequate compensation.	在2007-2008年世界粮食危机之后，世界范围内大规模土地投资的数量有所增加，给靠土地谋生或使用土地的人造成了各种问题，包括缺乏适当补偿的强迫或非自愿迁离。
In order to mitigate or prevent such situations, the Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security were developed. Furthermore, the International Finance Corporation performance standards and the respective World Bank safeguards were updated.	为了缓解或防止这种情况，制定了《支持在国家粮食安全范围内逐步实现充足食物权的自愿准则》，还更新了国际金融公司的绩效标准和相应的世界银行保障措施。
Moreover, States parties that are members of international financial institutions, notably the World Bank, the International Fund for Agricultural Development and regional development banks, should take steps to ensure that their lending policies and other practices do not impair the enjoyment of the rights enshrined in the Covenant relating to land.	此外，属于世界银行、国际农业发展基金和区域开发银行等国际金融机构成员的缔约国应采取步骤，确保本国的贷款政策和其他做法不损害享有《公约》所载的涉及土地的权利。
2.	2.
Extraterritorial obligation to protect	域外保护义务
42.	42.
The extraterritorial obligation to protect requires States parties to establish the necessary regulatory mechanisms to ensure that business entities, including transnational corporations, and other non-State actors that they are in a position to regulate do not impair the enjoyment of rights under the Covenant in land-related contexts in other countries.	域外保护义务要求缔约国建立必要的监管机制，以确保包括跨国公司在内的工商实体以及缔约国能够监管的其他非国家行为者不损害在其他国家涉及土地的背景下享有《公约》规定的权利。
Thus, States parties shall take the necessary steps to prevent human rights violations abroad in land-related contexts by non-State actors over which they can exercise influence, without infringing on the sovereignty or diminishing the obligations of the host States.	因此，缔约国应采取必要步骤，在自身能够发挥影响力的情况下，防止非国家行为者在国外与土地有关的背景下侵犯人权，同时不侵犯东道国主权，也不消减东道国义务。
43.	43.
In the context of land acquisitions and other business activities that have an impact on the enjoyment of access to productive resources, including land, States parties shall ensure that investors domiciled in other countries and investing in farmland overseas do not deprive individuals or communities of access to the land or land-associated resources on which they depend for their livelihoods.	对于土地收购和其他影响享有土地等生产资源的商业活动，缔约国应确保设在他国并投资海外农场的投资者不剥夺个人或社区获得他们赖以谋生的土地或与土地有关的资源。
That may imply imposing a due diligence obligation on investors to ensure that they do not acquire or lease land in a way that violates international norms and guidelines.	这可能意味着对投资者规定尽职义务，以确保他们不以违反国际规范和准则的方式取得或租赁土地。
44.	44.
States parties that promote or carry out land-related investments abroad, including through partially or fully State-owned or State-controlled companies, including sovereign wealth funds, public pension funds and private-public partnerships, should ensure that they do not reduce the ability of other States to comply with their obligations arising from the Covenant.	缔约国在推动或开展涉及土地的海外投资时，包括通过国有或国家控制的合资或全资公司如主权财富基金、公共养老基金和公私伙伴关系等进行投资时，应确保这些投资不会削弱其他国家履行《公约》义务的能力。
States parties shall conduct human rights impact assessments prior to making such investments and shall regularly assess and revise them.	缔约国在进行此类投资之前应开展人权影响评估，并应定期评价和作出修订。
Such assessments shall be conducted with substantive public participation and the results shall be made public and shall inform measures to prevent, cease and remedy any human rights violations or abuses.	开展这种评估时应有公众的实质性参与，评估结果应予以公布，并为预防、停止和补救任何侵犯或侵害人权行为的措施提供参考。
45.	45.
States parties shall ensure that the elaboration, conclusion, interpretation and implementation of international agreements, including but not limited to the areas of trade, investment, finance, development cooperation and climate change, are consistent with their obligations under the Covenant and do not have an adverse effect on access to productive resources in other countries.	缔约国应确保，在贸易、投资、金融、发展合作和气候变化等各领域的国际协定的拟订、缔结、解释和执行要符合《公约》规定的义务，并且不对在其他国家获得生产资源产生不利影响。
3.	3.
Extraterritorial obligation to fulfil	域外履行义务
46.	46.
States should take steps through international assistance and cooperation under article 2 (1) of the Covenant with a view to progressively achieving the full realization of rights under the Covenant relating to land, which would also benefit peoples and communities outside their territories.	各国应根据《公约》第二条第一款，通过国际援助与合作，采取步骤，逐步充分实现《公约》规定的与土地有关的权利，并使领土以外的人民和社区受益。
Support should include technical cooperation, financial assistance and institutional capacity-building for, inter alia, land administration, knowledge-sharing and assistance in developing national tenure policies, as well as the transfer of relevant technology.	支持应包括技术合作，用于土地管理、知识共享和协助制定国家权属政策的资金援助和机构能力建设，以及相关技术的转让。
47.	47.
International cooperation and assistance should be focused on supporting national policies to secure access to land tenure for those whose legitimate user rights have not been recognized.	国际合作和援助应重点支持确保那些合法使用权未被承认者获得土地权属的国家政策。
Policies should avoid leading to land concentration or commodification of land and should be aimed at improving the access of disadvantaged and marginalized individuals and groups and increasing their security of tenure.	政策应避免导致土地集中或土地商品化，而应力求改善困难和边缘化个人和群体的获取机会，增加他们的权属保障。
Adequate safeguard policies shall be in place, and persons and groups affected by measures of international cooperation and assistance shall have access to independent complaint mechanisms.	应制定充分的保障政策，受国际合作和援助措施影响的个人和群体应能诉诸独立的申诉机制。
International cooperation and assistance can facilitate efforts to ensure that land policies are sustainable and are or will become an integral part of official land use planning and States’ broader spatial planning.	国际合作和援助可以推动有关努力以确保土地政策可以持续，成为或将来成为官方土地使用规划和国家总体空间规划的一个组成部分。
IV.	四.
Specific issues of relevance to the implementation of rights enshrined in the Covenant in land-related contexts	在与土地有关的背景下落实《公约》所载权利涉及的具体问题
A.	A.
Internal armed conflicts and post-conflict situations	国内武装冲突和冲突后局势
48.	48.
There are links between internal armed conflicts, land and the enjoyment of rights enshrined in the Covenant.	国内武装冲突、土地和享有《公约》所载权利之间是相关联的。
Sometimes, land conflicts, especially those relating to structural unequal distribution of land tenure coming, for example, from colonial or apartheid systems, can be one of the root causes or a trigger of the conflict.	有时，土地冲突，特别是与殖民或种族隔离制度造成的土地权属分配上的结构性不平等有关的冲突，可能是冲突的一个根源或导火索。
In other cases, the conflicts may lead to forced displacements, land grabbing and land dispossession, especially for populations in vulnerable situations, such as peasants, Indigenous Peoples, ethnic minorities and women.	还有些情况下，冲突可能导致被迫流离失所、土地掠夺和失地，特别是对农民、土著人民、少数民族和妇女等弱势人群而言。
It is noteworthy that addressing land disputes and conflicts might be a key to building resilience and sustaining peace.	值得注意的是，解决土地纠纷和冲突可能是建设复原力和维持和平的一个关键。
Thus, States should make every effort to prevent land dispossession during internal armed conflicts.	因此，国家应尽一切努力防止在国内武装冲突中出现失地现象。
If dispossessions do nevertheless occur, States are obliged to establish restitution programmes to guarantee to all internally displaced persons the right to have restored to them any land of which they were arbitrarily or unlawfully deprived.	如果确实发生了失地情况，国家有义务制定归还方案，保障所有境内流离失所者有权收回他们被任意或非法剥夺的任何土地。
States should also address all those land conflicts that might trigger the re-emergence of an armed conflict.	国家还应解决所有可能引发武装冲突死灰复燃的土地冲突。
49.	49.
Preventive measures to avoid land dispossession during armed conflict should include at least the following: (a) the establishment of mechanisms for the protection of land tenure for populations in vulnerable situations; (b) the coordination of humanitarian assistance and the implementation of international humanitarian law with measures to prevent land dispossession; (c) the inclusion in information systems of all those estates at risk of dispossession, not only to prevent dispossession but also to facilitate future land restitution; and (d) the possibility of freezing the land market in regions in which the risks of internal displacement and land dispossession are high.	避免武装冲突期间失地现象的预防措施至少应包括以下内容：(a) 建立保护弱势群体土地权属的机制；(b) 在协调人道主义援助和执行国际人道法时采取措施防止失地现象；(c) 将所有可能被剥夺的地产纳入信息系统，不仅是为了防止失地发生，也是为了便利未来归还土地；(d) 可能情况下在境内流离失所和失地风险高的地区冻结土地市场。
All such preventive measures should protect not only property, but all forms of land tenure, including customary tenure, as those at higher risk of being dispossessed of their land may not be the formal owners of it.	所有此类预防措施不仅应保护地产，还应保护所有形式的土地权属，包括习惯权属，因为那些失地风险较高的人可能不是土地的正式主人。
50.	50.
Land restitution programmes shall include measures to guarantee the right of refugees and internally displaced persons to a voluntary return to their former lands or places of habitual residence, in safety and dignity.	土地归还方案应包括保障难民和境内流离失所者有权安全和有尊严地自愿返回以前的土地或惯常居住地的措施。
If restitution is not possible, States should develop adequate compensation mechanisms.	如果没有可能归还，国家应建立充分的补偿机制。
States shall establish and support equitable, timely, independent, transparent and non-discriminatory procedures, institutions and mechanisms to assess and enforce all land restitution claims.	国家应建立和支持公平、及时、独立、透明和非歧视性的程序、机构和机制，以评估和执行所有土地归还诉求。
They should cover not only property rights but all forms of land tenure, especially when they are linked to the enjoyment of rights under the Covenant.	这些程序、机构和机制不仅应涵盖地产权，还应涵盖所有形式的土地权属，尤其是当它们与享有《公约》规定的权利相关联时。
Special attention should be paid to dealing adequately with “secondary occupants”, who are mostly good faith purchasers, and persons in a vulnerable situation who occupy land after the legitimate tenants have fled owing to armed conflict.	应特别注意妥善处理"第二居住者"问题，他们大多是善意的购买者，是在合法租户因武装冲突逃离后占有土地的弱势人口。
In particular, due process shall be guaranteed to secondary occupants; if their eviction is necessary, it shall be implemented with genuine consultation and States shall, if necessary, provide them with alternative accommodation and social services to guarantee them an adequate standard of living.	具体说来，应保障第二居住者享有正当程序；如果必须让他们迁离，应通过诚意协商进行，必要时，国家应向他们提供替代住所和社会服务，以保障他们享有适当的生活水准。
51.	51.
In many post-conflict situations, land restitution programmes, even if successful, might be insufficient to prevent new conflicts and to guarantee rights under the Covenant to refugees and internally displaced persons, as such populations were often living in poverty and excluded from land rights before the conflict.	在许多冲突后局势中，土地归还方案即使成功开展，也可能不足以防止新的冲突和保障难民和境内流离失所者享有《公约》规定的权利，因为这些人在冲突前往往生活贫困，土地权受到排斥。
In these circumstances, land restitution or compensation alone are insufficient as they would not lift refugees and internally displaced persons out of poverty or reduce social and gender inequality in land tenure.	在这种情况下，只靠归还土地或补偿是不够的，因为这无法使难民和境内流离失所者摆脱贫困，也不会减少土地权属上的社会和性别不平等。
In such contexts, reparations for victims of internal displacement or violence should go beyond restitution. They should be transformative reparations, in the sense that they should include policies and measures aimed at reducing inequality and improving those persons’ standard of living.	在这种情况下，对境内流离失所或暴力受害者的补偿不应仅限于归还，而应当是革新性的补偿，即包含减少不平等和提高这些人生活水平的政策和措施。
Specific measures should be taken to improve gender equality in land tenure, for instance, by giving preference to women when granting land rights.	应采取具体措施改进土地权属上的性别平等，例如，在授予土地权时优先考虑妇女。
In addition, States should make efforts to ensure that land restitution programmes include rural reform policies that involve technical, financial and educational support for beneficiaries.	此外，国家应努力确保土地归还方案中包括农村改革政策，并列有为受益者提供技术、资金和教育支持的内容。
B.	B.
Corruption	腐败
52.	52.
Land administration is one of the areas in which corruption can be most pervasive.	土地管理是腐败最普遍的领域之一。
Corruption occurs and has a negative impact in the demarcation of land and in the rolling out of titling schemes; in the design of land use schemes and the identification of land as “underutilized” or “vacant”; in the use of “public purpose” or “eminent domain” provisions to justify expropriation from land; and in the selling or leasing out of land to investors by Governments.	在土地划界和开展确权计划、制订土地使用规划和将土地划为“利用不足”或“闲置”、以“公共目的”或“征用权”条款为由征用土地、政府向投资者出售或出租土地时，都可能出现腐败现象，产生负面影响。
53.	53.
States shall build up proper accountability mechanisms to prevent corruption concerning all relevant land policies and should endeavour to prevent corruption in all forms, at all levels and in all settings.	国家应发展适当的问责机制，防止在所有相关土地政策上出现腐败，并应努力防止各种形式、各个层级和各种背景下的腐败。
States should regularly review and monitor policy, legal and organizational frameworks to maintain their effectiveness.	国家应定期审查和监测政策、法律和组织框架，以保持它们的效力。
Implementing agencies and judicial authorities should engage with civil society, user representatives and the wider public to improve services and endeavour to prevent corruption through transparent processes and decision-making.	执行机构和司法当局应与民间社会、用户代表和广大公众接触，以改进服务，并努力通过透明的程序和决策预防腐败。
States should do so particularly through consultation, participation and respect for the rule of law and the principles of transparency and accountability.	国家应具体通过协商、参与和尊重法治以及透明和问责原则来做到这一点。
C.	C.
Human rights defenders	人权维护者
54.	54.
The situation of human rights defenders is particularly difficult in conflicts over land.	在土地冲突中，人权维护者的处境尤其困难。
The Committee has regularly received reports of threats and attacks aimed at those seeking to protect their rights under the Covenant or those of others, often in the form of harassment, criminalization, defamation and killings, particularly in the context of extractive and development projects.	委员会经常收到关于那些为争取自身及他人的《公约》权利得到保护的人遭受威胁和攻击的报告，通常是以骚扰、定罪、诽谤和杀害的形式，特别是在采掘和发展项目中。
In the context of land, many human rights defenders are also defenders of the environmental functions of land and of the sustainability of land use as a precondition for respecting human rights in the future.	在围绕土地的背景下，许多人权维护者也在维护土地的环境功能和土地的可持续使用，将之作为未来尊重人权的先决条件。
In accordance with the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, States shall take all measures necessary to respect human rights defenders and their work, including in relation to land issues, and to refrain from imposing criminal penalties on them or enacting new criminal offences with the aim of hindering their work.	根据《个人、群体和社会机构在促进和保护普遍公认的人权和基本自由方面的权利和义务宣言》，国家应采取一切必要措施，尊重人权维护者及其工作，包括与土地问题有关的工作，避免通过对他们实施刑事处罚或颁布新的刑事罪行来阻碍他们的工作。
55.	55.
The specific measures that States should adopt to safeguard the work of human rights defenders in relation to land are dependent on national circumstances. However, the following measures are of crucial importance: (a) public recognition, by the highest level of Government, of the importance and legitimacy of the work of human rights defenders and a commitment that no violence or threats against them will be tolerated; (b) repeal of any State legislation or any measures that are intended to penalize or obstruct the work of human rights defenders; (c) strengthening of State institutions responsible for safeguarding the work of human rights defenders; (d) investigation and punishment of any form of violence or threat against human rights defenders; and (e) adoption and implementation of programmes, in consultation with potential beneficiaries, that are well resourced and have inbuilt coordination mechanisms that ensure that adequate protection measures are provided to human rights defenders at risk whenever necessary.	为保障人权维护者围绕土地开展的工作，国家应采取的具体措施取决于具体国情，但以下措施至关重要：(a)政府最高层公开承认人权维护者工作的重要性和合法性，承诺绝不容忍对他们的暴力或威胁；(b)废除任何旨在惩罚或妨碍人权维护者工作的国内法律或措施；(c)加强负责保障人权维护者工作的国家机构；(d)调查和惩罚针对人权维护者的任何形式的暴力或威胁；(e)与潜在受益者协商，通过和实施资源充足并内置协调机制的方案，确保在必要时向面临风险的人权维护者提供充分的保护措施。
D.	D.
Climate change	气候变化
56.	56.
The impact of climate change on access to land, affecting user rights, is severe in many countries.	在许多国家，气候变化对获取土地的影响非常严重，影响到使用权。
In coastal zones, sea level rise has an impact on housing, agriculture and access to fisheries.	在沿海地区，海平面上升影响到住房、农业和渔业。
Climate change also contributes to land degradation and desertification.	气候变化也加剧了土地退化和荒漠化。
Rising temperatures, changing patterns of precipitation and the increasing frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts and floods are increasingly affecting access to land.	气温上升、降水模式改变以及干旱和洪水等极端天气事件日益频繁，越来越影响到土地的获取。
States shall cooperate at the international level and comply with their duty to mitigate emissions and their respective commitments made in the context of the implementation of the Paris Agreement.	各国应在国际层面开展合作，履行减排义务以及各自在执行《巴黎协定》背景下做出的承诺。
States have these duties also under human rights law, as the Committee has highlighted previously.	正如委员会以前强调的那样，国家在人权法下也有这些义务。
Moreover, States shall avoid adopting policies to mitigate climate change, such as carbon sequestration through massive reforestation or protection of existing forests, that lead to different forms of land grabbing, especially when they affect the land and territories of populations in vulnerable situations, such as peasants or Indigenous Peoples.	此外，国家应避免采取通过大规模重新造林或保护现有森林来固碳这种减缓气候变化的政策，这种政策会导致不同形式的土地掠夺，特别是当它们影响到农民或土著人民等弱势群体的土地和领土时。
Mitigation policies should lead to absolute emissions reductions through the phasing out of fossil fuel production and use.	减缓政策应通过逐步淘汰化石燃料生产和使用，带来排放量的绝对减少。
57.	57.
States have an obligation to design climate change adaptation policies at the national level that take into consideration all forms of land use change induced by climate change, to register all affected persons and to use the maximum available resources to address the impact of climate change, particularly on disadvantaged groups.	各国有义务在国家一级制定气候变化适应政策，其中考虑到气候变化引起的所有形式的土地利用的变化，登记所有受影响的人，并最大限度地利用现有资源应对气候变化的影响，特别是对弱势群体的影响。
58.	58.
Climate change affects all countries, including those that may have contributed to it the least.	气候变化影响所有国家，包括那些对气候变化贡献最少的国家。
Thus, those countries that have historically contributed most to climate change and those that are currently the main contributors to it shall assist the countries that are most affected by climate change but are least able to cope with its impact, including by supporting and financing land-related adaptation measures.	因此，历史上对气候变化贡献最大的国家和目前气候变化最大的贡献国应帮助受气候变化影响最大但应对气候变化影响能力最弱的国家，包括支持和资助与土地有关的适应措施。
Cooperation mechanisms for climate change mitigation and adaptation measures shall provide and implement a robust set of environmental and social safeguards to ensure that no project negatively affects human rights and the environment and to guarantee access to information and meaningful consultation with those affected by such projects.	减缓和适应气候变化措施的合作机制应规定和实施一套强有力的环境和社会保障措施，以确保任何项目都不会对人权和环境产生负面影响，并保障受项目影响者知情并参与有意义的协商。
They shall also respect the free, prior and informed consent of Indigenous Peoples.	合作机制还应尊重土著人民自由、事先和知情同意原则。
V.	五.
Implementation and remedies	执行和救济
59.	59.
States should ensure that individuals and groups are able to receive and impart information relevant to the enjoyment of land-related rights under the Covenant.	国家应确保个人和群体能够接收和传递涉及《公约》规定的有关土地权利的享受的信息。
States shall regularly monitor the implementation of tenure systems and all policies, laws and measures that affect the realization of rights enshrined in the Covenant in land-related contexts.	国家应定期监测权属制度以及所有影响在涉及土地背景下实现《公约》所载权利的政策、法律和措施的执行情况。
Monitoring processes should rely on qualitative and disaggregated quantitative data collected by local communities and others, be inclusive and participatory, and pay particular attention to disadvantaged and marginalized individuals and groups.	监测进程应依靠当地社区和其他方面收集的质化和分类量化数据，体现包容和参与性，并特别关注困难和边缘化个人和群体。
In countries where collective and customary tenure of land by rural communities is in place, monitoring should include participatory mechanisms to monitor the impact of specific policies on access to land for people living in the relevant communities.	在农村社区实行集体和习惯土地权属制的国家，监测应包括参与性机制，以监测具体政策对相关社区居民获得土地的影响。
60.	60.
States parties should ensure that they have administrative and judicial systems in place to effectively implement policy and legal frameworks relating to land, and that their administrative and judicial authorities act in accordance with the State’s obligations under the Covenant.	缔约国应确保建立行政和司法系统，有效执行与土地有关的政策和法律框架，并确保行政和司法当局按照《公约》规定的国家义务行事。
That includes taking measures to provide non-discriminatory, prompt and accessible services to all rights holders in order to protect tenure rights and to promote and facilitate the enjoyment of those rights, including in remote rural areas.	这包括采取措施向所有权利持有人提供非歧视性、及时和无障碍的服务，以保护权属权利，并促进和便利享有这些权利，包括在偏远农村地区。
Access to justice is key: States parties shall guarantee that even in remote areas, it is accessible and affordable, particularly for disadvantaged and marginalized individuals and groups.	诉诸司法是关键：缔约国应保障，即使偏远地区也可以无障碍和可负担地诉诸司法，特别是对困难和边缘化个人和群体而言。
Judicial remedies shall also be tailored to the conditions of rural areas and suited to the needs of victims of violations, giving them access to all relevant information and adequate redress and compensation, including, when appropriate, restitution of land and return of refugees and internally displaced persons.	司法救济还应针对农村地区特点，适合侵权行为受害者的需要，使他们能够获得所有相关信息和充分的纠正和赔偿，包括适当情况下归还土地，让难民和境内流离失所者返回家园。
As highlighted in article 28 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, restitution of land is often the primary remedy for Indigenous Peoples.	正如《联合国土著人民权利宣言》第28条所强调的，对土著人民而言，归还土地通常是首要救济方式。
Access to justice shall include access to procedures to address the impact of business activities, not only in the countries where they are domiciled but also where the violations have been caused.	诉诸司法应包括诉诸程序来应对工商活动的影响，不仅在商业活动所在国，而且可以在导致侵权行为的发生地。
61.	61.
States parties shall build the capacity of their administrative and judicial authorities to ensure access to timely, affordable and effective means of resolving disputes over tenure rights through impartial and competent judicial and administrative bodies, particularly in remote rural areas.	缔约国应培养行政和司法当局的能力，以确保通过公正、胜任的司法和行政机构获得及时、可负担且有效的手段来解决权属权利纠纷，尤其是在偏远农村地区。
States parties should recognize and cooperate with customary and other established forms of dispute settlement where they exist, ensuring that they provide fair, reliable, accessible and non-discriminatory ways of promptly resolving disputes over tenure rights, in accordance with human rights.	缔约国应承认存在的争端解决习惯方式和其他既有方式并与之合作，确保它们依照人权为迅速解决权属权利纠纷提供公平、可靠、无障碍、非歧视的解决途径。
For land, fisheries and forests that are used by more than one community, means of resolving conflict between communities should be strengthened or developed.	对于不止一个社区使用的土地、渔场和森林，应加强或发展解决社区间冲突的手段。
The respect for and protection and guarantee of secure and equitable access to, use of and control over land are preconditions for the enjoyment of many of the rights enshrined in the Covenant.	尊重、保护和保障安全和公平获得、使用和控制土地是享有《公约》所载许多权利的先决条件。
Effective remedies are crucial for their realization.	有效的救济对实现这些权利至关重要。
Adopted by the Committee at its seventy-second session (26 September–14 October 2022).	委员会第七十二届会议(2022年9月26日至10月14日)通过。
See United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, The Global Land Outlook, 2nd ed. (Bonn, 2022), in which it is highlighted that between 20 and 40 per cent of land worldwide is already degraded.	见联合国防治荒漠化公约，《全球土地展望》第二版(2022年，波恩)，其中特别指出，世界上20-40%的土地已经退化。
See https://www.fao.org/3/y7937e/y7937e00.htm.	见https://www.fao.org/3/y7937e/y7937e00.htm.
See https://doi.org/10.4060/i2801e.	见https://doi.org/10.4060/i2801e.
See https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/cfs/Docs1314/rai/CFS_Principles_Oct_2014_EN.pdf.	见https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/cfs/Docs1314/rai/CFS_Principles_Oct_2014_EN.pdf.
A/HRC/4/18, annex I.	A/HRC/4/18，附件一。
The Committee has referred to land-related issues in approximately 50 concluding observations since 2001.	自2001年以来，委员会在约50份结论性意见中都提到与土地有关的问题。
See, for example, E/C.12/IND/CO/5, E/C.12/KHM/CO/1, E/C.12/MDG/CO/2 and E/C.12/TZA/CO/1.	例见E/C.12/IND/CO/5、E/C.12/KHM/CO/1、E/C.12/MDG/CO/2、E/C.12/TZA/CO/1。
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Centre for Minority Rights Development (Kenya) and Minority Rights Group (on behalf of Endorois Welfare Council) v. Kenya, communication No. 276/03, Decision, forty-sixth ordinary session, 11–25 November 2005, para. 241; Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua, Judgment, 31 August 2001, paras. 148–149 and 151, and Yakye Axa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay, Judgment, 17 June 2005, paras. 131–132; and Human Rights Chamber for Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Islamic Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina v. The Republika Srpska, Case No. CH/96/29, Decision, 11 June 1999, paras. 182 and 187.	非洲人权和民族权委员会，少数群体权利发展中心(肯尼亚)和少数群体权利小组(代表恩多罗伊斯福利委员会)诉肯尼亚，关于第276/03号来文的决定，第四十六届常会，2005年11月11日至25日，第241段；美洲人权法院，阿瓦斯廷尼的马雅纳(苏摩)族群诉尼加拉瓜，2001年8月31日的判决，第148-149和151段；雅基阿克萨土著族群诉巴拉圭案，2005年6月17日的判决，第131-132段；波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那人权法庭，波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那伊斯兰族群诉塞族共和国，案件编号CH/96/29, 1999年6月11日的裁决，第182和187段。
Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 12 (1984), para. 1.	人权事务委员会，第12号一般性意见(1984年)，第1段。
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, preamble and arts. 10 and 26.	《联合国土著人民权利宣言》，序言以及第10条和第26条。
Käkkäläjärvi et al. v. Finland (CCPR/C/124/D/2950/2017).	Käkkäläjärvi等人诉芬兰(CCPR/C/124/D/2950/2017)。
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009), paras. 7–8.	经济、社会及文化权利委员会，第20号一般性意见(2009年)，第7-8段。
With regard to discrimination in relation to access to land, particularly access and ownership, see, for example, E/C.12/GIN/CO/1, E/C.12/CMR/CO/4, E/C.12/MLI/CO/1, E/C.12/NER/CO/1, E/C.12/ZAF/CO/1 and E/C.12/CAF/CO/1.	关于在获得土地，特别是获得和所有权方面的歧视，例见E/C.12/GIN/CO/1、E/C.12/CMR/CO/4、E/C.12/MLI/CO/1、E/C.12/NER/CO/1、E/C.12/ZAF/CO/1和E/C.12/CAF/CO/1。
Concerning the very small number of women who own land, see, for example, E/C.12/ZAF/CO/1.	关于拥有土地的妇女人数极少的问题，例见E/C.12/ZAF/CO/1。
Regarding traditional and customary law and practice depriving women of their inheritance and property rights, see, for example, E/C.12/BEN/CO/3, E/C.12/CMR/CO/4, E/C.12/ZAF/CO/1, E/C.12/NER/CO/1 and E/C.12/CAF/CO/1.	关于剥夺妇女继承权和财产权的传统和习惯法律和实践的问题，例见E/C.12/BEN/CO/3、E/C.12/CMR/CO/4、E/C.12/ZAF/CO/1、E/C.12/NER/CO/1和E/C.12/CAF/CO/1。
Regarding patriarchal attitudes and attitudes based on stereotypes, see, for example, E/C.12/NER/CO/1.	关于家长式观念和模式化成见的问题，例见E/C.12/NER/CO/1。
See also Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, arts. 15–16, 18 and 19 (c).	另见《非洲人权和民族权宪章关于非洲妇女权利的议定书》，第15-16、18、19(c)条。
See also Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 34 (2016), in which that Committee recognized rural women’s rights to land, natural resources, including water, seeds and forests, and fisheries as fundamental human rights and emphasized that States parties should take all measures necessary to achieve the substantive equality of rural women in relation to land and natural resources (paras. 56–57).	另见消除对妇女歧视委员会第34号一般性建议(2016年)，其中委员会承认农村妇女对土地、水等自然资源、种子和森林以及渔场的权利是基本人权，并强调缔约国应采取一切必要措施，实现农村妇女在土地和自然资源方面的实质性平等(第56-57段)。
International Center for Research on Women, Property Ownership & Inheritance Rights of Women for Social Protection – The South Asia Experience (Washington, D.C., 2006), pp. 12 and 100.	国际妇女问题研究中心，Property Ownership & Inheritance Rights of Women for Social Protection – The South Asia Experience (Washington, D.C.，2006)，pp.
See also Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 34 (2016), paras. 55–78.	12 and 100。 另见消除对妇女歧视委员会，第34号一般性建议(2016年)，第55-78段。
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 34 (2016), paras. 55–78.	消除对妇女歧视委员会，第34号一般性建议(2016年)，第55-78段。
African Union, African Development Bank and Economic Commission for Africa, Framework and guidelines on land governance in Africa (Addis Ababa, 2010), para. 3.1.3.	非洲联盟、非洲开发银行和非洲经济委员会，《非洲的土地治理框架和准则》(2010年，亚的斯亚贝巴)，第3.1.3段。
See also the Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security, guideline 9.	另见《支持在国家粮食安全范围内逐步实现充足食物权的自愿准则》，准则9。
See also A/HRC/45/38.	另见A/HRC/45/38.
Arts. 10–11, 19, 28–29 and 32 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples refer to the necessity to seek Indigenous Peoples’ free, prior and informed consent on measures affecting them.	《联合国土著人民权利宣言》第10-11、19、28-29和32条提及在影响土著人民的措施问题上征得他们自由、事先和知情同意的必要性。
This operates as a safeguard for the collective rights of Indigenous Peoples.	这是对土著人民集体权利的一项保障。
See A/HRC/39/62.	见A/HRC/39/62。
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, arts.	《联合国土著人民权利宣言》，第28和32条。
28 and 32. Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua, paras. 151 and 164.	美洲人权法院，阿瓦斯廷尼的马雅纳(苏摩)族群诉尼加拉瓜，第151和164段。
For a discussion of the case law of the Inter-American bodies in that area, see Fergus MacKay, “From ‘sacred commitment’ to justiciable norms: indigenous peoples’ rights in the Inter-American system,” in Casting the Net Wider: Human Rights, Development and New Duty-Bearers, Margot E. Salomon, Arne Tostensen and Wouter Vandenhole, eds.	关于美洲机构在这一领域的判例法讨论，见Fergus MacKay,“From ‘sacred commitment’ to justiciable norms: indigenous peoples’ rights in the Inter-American system, “ in Casting the Net Wider: Human Rights, Development and New Duty-Bearers, Margot E. Salomon, Arne Tostensen and Wouter Vandenhole, eds.
(Antwerp, Intersentia, 2007).	(Antwerp, Intersentia, 2007)。
See also African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights v. Republic of Kenya, Application No. 006/2012, Judgment, 26 May 2017.	另见非洲人权和民族权法院，非洲人权和民族权委员会诉肯尼亚共和国，第006/2012号申诉，2017年5月26日的判决。
Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay, Judgment, 29 March 2006, para. 128; and African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Centre for Minority Rights Development (Kenya) and Minority Rights Group (on behalf of Endorois Welfare Council) v. Kenya, para. 209.	美洲人权法院，萨沃雅玛克萨土著族群诉巴拉圭，2006年3月29日的判决，第128段；非洲人权和民族权委员会，少数群体权利发展中心(肯尼亚)和少数群体权利小组(代表恩多罗伊斯福利委员会)诉肯尼亚，第209段。
The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, in its general recommendation No. 23 (1997), also highlighted that compensation “should as far as possible take the form of land and territories” (para. 5).	消除种族歧视委员会在第23号一般性建议(1997年)中也强调说，赔偿“应尽可能采取土地和领土的形式”(第5段)。
Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Moiwana Community v. Suriname, Judgment, 15 June 2005, paras. 132–133, and Saramaka People v. Suriname, Judgment, 28 November 2007, para. 86.	美洲人权法院，莫伊瓦纳族群诉苏里南，2005年6月15日的判决，第132-133段；萨拉马卡人诉苏里南，2007年11月28日的判决，第86段。
For an example of the importance of land for peasants’ civil and political rights, see Portillo Cáceres et al. v. Paraguay (CCPR/C/126/D/2751/2016).	关于土地对农民的公民权利和政治权利的重要性，例见Portillo Cácere等人诉巴拉圭(CCPR/C/126/D/2751/2016)。
Human Rights Council resolution 39/12, annex, art. 17 (1).	人权理事会第39/12号决议，附件，第十七条第1款。
On the need to harmonize the right to land of peasants and Indigenous Peoples, see Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Indigenous Communities of the Lhaka Honhat (Our Land) Association v. Argentina, Judgment, 6 February 2020.	关于协调农民和土著人民的土地权的必要性，见美洲人权法院，Lhaka Honhat (我们的土地)协会下属土著族群诉阿根廷，2020年2月6日的判决。
A/HRC/45/38.	A/HRC/45/38。
See also Käkkäläjärvi et al. v. Finland (CCPR/C/124/D/2950/2017).	另见Käkkäläjärvi等人诉芬兰(CCPR/C/124/D/2950/2017)。
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 16 (2005), para. 37, and general comment No. 21 (2009), para. 16 (c).	经济、社会及文化权利委员会，第16号一般性意见(2005年)，第37段；第21号一般性意见(2009年)第16(c)段。
See also African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, “State reporting guidelines and principles on articles 21 and 24 of the African Charter relating to extractive industries, human rights and the environment” (Niamey, 2017), pp. 26–27; and Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security, para. 3B (6).	另见非洲人权和民族权委员会，“在采掘业、人权和环境问题上根据《非洲宪章》第21条和第24条进行国家报告的准则和原则”(尼亚美，2017年)，第26-27页；《国家粮食安全范围内土地、渔业及森林权属负责任治理自愿准则》，第3B(6)段。
Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security, para. 9.9.	《国家粮食安全范围内土地、渔业及森林权属负责任治理自愿准则》，第9.9段。
The term “legitimate tenure right holder” was developed during the negotiations of the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security in 2012 in order to clarify the fact that legitimate tenure right holders include not only those with formal land titles, but also those with customary, collective or traditional tenure rights that might not be recognized by law.	2012年，在《国家粮食安全范围内土地、渔业及森林权属负责任治理自愿准则》的谈判中发展出了“合法权属权利人”的表述，以明确一个事实，即合法权属权利人不仅包括那些正式拥有土地所有权的人，而且包括那些拥有可能不为法律所承认的习惯、集体或传统权属的人。
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 7 (1997), para. 1.	经济、社会及文化权利委员会，第7号一般性意见(1997年)，第1段。
Ben Djazia et al. v. Spain (E/C.12/61/D/5/2015), para. 13.4.	Ben Djazia等人诉西班牙(E/C.12/61/D/5/2015)，第13.4段。
Gómez-Limón Pardo v. Spain (E/C.12/67/D/52/2018), para. 9.4.	Gómez-Limón Pardo诉西班牙(E/C.12/67/D/52/2018)，第9.4段。
For further reference, see the basic principles and guidelines on development-based evictions and displacement.	可进一步参阅《关于出于发展目的的搬迁和迁离问题的基本原则和准则》。
See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 4 (1991).	见经济、社会及文化权利委员会，第4号一般性意见(1991年)。
A/HRC/13/33/Add.2, annex, principle 2; and African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Principles and Guidelines on the Implementation of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (2012), paras. 51–55 and 77–79.	A/HRC/13/33/Add.2，附件，原则2；非洲人权和民族权委员会，《关于落实〈非洲人权和民族权宪章〉中的经济、社会和文化权利的原则和准则》(2012年)，第51-55和77-79段。
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 4 (1991), para. 8 (a).	经济、社会及文化权利委员会，第4号一般性意见(1991年)，第8(a)段。
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 21 (2009), para. 36.	经济、社会及文化权利委员会，第21号一般性意见(2009年)，第36段。
See also Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Xákmok Kásek Indigenous Community v. Paraguay, Judgment, 24 August 2010, para. 86, and Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay, para. 118; African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Centre for Minority Rights Development (Kenya) and Minority Rights Group (on behalf of Endorois Welfare Council) v. Kenya, paras. 252–268; and African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights v. Republic of Kenya, paras. 195–201.	另见美洲人权法院，埃克萨克莫克·卡塞克土著族群诉巴拉圭，2010年8月24日的判决，第86段；萨沃雅玛克萨土著族群诉巴拉圭，第118段；非洲人权和民族权委员会，少数群体权利发展中心(肯尼亚)和少数群体权利小组(代表恩多罗伊斯福利委员会)诉肯尼亚，第252-268段；非洲人权和民族权法院，非洲人权和民族权委员会诉肯尼亚共和国，第195-201段。
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, “State reporting guidelines and principles on articles 21 and 24 of the African Charter relating to extractive industries, human rights and the environment”, p. 25, para. 18.	非洲人权和民族权委员会，“在采掘业、人权和环境问题上根据《非洲宪章》第21条和第24条进行国家报告的准则和原则”，第25页，第18段。
African Union, African Development Bank and Economic Commission for Africa, “Guiding principles on large scale land-based investments in Africa” (Addis Ababa, 2014).	非洲联盟、非洲开发银行和非洲经济委员会，“非洲关于大规模土地投资的指导原则”(2014年，亚的斯亚贝巴)。
Ibid., chap. 2.	同上，第2章。
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Social and Economic Rights Action Centre and the Center for Economic and Social Rights v. Nigeria, Decision, thirtieth ordinary session, 13–27 October 2001.	非洲人权和民族权委员会，关于社会经济权利行动中心和经济社会权利中心诉尼日利亚案的决定，第三十届常会，2001年10月13日至27日。
African Union, African Development Bank and Economic Commission for Africa, “Guiding principles on large scale land based investments in Africa”.	非洲联盟、非洲开发银行和非洲经济委员会，“非洲关于大规模土地投资的指导原则”。
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, “State reporting guidelines and principles on articles 21 and 24 of the African Charter relating to extractive industries, human rights and the environment”, pp. 12–13, sect. III (g)–(h).	非洲人权和民族权委员会，“在采掘业、人权和环境问题上根据《非洲宪章》第21条和第24条进行国家报告的准则和原则”，第12-13页，第III(g)-(h)节。
On the importance of agrarian reform, see the Final Declaration adopted at the International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development of FAO, held in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2006 (ICARRD 2006/3), in which member States agreed on the principle of the “establishment of appropriate agrarian reform mainly in areas with strong social disparities, poverty and food insecurity, as a means to broaden sustainable access to and control over land and related resources”.	关于土地改革的重要性，见2006年在巴西阿雷格里港举行的粮农组织土地改革和农村发展国际会议通过的最后文件(ICARRD 2006/3)，成员国在文件中商定了“主要在社会差距、贫困和粮食不安全问题较大的地区进行适当的土地改革，作为扩大人们可持续获得和控制土地和相关资源的途径”这项原则。
M.R. El-Ghonemy, “Land reform development challenges of 1963–2003 continue into the twenty-first century”, Land Reform, Land Settlement and Cooperatives, vol. 2 (2003); and Veronika Penciakova, “Market-led agrarian reform: a beneficiary perspective of Cédula da Terra”, Working Paper Series No. 10–100 (London, London School of Economics and Political Science, 2010).	M.R. El-Ghonemy, “Land reform development challenges of 1963–2003 continue into the twenty-first century”，Land Reform, Land Settlement and Cooperatives, vol. 2 (2003)；and Veronika Penciakova, “Market-led agrarian reform: a beneficiary perspective of Cédula da Terra”，Working Paper Series No. 10–100 (London, London School of Economics and Political Science, 2010).
Julian Quan, “Land access in the 21st century: issues, trends, linkages and policy options”, Livelihood Support Programme Working Paper No. 24 (Rome, FAO, 2006).	Julian Quan, “Land access in the 21st century: issues, trends, linkages and policy options”，Livelihood Support Programme Working Paper No. 24 (Rome, FAO, 2006).
M.R. Carter, “Designing land and property rights reform for poverty alleviation and food security’, Land Reform, Land Settlement and Cooperatives, vol. 2 (2003).	M.R. Carter, “Designing land and property rights reform for poverty alleviation and food security’，Land Reform, Land Settlement and Cooperatives, vol. 2 (2003).
Research has highlighted an inverse relationship between the size of production units and productivity per hectare.	研究突出表明，生产单位规模与每公顷产量之间存在反比关系。
See, for example, Robert Eastwood, Michael Lipton and Andrew Newell, “Farm size”, in Handbook of Agricultural Economics, vol. 4, Prabhu L. Pingali and Robert E. Evenson, eds.	例见Robert Eastwood, Michael Lipton and Andrew Newell, “Farm size”，in Handbook of Agricultural Economics, vol. 4, Prabhu L. Pingali and Robert E.
(Amsterdam, Elsevier, 2010).	Evenson, eds. (Amsterdam, Elsevier, 2010).
Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security, guideline 8B.	《支持在国家粮食安全范围内逐步实现充足食物权的自愿准则》，准则8B。
A/HRC/13/33/Add.2, annex, principle 6.	A/HRC/13/33/Add.2，附件，原则6。
See E/C.12/BEL/CO/4, E/C.12/AUT/CO/4 and E/C.12/NOR/CO/5; Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 34 (2016), para. 13; A/56/10 and A/56/10/Corr.1, pp. 155–168 (on arts. 16–18); and guiding principles on human rights impact assessments of trade and investment agreements.	见E/C.12/BEL/CO/4、E/C.12/AUT/CO/4、E/C.12/NOR/CO/5；消除对妇女歧视委员会，第34号一般性建议(2006年)，第13段；A/56/10和A/56/10/Corr.1, 第155-168页(关于第16-18条)；《贸易和投资协定对人权的影响评估指导原则》。
Michael Windfuhr, Safeguarding Human Rights in Land Related Investments: Comparison of the Voluntary Guidelines Land with the IFC Performance Standards and the World Bank Environmental and Social Safeguard Framework (Berlin, German Institute for Human Rights, 2017).	Michael Windfuhr, Safeguarding Human Rights in Land Related Investments: Comparison of the Voluntary Guidelines Land with the IFC Performance Standards and the World Bank Environmental and Social Safeguard Framework (Berlin, German Institute for Human Rights, 2017).
E/C.12/2011/1, paras. 5–6.	E/C.12/2011/1，第5-6段。
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 24 (2017), para. 33.	经济、社会及文化权利委员会，第24号一般性意见(2017年)，第33段。
Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security, para. 12.15.	《国家粮食安全范围内土地、渔业及森林权属 负责任治理自愿准则》，第12.15段。
See E/C.12/NOR/CO/5; A/HRC/13/33/Add.2; Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), paras. 18–19; and European Court of Human Rights, Társáság a Szabadságjogokért v. Hungary, Application No. 37374/05, Judgment, 14 April 2009, paras. 26 and 35.	见E/C.12/NOR/CO/5；A/HRC/13/33/Add.2；人权事务委员会，第34号一般性意见(2011年)，第18-19段；欧洲人权法院，Társáság a Szabadságjogokért诉匈牙利，第37374/05号申诉， 2009年4月14日的判决，第26和35段。
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comments No. 3 (1990), para. 2; No. 15 (2002), para. 35; No. 22 (2016), para. 31; and No. 24 (2017), paras. 12–13; E/C.12/CAN/CO/6; Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 34 (2016); European Court of Human Rights, Bosphorus Hava Yolları Turizm ve Ticaret Anonim Şirketi v. Ireland, Application No. 45036/98, Judgment, 30 June 2005, para. 154; and Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay, para. 140.	经济、社会及文化权利委员会，第3号一般性意见(1990年)，第2段；第15号一般性意见(2002年)，第35段；第22号一般性意见(2016年)，第31段；第24号一般性意见(2017年)，第12-13段；E/C.12/CAN/CO/6；消除对妇女歧视委员会，第34号一般性建议(2016年)；欧洲人权法院，Bosphorus Hava Yolları Turizm ve Ticaret Anonim Şirketi诉爱尔兰，第45036/98号申诉，2005年6月30日的判决，第154段；美洲人权法院，萨沃雅玛克萨土著族群诉巴拉圭，第140段。
See the guidance note of the Secretary-General entitled “The United Nations and Land and Conflict”, issued in March 2019.	见2019年3月发布的秘书长的指导说明：“联合国与土地和冲突”。
See the principles on housing and property restitution for refugees and displaced persons, endorsed by the Sub-Commission on the Protection and Promotion of Human Rights (E/CN.4/Sub.2/2005/17).	见促进和保护人权小组委员会核可的《归还难民和流离失所者住房和财产的原则》 (E/CN.4/Sub.2/2005/17)。
Ibid.	同上。
Rodrigo Uprimny Yepes, “Transformative reparations of massive gross human rights violations: between corrective and distributive justice”, Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, vol. 27, No. 4 (2009).	Rodrigo Uprimny Yepes, “Transformative reparations of massive gross human rights violations: between corrective and distributive justice”，Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, vol. 27, No. 4 (2009).
Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security, para. 3.1 (5).	《国家粮食安全范围内土地、渔业及森林权属负责任治理自愿准则》，第3.1(5)段。
Ibid., para. 5.8.	同上，第5.8段。
The Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security include recommendations specific to all components of land governance, such as recording of land rights, valuation of land and adoption of land planning schemes.	《国家粮食安全范围内土地、渔业及森林权属负责任治理自愿准则》中包含了针对土地治理各项内容的具体建议，如土地权登记、土地估值和通过土地规划方案。
Similarly, the Principles for Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems refer to the need to respect “the rule and application of law, free of corruption” (principle 9) and to the United Nations Convention against Corruption as relevant for the implementation of the principles.	同样，《农业和粮食系统负责任投资原则》提到需要尊重“法治和法律的践行，反对腐败”(原则9)，并提到《联合国反腐败公约》适用于这些原则的实施工作。
See Human Rights Council resolution 31/32 on protecting human rights defenders, whether individuals, groups or organs of society, addressing economic, social and cultural rights; and the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.	见人权理事会关于保护处理经济、社会及文化权利问题的人权维护者，不论是个人、群体还是社会机构的第31/32号决议；《个人、群体和社会机构在促进和保护普遍公认的人权和基本自由方面的权利和义务宣言》。
For example, E/C.12/VNM/CO/2-4, para. 11, E/C.12/1/Add.44, para. 19, E/C.12/IND/CO/5, paras. 12 and 50, E/C.12/PHIL/CO/4, para. 15, E/C.12/COD/CO/4, para. 12, E/C.12/LKA/CO/2-4, para. 10, and E/C.12/IDN/CO/1, para. 28.	例见E/C.12/VNM/CO/2-4，第11段；E/C.12/1/Add.44，第19段；E/C.12/IND/CO/5，第12和50段；E/C.12/PHIL/CO/4，第15段；E/C.12/COD/CO/4，第12段；E/C.12/LKA/CO/2-4，第10段；E/C.12/IDN/CO/1，第28段。
E/C.12/2016/2, para. 8.	E/C.12/2016/2，第8段。
See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, “Climate Change and Land: summary for Policymakers” (2019).	见政府间气候变化专门委员会，“气候变化与土地：决策者摘要”(2019年)。
See HRI/2019/1.	见HRI/2019/1。
In order to ensure coherence, the safeguards should be in line with the practice of the Green Climate Fund and those included in the Environmental and Social Policy of the Adaptation Fund established under the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.	为确保协调一致，保障措施应符合绿色气候基金的实践以及根据《联合国气候变化框架公约京都议定书》设立的适应基金的环境和社会政策中列入的做法。
Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security, paras. 6.2 and 6.4.	《国家粮食安全范围内土地、渔业及森林权属负责任治理自愿准则》，第6.2和6.4段。
Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Yakye Axa Indigenous Community vs Paraguay, paras. 146–148.	美洲人权法院，雅基阿克萨土著族群诉巴拉圭，第146-148段。
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 24 (2017), paras. 49–57.	经济、社会及文化权利委员会，第24号一般性意见(2017年)，第49-57段。
Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security, para. 21.1.	《国家粮食安全范围内土地、渔业及森林权属负责任治理自愿准则》，第21.1段。
Ibid., para. 21.3.	同上，第21.3段。
Ibid., para. 9.11.	同上，第9.11段。